THE WHEEL OF THE LAW. PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND COMPANY EDINBURGH AND LONDON THE WHEEL OF THE LAW. BUDDHISM ILLUSTRATED FROM SIAMESE SOURCES BY THE MODERN BUDDHIST, A LIFE OF BUDDHA, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE PHRABAT. HENRY ALABASTER, Esq., INTERPRETER OF HER MAJESTY^ CONSULATE GENERAL IN SIAM, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., 60 PATERNOSTER ROW. 1871. [All -rights reserved.] TABLE OE CONTENTS ♦ Preface-- ' PAGK Object and nature of tlie work, . xiii On the tendency of the ideas of the “ Modem Buddhist,” . xv On other translations of the i( Life of Buddha,” . . xxiv On the interest of Sanscrit literature to students of Siamese, xxviii On the various distinct religious ideas found in the Siamese “ Life  .'V’“L . : . . xxxiv General sketch of Buddhism, . • . . xxxv Metempsychosis and equality of beings, . . xxxv The misery of existence and  happiness ; virtue, charity, and meditation, . xlii Mohasticism, ...... xliv Prayer, ....... xlv Reason for writing on the “ Phrabat,” . . . xlvii List of the ^uthoxsr.consultGd%% this work, *&&&. i *• • '^xlviii On Barthilenay St Hilaire’s condemnation of Buddhism, . li PART L THE “MODERN BUDDHIST” OR THE IDEAS OP A SIAMESE MINISTER OP STATE ON HIS OWN AND OTHER RELIGIONS. PART IL A LIFE OP BUDDHA. Siamese Introduction. Summary of the (< Life of Buddha,” . « . . 76 b Y1 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Glorious Marriage. The first council of Buddhism convened by King Adjata- sattru—Ananda relates the “Life of Buddha”— The wheel of the law—King Singhanu—Pre-existences of Maia Her beauty and virtue—Her interview with Brahmins sent to find a wife for Suddhodana, son of Singhanu Dream of King Singhanu—Preparations for the marriage—The marriage, CHAPTER II The Descent from the Tushita Heavens. The pre-existences of the Being that would be Buddha—His charities—Five portents preceding advent of a Buddha —The angels invoke him to descend from heaven—Five signs of end of an angeTs life—The nature of angels_ The five considerations as to birth in the world—The gardens of the angels—The descent—Wonderful mani¬ festations throughout the "world, CHAPTEE III. The Birth in this World. The feast of the full moon of the eighth month—Conduct oi Queen Maia—Her dream—The conception—The inter¬ pretation of the dream—Her life and worship—Her journey towards Dewadaha—The birth in the forest— The child regards the world, and proclaims himself greatest of all beings—The thirty-two miraculous signs —Seven other things produced at same time—The re¬ turn to Kapila,. CHAPTER IV. Predictions of Future Greatness. Rejoicings of the angels-Stoiy of Kaladewila—Prophecy of the Brahmins—The thirty-two signs of a Grand Being —His feet—Prophecy of Kondanya that he would be Buddha, «... CHAPTEE Y. The Four Visions. He is named Angkhirasa and Sidharta—Pachapati (on the death of Maia) becomes his foster-mother—Miracle at sowing festival—His lotus pool—His palace—Display of skill in the arts—He marries—He visits his garden, 88 97 107 CONTENTS. vii and. on four distinct occasions sees an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a devotee—The birth of his son—The incident of Kisagotami, . . . .117 CHAPTER VI. The Commencement of a Religious Career. His last night in his harem—Repulsive exhibition of woman¬ kind—He determines on adopting religions life—De¬ scription of his horse—His look at his newly-born son— He leaves his palace—Mara tempts him to remain—His journey of two hundred miles in one night—He disrobes, and cuts  sends back his attendant—Death of the horse—After seven days’ fast, he marches two hundred miles to Raja- griha—His interview with King Bimbisara—He studies with masters of philosophy—He goes to the XJruwela solitude—Five ascetics come and attend on him—For six years he practises extreme mortification, even to ceasing to take food—Mara tempting Mm, is worsted— Accepting a suggestion of Indra, he again takes food, at which his five companions are offended, lose their faith in him, and leave him, . . , 132 CHAPTER VIII. The Final Effort. The woman Suchada prepares an offering for the angel of the Banyan-tree—Five visions seen by the Great Being— Buddha receives Suchada’s offering in a golden bowl— He goes to the river-side and casts the bowl into the stream—It sinks to the realms of the Nagas—He marches, attended by angels, towards the Bq,-tree—A bundle of grass, given him by the way, placed under the Bo-tree, becomes a throne, . . . .143 CHAPTER IX. The Contest with the Evil Spirit. Mara’s daughters tempts Mm—Mara and Ms host assail him— He relies on his virtue—The discussion with Mara— He invokes the earth—The angel of the earth appears and discomfits the host of Mara—The angels and Mara unite m praising him, . . ♦ • * 149 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. The Attainment of the Buddhahood. He attains supernatural knowledge—Discovers the law of the circle of existence—Realises that all existence is unstable, sorrowful, and illusive—He sees Nirwana, and enters the four paths—Passing through the paths, he attains the Buddhahood, . . . , 157 Native Conclusion. The Buddha does honour to the Bo-tree—He silences the angels by a display of his power, . . , X61 Continuation (placed as Note 172). Buddha spends seven weeks by the Bo and other trees—He is sheltered by the King of Nagas—Two merchants are his first almsgivers and converts—By entreaty of the angels, he consents to preach—He turns the wheel of the . law at Benares—He makes numerous converts during his first season—Proceeds to Rajagriha—Con¬ verts King Bimbisara, who gives him the Weluwana monastery—Visits his father—Founds an order of nuns —Has a public contest with the heretics—The fable of Kappaka’s donkey—Visit to the heavens—Descent at Sangkashi—Visits to. Ceylon and Siam—Plots of his opponents—Ananda appointed his attendant—His recep¬ tion by the courtesan—His entertainment by the gold¬ smith—His- last meal—His death, . . . 228 NOTES TO THE LIFE OF BUDDHA. 1 . On the words Buddha, Bodhi, Bodhisatva, and Phra, % Sidharta, 3. Religious mendicants previous to Buddha, 4. Amrita, the draught of immortality, 5. Kusinagara, the city of, 6 . Nirwana, . .. 7. King Adjatasattru and the first Buddhist Council, 8 . Wephara Hill, w r here the Council met, 9.. The patriarch Kasyappa,. 10 . Bhawana meditation, 11 . Ananda, 12. The wheel of the law, * 13. The monks screen Phatchani, 14. The four paths, or highest degrees of saintliness,. 15. The archangel Indra, 163 164 164 164 165 165 166 167 167 168 168 169 170 170 171 CONTENTS. IX . 6 . Chotiban, a pre-existence of Buddha, Q* ml 16 elements of corporeal being (Skandhas), ' 8 . The Sakya race, . . t 9. Kapila, the city of,. 0 . Suddhodana, the father of Buddha, * 1. The beauties and perfections of woman, * ' 2 . The five and eight observances or commandments, * 3. Brahmins and the Vedas, . . .. 4. Wipassi and other Buddhas preceding Gotama 5. The three worlds, . 5 6 . The joyful heaven, Tushita, 7. The confusion between Dewadaha and Dewalangka, 3. Yaks or Yakkhas, . . .. ). The four guardians of the world, ). The ten rules of kings, L The royal insignia, .... * \ ®The coronation ceremony, h Yasodhara or Sunantlia, l The Chakravartin, or Universal Emperor, ). The seven great treasures of the Chakravartin, ] ). ^Planation as to Kalpa and Asongkhai, periods of time, . lhe Buddha Dipangkara and the story of Sumetta, " ! CStaCj7 miracillons P° wers (Aphinyayan), . The thirty transcendent virtues (Barami), • The power of righteousness, . Story of Prince Wessantara’s charities, . Angels of the tempest and god of the wind,* . Translation of the Siamese word Pramat, . Ten thousand worlds, . ’ ’ a ^ en ^ on excited by their becoming hot 1 The five considerations, Pawilokana, . The duration of human life, • The continent Jambu Dvipa, ■ The central country, Pacheka Buddhas,. The two principal disciples and the dignities of the ri»ht ana left, . b The eighty chief disciples, ' The expression Maha Sal,. Caste, . ‘ 55. The gardens where angels end their existence, 56. The demons Pret or Pretas,. 57. Feast of the fifteenth day of the eighth month, 58. The various meanings of Ubosot, Bot, and Upos&tha, 59. The Himalayan fairyland and Lake Anodat, 171 172 173 173 173 173 174 175 176 177 177 178 178 178 178 179 179 181 181  189 189 189 189 190 X CONTENTS. 60. The ceremony of marching round, or Thaksina,. t)L I he sects Tapasa and Parivrlljaka, 62. Bemark on the story of Kaladewila* 63. The jewelled throne, ... * It J^°2 Yak ’ Asm f’ Gandharva, Supdrna, and Garuda, 5. Dhyana meditation and the Brahma heavens, four meaQS t0 obtain miraculous powers’ (Itthihat 67. The seven Bodhyangas, 38. The five principles of emancipation (Wimuti) 39. Anawara yan, ... 5 '0. Asamiman, ... ' 1* The four pre-eminent truths, . ’ ’ 2 . The four Satipatthan, 3. The four Pati samphita yan, 4. The four Phrommawihan, 5. The eleven fires, ... * * 6 . The sixty-two false doctrines, 7. The Holy Triad, . . ] 8 . The eightfold path, ... * * 9. Samanya Phon,. 0 . Seven things produced at Buddha’s*birth, .* 1 . Buddha’s visit to the heavens, 2 . Bucha (Puja), or sacrifice, ..." 3. Bespect shown by children to parents, L The want of merit of Kaladewila, >. The eight requisites of a monk, . ’ [ '* The term Samana or Sramana, * The meditation called Kammathan, L Nalaka Patipada, i. The thirty-two signs of a Grand Being, .* ’ • Remark on interruption in the story, . The name TatMgata, . . ’ . Correction of text,. . Meta Bhawana, . Marks on the foot of Buddha, • Cause of softness of hands, .. . Cause of fingers being close set (Sangkhriha watthu), * Supbasit or Confucian teachings,. Explanatory of text, 99. Supplements the abridged translation, 100. On the golden tint, and Siamese idea of beauty of com¬ plexion,. 101. The raised skull of Buddha, the glory, and crowns, 102. Angkhirasa, a name of Buddha 103. Sidharta, . . 5 [  200 201  . Qualities of nurses, . The festival of sowing-time (Bek na), . Explanatory of text, . The three seasons, .... . Maradop or shrine, • The Silapasatr and kingly accomplishments, . Crown Prince, .... . Yasodhara, ..... . Polygamy, ..... . The four visions, or Thewathut, . Rahula, ..... . TJpathi kilet, .... . Yahana or Phahana, , Angels of the gate, .... - Mara, the devil, .... • Festival of midday of sixth month, . Lopho, Moho, Thoso, . Sawatthi (the city), . Wesali or Vaisoli, . Anoma, the river, .... . Augury drawn from Anoma, . Samana and Samanen, , Touching the head, , The head of Buddha, The tree that gratifies all desires, and cremation g Yellow dress of monks, . Manophanithan, .... Explanatory of omission, . Bajagriha, the city, . Rahu the cause of eclipses, Nagas, or serpents of preternatural power, Rule that monks should keep their eyes on the gr The Banthawa Hill,. Samathi, the position of contemplation, Alara and Kuddhaka, Dhy&nas, ..... The Uruwela solitude, Mahapathan,. The five Wakkhi, .. Sayamphu,. The generals of Mara, Angels of trees, The story of Suchada, Kala, the Naga king,  214 215 215 215  XII CONTENTS. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154.. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. ihiee former Buddhas, The white umbrella of kings. The three daughters of Mara' The King of Death, The thirty Barami, • The Chakra, Spirit or understanding, meaning of Chitr, On pouring water on the earth, The angel of the earth, Satsada, Buppheniwasayan,. Thiphachaksuyan, Laws of cause and effect (Nidanas), Wipassana panya,. Samathi, Sammapathan, Impermanence, sorrow, and instability, ■Anulom yan,. Khotraphu yan, The four paths, Kilet,. Samma samphothi yan, Chatu wesara khun, Sketch of the subsequent life of Buddha, TMisIation of part of chapter x., omitted in text, Note on the thirty-seven constituents of Buddha’s wisdom’ PAGE  OR HOLY FOOTPRINT, CHAPTER X General account of the superstition, rr CHAPTER II Visit to the Phrabat, . CHAPTER III. account of figures on the Footprint, 245 263 286 APPENDIX. The thirty-two characteristics of a great man. 311 index. PREFACE. All Buddhists, throughout the wide range of countries where the doctrines of Buddha prevail, call their religion the doctrine of “ The Wheel of the Law.” I have adopted the name for this hook, because it is peculiarly appro¬ priate to a theory of Buddhism, which the book in some degree illustrates. I refer to the theory that all exist¬ ence of which we have any conception is but a part of an endless chain, or circle, of causes and effects; that so long as we remain in that wheel there is no rest and no peace ; and that rest can only be obtained by escap¬ ing from that wheel into the incomprehensible Nirwana. Buddha taught a religion of which the wheel was the only proper symbol; for his theory, professing to be complete, dealt with but a limited round of knowledge ; ignored the beginning, and was equally vague as to the end. He neither taught of a God, the Creator of ex¬ istence, nor of a heaven, the absorber of existence, but restrained his teaching within what he believed to be the limits of reason. The wheel of the law, or Buddhism, is in this volume illustrated by three distinct essays or parts, which XIV PREFACE. exemplify the sceptical phase, the traditionary phase, and the ultra-superstitious phase. The first part is a revised and enlarged edition of the Modern Buddhist,” the short essay in which I, last year, introduced to European readers a summary of the ideas of an eminent Siamese nobleman on his own and other religions. The Buddhism it teaches, though it has a strong party in favour of it, rejects many superstitions, and so differs from the Buddhism of the generality of educated Siamese, which is illustrated by tiie second and third parts. The second part, which illustrates the traditionary phase, is a Buddhist Gospel, or “Life of Buddha,” com¬ mencing with events previous to his last birth, and ending with his attainment of the Buddhahood I have translated it from a popular Siamese work, • Pathomma Somphothiyan,” the “Initiation; or First Festival of Perfect Wisdom.” . transI T ati0D is *ee or literal, according to my judgment. In man y parts I have cut out tedious descriptive passages; in one or two places, duly re- s *r henotes ’ 1 We correeted p iOTed ««*» in my Siamese manuscript; and in chapter x. I have substituted a simple for a confused arrangement In order that the story of the Life may convey a thorough in'the notes' dTtT° f traditionary I have ■ the notes dilated on every point of Buddhist teach¬ ing referred to m the text; and I believe that text and nota comW may be considered to give a fair iSa of the Siamese view of the character of their great teacher, the principles of the law which he taughfand * ^observances becoming in his followers. S ’ e third part, which illustrates the ultra-supersti- tious phase of Buddhism, is an account of the “Phra- bat, or Siamese Footprint of Buddha,” a curious and gross superstition, which offers a very thorough con¬ trast to the ideas of the “Modem Buddhist.” ' In the description of my journey to visit it will bo found some notices of the Siamese people, monks, and temples, as they are. When I introduced to the readers of Europe the speculations of a Siamese nobleman on Jus own and other religious, I looked forward, in the event of that essay being successful, to bringing out a new edition with the corrections and additions of the Siamese, author, Chao Phya Thipak.m, him.vlf. Ilis much-to- be-lamented death has prevented this, and 1 am left to ro-edit it by myself. I \ online to pi dace it witb some remarks, con¬ ceived, so far as such is possible for me, in sympathy with, and as a development of, the ideas of the author, particularly intended to show that practical applica¬ tion of his principles which has a personal interest for Europeans. The “ .Modern Buddhist,” in his endeavours to justify his religion in the eyes of Europeans, has enunciated a form of Buddhism which must be of considerable in¬ terest to many who, in these days of criticism and doubt, have lost all the faith and hope that was in them, and search in vain for some foundation on which to rebuild their belief. The “ Modern Buddhist” is scep¬ tical, but his scepticism is not of that demolishing character, the evil nature—I may perhaps say, untruth —of which is shown by the misery it brings to those who are plunged in it. Happy are they that sleep! and happy are they who. XVI PREFACE. with unshaken faith, follow the religion of their an¬ cestors, and console themselves for all the trials they experience in this life by the glad hope of a life im¬ mortal ! Evidently miserable are most of those whose hopes are bounded by the day they are ever approach¬ ing, who believe in no reward for virtue unless it be an immediate one, whose aspirations to do good for future times only call up the sad thought that it is useless, and who, panting for an immortality they cannot see the reason of, chill the promptings' of their spirit by such words as those of the poet— “No man lives for ever, And dead men rise up never.” The theories of the “ Modern Buddhist ” are better than such hopelessness. The “ Modern Buddhist ” assumes religion to be the science of man, and not the revelation of God. He does not think that the comprehension of the Deity, or the firm persuasion of the exact nature of heaven, is of so much consequence as that just idea of one’s own self which he believes he finds in Buddhism purged of superstitions. He is a deeply religious man, but his ideas of reli¬ gion differ so much from English ideas, that it is diffi¬ cult to state them without giving offence. Strange to us are his teachings on the subjects of God and eternity ; yet throughout his work there is a spiritual tone which shows, that with him, as with us, religion is the link which connects man with the Infinite, and is that which gives a law of conduct depending on a basis more extensive than the mere immediate present. PREFACE. XVU The ordinary man, whatever his religion may be, whatever he believes in, whatever he doubts, acknow¬ ledges himself, and acknowledges infinity, and longs to connect the two. w In his endeavours, he either works from himself towards the Infinite, as does the Buddhist, or by a bold definition of the undefinable, he assumes the nature of the Deity, and by a declaration of the laws which ac¬ cord with that nature, he governs his religion. Such is the practice of the followers of the great religions of Christ, Mahomet, and Brahma. Man, who cannot conceive the Infinite in any one of its aspects—who grows appalled as he looks at the sky, and utterly, hopelessly fails to find a limit to his look and his thought, cannot, and does not, of himself pretend to have so fearful a knowledge. But man, listening to a craving that is in him, welcomes the heaven-promising teachings of those he believes to have been inspired, and so in many cases learns suffi¬ cient for his satisfaction. At the same time, there are many men who cannot believe that which they cannot comprehend ; and still more cannot accept as revealed truth those writings which appear to them to be the work of men very im¬ perfectly acquainted with the laws of nature, inclined to write history from a rather partial stand-point, and often teaching very bad morality. These sceptics must either cease to occupy their minds with religion, or must assume that it is the * I do not liere refer to the teachings of philosophers, but to the ideas of those who have learnt no metaphysical subtleties. Some Buddhists, like followers of other philosophical schools, emphatically deny their own existence, prof essing to believe in the maxim, a Neither I am, nor is aught mine.” xviil PREFACE. subject of some law; for if it is not governed by some law, any attempt to reason on it would be waste of time. If religion is the subject of law, it must be believed that the law which rules it is a law of perfect justice. Belief that we are ruled by an unjust law, or by an unjust God, capable of having ever reserved His special love for peculiar people, or of visiting on children the sins of their fathers, is too horrible. If there is a law of perfect justice, then the “Modern Buddhist” argues that, from the different conditions and fortunes of men, we must conclude that there have been previous states of existence, and will be future states, which, taken together, will balance the good and bad luck, the happiness and misery of all beings. He, with a mathematical mind, cannot by any process balance one finite existence againt infinity. He can¬ not believe that a bad life of, say fifty years, shall be punished eternally, or a good life of fifty years blessed eternally. Fifty years is nothing when compared with infinite time, and there is no justice in allowing so short a period to perceptibly affect one that is long beyond- all comparison with it. It seems to him, as it will seem to many others, that proportion is insepar¬ able from justice; that limited time cannot bear any proportion to infinity; and that, in fact, infinity can only be affected by infinity. He can balance an in¬ finite past, spent in innumerable states of transmigra¬ tion, against an infinite future; he can also believe that life is but a phenomenon of disturbance ; that the principle of equalisation existing in it will cause the rise and fall of the waves of disturbance to be propor¬ tionate to one another, acting and re-acting until the PREFACE. XIX disturbance disappears in perfect rest. But he can¬ not believe that the short span of one life shall, by itself, determine the nature of our eternity. Throughout his main arguments there is at least an appearance ol reason. As the mathematician begins from a conceivable definite unit, and works towards in- Imity, rather than beginning with infinity in order thence to evolve his unit, so does the “Modern Bud¬ dhist work from his apparently comprehensible unit man towards the incomprehensible eternity of existence, and does not begin by defiling the eternity of existence, and other problems of infinity therewith connected, and thence argue as to the state of man. He observes that many men pass through a great deal of sorrow during their lives, whilst others are comparatively happy; that evil men, owing to the favourable circumstances of their birth, are prosperous, while good men, born in a less fortunate grade of life, often struggle vainly against adverse fortune. He believes all this must be balanced and equalised, and he thinks it natural that the equalisation should be obtained by the man that has suffered, becoming, or having been, happier in another state of existence, and the man who has misused advantages afterwards suffering reverses. He sees in the different conditions of life a proof that there ■ must be a transmigration of the spirit from existence to existence, that the beggar of yesterday may be the millionaire of to-day, and the prince of to-day the dog of the future. Supposing he is right—that the merit and demerit of man accounts for his present existence and will shape his future; supposing that, whether or no we have a soul, there is a something we create,—our XX11 PEEPACE. It may be denied that such ideas are consistent with orthodox Buddhism, but orthodox or unorthodox, they at least prove that Buddhism does not cramp the mind, as some of its antagonists have declared. They show that Buddhism does not hold men in such an iron grip that they dare not let their reason travel beyond its so-called canonical dogmas. They show that there is in that religion a suitability to the natures of many progressive men ; that it will lead them well so far as it goes, and will not offer to those whose intelli¬ gence, rightly or wrongly, perforce carries them for¬ wards—-so terrible a ruin of all their previous ideas and aspirations, that they can lament that they are reason¬ ing beings. Chao Phya Thipakon was regarded as a very pious Buddhist by a nation of Buddhists, so it is scarcely for us to question his orthodoxy; yet he teaches doctrines which go a long way towards the belief that the highest religious duty of man is the reverential study of social and political science. The teachings of Chao Phya Thipakon are at an end In the text of the “Modern Buddhist,” I mention that he had been for some years blind. In hopes of recover¬ ing his sight, he underwent an operation for cataract. He never recovered his sight, and sank under his afflic¬ tions. m the summer of last year, before he had had the opportunity of criticising my version of his book, or had even learnt the pleasure with which his vindi- oation of his religion was received by liberal-minded cnties m Europe. I will tell one anecdote of my in¬ tercourse with him. Many years ago, when I first acquired some little facility in speaking Siamese, but had no real knowledge of Buddhism, I used sometimes PREFACE. XXU1 to visit His Excellency of an evening, and converse on science and religion. One night I expounded to him part of the Sermon on the Mount, and he seemed so pleased with those beautiful maxims, that I thought him half a Christian, and hoped soon to convert him. Then it was that he told me of the beauty of Buddhas teachings, and showed me how hopeless was the task which the missionaries had undertaken in his country. The missionaries again and again feel hopeful that the day of conversion is at hand, yet are ever doomed to disappointment. I cannot but think that the mopey and energy expended on their work is in great measure lost, and that the labour of many of them would be better employed in their own country. It is a pity to see good men, who might be of use in their own country, doomed to a life of disappointment in an unhealthy and enervating climate. It is a pity to see good Buddhists turned into bad Christians ; and I am afraid that the Protestant missionaries could not produce one good Siamese Christian for each ten thou¬ sand pounds that has been devoted to their work. They may have a few sincere and intelligent Chinese and Burmese converts, but Siamese converts, if any, are very rare. I hope this will not be misunderstood to be an at¬ tack on the missionary body. They have not succeeded as missionaries, but they have done, and still do, much good in the country as physicians, teachers, and pio¬ neers. There are too many of them, and. the work of most of them is wasted, but some of them are among the most useful members of the foreign community. To one of them (who supports himself without draw¬ ing a salary from any missionary body) the Siamese - XXIV PREFACE. are indebted for many useful publications, including the Siamese laws, and several volumes of semi-his¬ torical works. From another who has exiled himself to the Laos country, we may expect valuable informa¬ tion concerning the Laos language and people. While speaking of their useful works, I must mention the excellent schools of two of the lady members. In the first edition ,of the “ Modern Buddhist ” I omitted a.few passages which were of some importance, but which referred to subtleties of Buddhism that would, in my opinion, have made the essay unsuitable to the class of readers I designed it for. As an un¬ known man, seeking a publisher, I had to endeavour to make my work easily appreciable. I was fortunate enough to find in Mr Triibner a publisher who took a personal interest in the literature of Oriental religions, and he at once took charge of my essay, and has since urged me to extend my selections from the writings of Chao Phya Thipakon. I have therefore in this edition given to my readers all that seems to me worth trans¬ lation in the book of Chao Phya Thipakon. I have not complied with the desire of some of my critics, that I should quash the “ Modern Buddhist,” and give a literal translation of the text of the Siamese author in its entirety, for I know that such a translation would scarcely find readers. I myself find literal translations of Oriental works intolerably tedious; and I am not alone in my opinion, for otherwise the original edition of the “Lotus de la Bonne Loi,” the work of Bnrnouf, the most illustrious of European scholars of Buddhism, would not now be procurable uncut from its publishers! One mbre remark, and I shall end this preface to the “ Modern Buddhist.” Some men appear to believe PREFACE. XXV that, in publishing that book, I have perpetrated a literary hoax, and invented a Siamese author. I do not think that any careful reader of the book would do me this injustice, for it seems to me that there is a quaintness of thought and manner in the writing of Chao Phya Thipakon which I have in some measure happily rendered in the translations, while I have quite failed to imitate it in my remarks. In this edition I have been careful to mark all the translated passages by inverted commas, and my readers may rest assured that all passages so marked are purely Siamese. It is as a translator and exponent of the thoughts of the Siamese that I seek for credit, and I altogether decline the honour of being considered a clever forger. I will now make some prefatory remarks on the second part of this work, the “ Life of Buddha.” The “ Life of Buddha” has been translated several times, from different sources; but I believe Bishop Bigandet’s translation, from the Burmese is the only “Life” now procurable in England. The most classical translations I have read are Tumour’s and Foucaux’s—the first from the Pali classics of Ceylon, the second from the Thibetan “Rgya Tcher Kol Pa,” compared with the Sanscrit “Lalita Vistara.” Tumour’s translations, published in his “Pali Annals,” are elegant and concise; Foucaux’s work, though valuable for reference, is the literal reproduc¬ tion of a long and tedious book, which not even the pVill of M. Foucaux can render pleasant reading. Bishop Bigandet’s compilation from Burmese sources is interesting, and in one sense complete ; for whereas my Siamese manuscript concludes with the attainment XXVI PREFACE. of omniscience, lie had materials which enabled him to continue the story to the- death or Nirwana. So far as we travel over the same ground, I prefer the Siamese version to the Burmese : it is not only more poetical, but in those points where there is a difference as to fact, it may be considered more accurate, inasmuch as when the same circumstance is mentioned in the Pali annals, it is generally in accordance with the Siamese version. Bishop Bigandet’s work has very much assisted me in my labours, and should be read by all who take an interest in Buddhism. _ -There is an ample “ Life of Buddha,” compiled from Singhalese sources, in the Rev. Spence Hardy’s “ Man¬ ual of Buddhism, ’ which, I believe, is out of print. I have not the good fortune to possess a copy, but when I read it, it appeared to me that, although the narra¬ tive of events was ample, it was deficient in those explanatory notes which Spence Hardy’s great know¬ ledge of Buddhism would have rendered it easy for him to supply, and it seemed altogether to lack the poetical character which marks the “ Life of Buddha” in the native texts. - To translate agreeably, one must to a certain extent sympathise with the feelings 'of the author one translates from, and not serve up our glow¬ ing Oriental feasts with a cold'chill on them. I believe that Csoma de Koros and Hodgson, men eminent among Buddhist scholars, have also published abstracts of translations of the “Life of Buddha,” but I have not seen that portion of their waitings. I do not expect to supply fresh materials to scholars ^ h °? eS ° f P°P ul ™g the knowledge of Buddhism, and giving a fair idea of Siamese literary style. I have taken some pains to make my transla- PREFACE. XXV11 tion readable, though I fear my success is but partial, and I have also endeavoured to elucidate every Bud¬ dhist expression by a note. Where there is no direct reference from the text, the index will generally direct the reader to an explanation. The index is not a verbal one, referring its consulter to every page of the book on which any word appears, but it is purposely limited to those references which are important to the understanding of the words entered in it. Many of the notes have been written- especially for my readers in Siam, who will, I hope, find that, my hints open out to them a new interest in their study of the Siamese language, their participation in Siamese ceremonies, and their visits to Siamese temples. They will see that much that they may have hitherto regarded as meaningless formality, or fanciful painting, has a religious and historical significance that carries them back to the dawn of history. As instances, I may refer to the notes on the custom of giving money and lottery tickets in limes at cremations, the ceremony of pouring water on the earth, the ploughing ceremony, the gift of gold and silver flowers at coronations, &c. Some may perhaps be interested in the comparisons I have endeavoured to draw between Siamese and Sans¬ crit words. I was moved to attempt the comparison of Siamese and Sanscrit words by the complaint of a critic, who blamed me for not having done it in the “ Modern Buddhist.” He rightly presumed that I was “ no Sanscrit scholar.” I had not even begun to study that language ; nevertheless, I did not discover in his criticism any Sanscrit words that were not known to me from miscellaneous reading ; and, indeed, the simple examples he gave suggested to me the thought xxviii PREFACE. that scholarship was not required for such an under¬ taking. I therefore procured a Sanscrit dictionary, and by its aid I have been able to make numerous comparisons. I hope some day to return to the work with a better knowledge of Sanscrit to help me ; in the meantime, I must ask Sanscrit scholars to excuse such errors as they may detect. The labour has proved interesting, as it has enlightened me as to the original meaning of many Siamese words, and has shown how much the Siamese language has been enlarged from the Sanscrit. The Siamese seem to have derived their religion, most of their state ceremonies, and (so far as I have yet examined) almost every word in their lan¬ guage which rises above mere savagery, from the ancient Aryans—“the respectable race”—of Central India. The Siamese “ Life of Buddha,” as my translation shows it, contains a mixture of what seem to be several very distinct reverential (if not exactly religious) ideas. We find a primitive form of Buddhism, with its four great truths, conveying the simple idea that as all states of existence which we can conceive nre states of vanity, sorrow, and change, the object of the wisely pious must be to escape from them, and that it is pos¬ sible to escape from them by eradicating all delight in worldly pleasure, and raising the mind to that intellec¬ tual state in which there is no longer any cleaving to existence, but a tranquil readiness to pass into the perfect rest of Nirwana. We find monastic Buddhism sharing the fate which must attend all religions which encourage a professional class of monks, or men who lead unnatural lives, that is cumbered with dogmas and absurdities, the result * PREFACE. XXIX of warped, fantastic, and prurient minds. We do not find an Athanasian Creed ; for so far as tills book en¬ lightens us, we find that the Buddhist speaks of heaven rather than of hell, and never thinks of such uncharity as to damn everlastingly those who differ with him. But nevertheless we find that the professional religious class, in the absence of useful occupation, has invented an intolerable terminology, has multiplied ridiculous distinctions, has twisted the elementary principles into all manner of shapes, and has invented a system of meditation which, in lieu of expanding the mind, tends to contract it almost to idiocy. We find Brahminical superstitions, a continual refer¬ ence to Brahmin soothsayers and the Yedas, and an adherence to Brahminical rites in all matters pertain¬ ing to royal ceremonials. Those who know that by the Brahmins' the Buddhists were extirpated from Central India, the birthplace of their religion, must wonder to see Brahmins and Buddhists pictured side by side in harmony. Yet this story gives no undue idea of the position of the royal Brahmins in Siam. On every great occasion the Brahmin soothsayers are consulted, in every state ceremony they are prominent personages; yet they are genuine Brahmins, and not Buddhists, and worship in their own Brahman temple, full of grotesque and lascivious gods. We find Indra and Brahma, and other Hindu divinities, and indeed a cosmogony and mythology mainly drawn from the Hindus, and only altered in the divinity being denied. The gods are but mortal beings in a superior state of transmigration. We find mention of the Naga or snake, powerful as the gods; we find a disc or wheel, Chakkra, rever- d XXX. PJREPACE. entially brought into prominence as a mystic symbol; we find a Trinitarian idea represented as Buddha, the Law, and the Church ; we find indications of relic wor¬ ship associated with holy buildings, Topes,* or, as the Siamese call them, Phrachedis ; we find one reference to the Suphasit or Confucian doctrines of propriety ; and we find extraordinary importance attributed to the Sacred Feet. We find what we may suppose to be local supersti¬ tion in the mention of angels of gates and of trees ; not but what these latter are also mentioned in the Nepalese “ Life of Buddha," “Lalita Vist&ra.” And lastly, we find, what I have seen in no other “ Life of Buddha,” a very curious passage representing Buddha offering adoration to a tree. I refer to the concluding passage in my translation. Professor Fergusson’s splendid work on “ Tree and Serpent Worship” first drew my attention to the adora¬ tion of the tree at an early period of Buddhism; and I was much struck when I reflected on this illustra¬ tive passage. I am not yet inclined to go as far as Professor Fergusson, and call every sign of respect to an emblem a distinct worship; but I certainly believe the tree was an object of worship, and one of the very first objects of man’s worship. Some think that this sculpture-depicted worship of the tree, shown equally in the bas-reliefs of Assyria and India, was no more than the adoration now paid by intelligent Buddhists to their images of Buddha; the worship of an idea through an emblem, a vicarious worship ; and they may be right. Yet it seems to me * J m ® n ^ion Phrachedi (Chaitya) as the most common designation of a relic spire, but the word Tope is better reproduced in the word Sathup. PREFACE. XXXI that before the mind of man was prepared for emble¬ matic subtleties, for Arkite symbolism and other idolatries, while it was simple, straightforward, and uneducated, it would have led man to adore the tree. The primeval savage, pursued by a beast of prey, over¬ taken by a pitiless storm, or sinking under the fierce heat of the sun, would have found in some large tree a refuge excelling all others. On its branches was a hiding-place where he could rest safe from his fierce enemies; beneath its leafy canopy was shelter from the cutting hail or the intolerable heat. There was no dank smell, such as he found in his only other asylum, the caves, but a delicious fragrance offered itself for his enjoyment. Its ever-lovely foliage, lovely in the sun and lovely in the rain, inspired him with the senti¬ ment of beauty ; its size, its longevity, and its, quiet majesty, inspired him with a sense of awe. It was beautiful, beneficent, and wonderful, and he venerated it. He picked up the fallen flowers that lay around, and placed them on a stone, so that they might not be trodden on. That act originated a worship, an altar, and a sacrifice. Such seems to me a probable origin of the worship of the tree. The Pipul, Bodhi, or Bo-tree, the chief sacred tree of the Buddhists, has certainly some of the attributes which would account for its being selected above other trees as the typical tree of this worship. It is noble in dimensions and appearance. Its seeds have extraordinary vitality; and when a drop of mois¬ ture has caused them to shoot, even in a crack high in some lofty tower, they will not die, but forcing the thin air and the hard bricks to nourish them, they will send down their suckers to the earth; and then XXxii PREFACE. these suckers, growing into huge roots, will crack and rend the building, shiver and destroy it, and only pre¬ serve its memory by the huge fragmentary masses which it will- for centuries retain clasped in its embrace. Its Sanscrit name, “ Bodhi-tree,” may be translated “ The Tree of Wisdom.” The same word, Bodhi, is also applied to the penetrating wisdom of a Buddha, and is said to be derived from a word, Budh, meaning to penetrate. If it obtained this name, Bodhi, independ¬ ently, and not from connection with any religious myth, I suppose it may have originated in the above- described insinuating or “penetrating” character of its roots. Great as is the variety of these elements, the more important points of Buddhism are not lost among them, but. stand out with marked distinctness. When I say more important points of Buddhism, I do not mean points peculiar to, and originating in, Buddhism, but I mean points the belief in which is essential to all who would be called Buddhists. It has be.en said that there is no special teaching in Buddhism, and that its tenets are the same as those of the S&nkhya and other schools of Indian philoso¬ phers. Certainly, as we read portions of the S&nkhya books, we recognise doctrines like those we meet in Buddhist books. In both we find that the great object of man is to destroy the misery inseparable from ordi¬ nary existence; in both ,we read the words, “ Neither I am, nor is aught mine.” Both systems are apparently grounded on ideas such as transmigration, &c., gener- -ally prevailing in India some two to three thousand years ago. Yet, as among other differences, we. find PREFACE. XXX111 that the Sankhyas dwelt specially on the existence of a soul, while the-Buddhists specially avoided all recog¬ nition of one, we cannot allow that the teacher or teachers of Buddhism felt bound by the principles of the early S&nkhya philosophy ascribed to Ivapila. Still less could the Buddhists have valued the Yoga or theistical development of the Sankhya system which asserted the existence of a God actively interested in the world, and making His law known by revelation,— beliefs incompatible with Buddhism. Similarly with the Nyaya and other Indian sects, the metaphysical theories are at times identical, but the practical differences are radical. The origin of these sects is, I believe, now considered to be posterior to the rise of Buddhism. The story of Buddha’s life, however, assumes that there were philoso¬ phers before him, with whom he studied, and whose teachings were not opposed to his, but only failed in not going to the height of meditative science which he reached. In Buddhism there are eight degrees of the meditation called Dhy&na ; these philosophers, we are told, could only attain to the seventh. The Yoga Sankhyas have a system of Dhyana meditation akin to that of the Buddhists, and possibly both drew the idea from the same source. I believe that Dhyana was not a primitive institution of Buddhism ; for though it has been associated with it long enough to be referred to several times in the “ Life,” I think the story would be quite complete if all those references were omitted. Dhy&na is not mentioned in the vital parts of the story. The metaphysical system of Buddhism is now an im¬ portant part of the religion ; but we are by no means XXxiv ' PREFACE. 