US 3520617 A
Description (OCR text may contain errors)
y 4, WW JAMES E. WEBB 3,520,617
ADMTNISTRATUR OF THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AN SPACE ADMINISTRATION POLARIMETER FOR TRANSIENT MEASUREMENT Filed Feb. 15, 1967 2 Sheuts-Sheut. l
LIGHT M4 FTRADTT SOURCE POLARIZER PLATE CELL ANALYZER B PHOTO MULTIPLIER I50 l5b FROM T2 g T0 T6 FIG. Ho)
OUTPUT H H PULSER 30 I I I 7 LI N E 0 TRIGGER PULSES FROM 26 l l l 1 LINE b a T SAMPLING 5 TIMES I l l l u NE c T OUTPUT or 25 LINE d FARADAY CELL I6 INPUT CURRENT u as e F I e. 3
INVENTOR ALAN R. JOHNSTON 122% Lb ATTORNEYS JAMES E. WEBB ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS J'ui 14, 1970 AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION POLARIMETER FOR TRANSIENT MEASUREMENT 2 Sheets-Sheet 2 Filed Feb. 15. 1967 N m m mm -v m W. W k N. N QE m J n R. M? 1 55: A Tx N E $532. 5522. a 3 N. 552057 E a 52 25.: 522 N @N 3 =2 $5.. 532 9 8 5. 25 3 3 |Il|l||l| s cfillllllllliilmllllllll||l 3K 7:82:52 $252. I I :3 I M253 5; m -52: wawmwvui E25 E55 :5: u 3 Q III FIIM IiII FIIL VIIIQIIL United States Patent 3,520,617 POLARIMETER FOR TRANSIENT MEASUREMENT James E. Webb, Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, with respect to an invention of Alan R. Johnston, Los Angeles, Calif. Filed Feb. 15, 1967, Ser. No. 617,021 Int. Cl. G01n 21/44 US. Cl. 356117 5 Claims ABSTRACT OF THE DISCLOSURE A polarimeter capable of measuring transient birefringence changes in electro-optic materials on a nanosecond time scale, without the requirement for manual analyzer adjustment. An optical assembly is employed by means of which light polarized in a first plane is transmitted through the test material and a quarter wave plate. The output is light polarized in a plane rotated about the first plane by an angle, proportional to the transient birefringence changes. The output of a photomultiplier, which responds to the output light intensity of the polarimeter, is sampled at specific times, measured from the leading edges of field pulses applied to the material. The samples are used to produce an average error signal, used to drive a Faraday cell, forming part of a feed-back loop, such that the transient birefringence changes could be measured in terms of Faraday-cell current.
The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract and is subject to the provisions of Section 305 of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, Public Law 85-568 (72 Stat. 435; 42 USC 2457).
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the invention This invention relates to an apparatus for measuring optical phenomena and, more particularly, to an apparatus for measuring physical phenomena which are represented by changes in angle of polarization of light.
Description of the prior art A polarimeter is in instrument for ascertaining the state of polarized light, or for studying the effects of various forces or materials upon light of known polarization. It ordinarily consists of a polarizing member, which renders common light plane polarized in any desired azimuth, and an analyzer for identifying the character of the polarized light. Between the polarizer and analyzer, means are provided for mounting objects such as crystals, whose elTects upon the polarized light is to be determined.
One prior art polarimeter is disclosed in Pat. No. 3,157,727, issued to Hardy et al. on Nov. 17, 1964. Basically, the Hardy polarimeter includes a light source, a polarizer, an analyzer, a photomultiplier with its associated amplifier, a cathode ray oscilloscope, an oscillatoi and a Faraday cell. Light from the source is directed to a sample through the polarizer, and therefrom to the photomultiplier through the Faraday cell and the ana lyzer. The Faraday cell is driven by the oscillator such that an accurate average value of the direction of the plane of polarization of light incident upon the analyzer is determined. The Faraday cell, driven by the oscillator, periodically varies the plane of polarization. The photomultiplier which is located adjacent the analyzer ice is responsive to the periodically varying light passed by the analyzer. The amplitude of the first harmonic of the photomultiplier output signal and the relative phase of the photomultiplier output and the oscillator output are displayed on the oscilloscope. By manually adjusting the analyzer, it is possible to reduce the fundamental component of the photomultiplier output signal to zero. The degree or extent to which the analyzer has to be positioned to eliminate the fundamental component of the photomultiplier output signal is directly related to the effect of the crystal on the polarized light passing therethrough.
Thus, one of the basic features of the Hardy polarimeter is the requirement for analyzer adjustment, which in Pat. No. 3,157,727, is assumed to be accomplished manually. Due to such adjustments, the Hardy polarimeter is too slow to measure transients or rapidly changing polarization shifts. Like the Hardy device, most other prior art polarimeters are based on analzer adjustments, limiting their use to constant or slowly changing polarization shifts which are slow enough for an operator to adjust the analzer. Some polarimeters employ a photomultiplier in conjunction with a servo system to adjust the analyzer. However, even such arrangements, have been found to be unsatisfactory, when attempting to measure sufficiently fast transients or rapidly changing polarization shifts.
OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore, a primary object of the present invention, to provide a new polarimeter.
Another object of the present invention is to provide a polarimeter for accurately measuring transients or rapidly changing polarization shifts.
A further object of the present invention is to provide a novel polarimeter, which is not based for its operation on the physical change of an analyzer to produce a null signal.
A further object of the present invention is to provide a novel polarimeter with a fixedly positioned analyzer.
Still a further object of the present invention is toprovide a polarimeter with a fixedly positioned analyzer to measure transients or rapidly changing polarization shifts, in which compensating signals are generated by means other than changing the actual physical position of the analyzer.
Yet, a further object is to provide a polarimeter employing the principles of negative feed-back control, such that accurate measurement of polarization shifts is possible without accurate knowledge of light source intensity or photodetector gain.
These and other objects of the invention are achieved by providing a polarimeter, which includes a polarizer which polarizes light from a light source into an original plane of polarization, and a means for supporting a material such as a crystal, whose elTect 0n polarized light is to be determined. A quarter-wave plate is positioned in the light path so that the plane of polarization of the light out of the plate, is rotated from the original plane by an angle which is a function of the effect of the crystal on the polarized light.
The light from the plate passes to a fixedly positioned analyzer, through a Faraday cell. The light from the analyzer is directed to a photomultiplier. The analyzer is fixedly positioned, so that the change of photomultiplier output is linearly proportional to a change in the angle at which the plane of polarization of the light from the quarter-plate is rotated away from the original plane.
The photomultiplier output is electronically sampled in phase with a periodically varied influence on the polarized light, for example a retardation induced in the crystal by a periodically changing voltage. The sampled output is passed through a low pass filter, resulting in a DC (direct current) or slowly varying signal representing the optical state existing at the instant of sampling. In addition, the invention includes a feed-back loop in which changes in retardation caused by the crystal, are balanced against the feedback inputs introduced with the Faraday cell. Thus, by measuring or monitoring the current supplied to the Faraday cell, the angle at which the plane of polarization of light from the quarter-wave plate is rotated about the original plane may be determined. Therefrom the retardation provided by the crystal as a function of the voltage periodically applied thereto may be directly ascertained.
The novel features that are considered characteristic of this invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. The invention itself, both as to its organization and method of operation, as well as additional objects and advantages thereof, will best be understood from the following description when read in connection with the accompanying drawings.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of the optics of the polarimeter of the invention;
FIG. 1(a) is a schematic diagram of the relationship between two crystals, positioned to minimize their spontaneous birefringence; 1
FIG. 2 is a block diagram of one embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 3 is a waveform type diagram; and
FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the optics of another embodiment of the invention.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Reference is now made to FIG. 1, which is a diagram of the optics of the polarimeter of the present invention, shown including a light source 10, directing light to a polarizer 12. The function of the polarizer is to polarize the light into a reference plane, hereafter also referred to as the original plane. The polarized light passes through matter, such as a crystal 15, whose effect on the polarized light is to be measured when the crystal is subjected to transient physical phenomena, such as the application of a periodically varying voltage.
Such a voltage causes the crystal to retard the polarized light passing therethrough. The total retardation is designated 6. The light from the crystal is directed to a quarter-wave (M4) plate 16, which reconverts the light from the crystal 15 to linearly polarized light, but in a plane which is proportional to the total retardation introduced by the crystal. /26. Thus, by measuring 0 the total retardation 6 could be determined therefrom.
The portion of the polarimeter thus far described, may be thought of as an arrangement providing linearly polarized light in a plane rotated by angle 0 from a reference plane, where 0 equals V26, 6 being the retardation produced by the crystal 15. In practice, two crystal specimens are introduced to compensate for their large spontaneous birefringence. The relative orientation of the two crystals is diagrammed in FIG. 1(a) in which the crystals are designated by numerals a and 15b. It should be pointed out however, that the voltage is applied only to one of the crystals.
The polarized light from the plate 16 is directed to a Faraday cell 18 and therefrom to a photomultiplier 20 through an analyzer 22. As is appreciated by those familiar with the art, a Faraday cell is a device which rotates the plane of polarized light as a function of the electromagnetic field provided, thereby, which is in turn a function of the current supplied thereto. Hereafter, in
the specification as well as in the appended claims, the term Faraday cell is assumed to refer to any device having such characteristics. In FIG. 1 let a designate the angle of rotation of the plane of polarized light produced by the cell. The plane of polarization at the analyzer 22 may be thought of as being rotated from the original plane by an angle ,3, where fi=0u.
The analyzer 22 is initially adjusted or rotated through an arbitrary angle s from the null position, observed without any potential field or volt-age applied to the crystal 15 in order to obtain a variation of the light intensity at photomultiplier 20 which is linearly proportional to the change in angular orientation of the plane of polarization. I
The light intensity transmitted through the analyzer 22 to photomultiplier 20 may be expressed as:
[=1 sin (fl) where 13 is the instantaneous orientation of the plane of polarization, measured from the null, and 4; is the fixed offset of the analyzer and I is the average DC light level. Differentiating the above expression, assuming 5 It is thus seen that a small change in the orientation of the light incident on the analyzer A 3, produces a proportional change in the light level, i.e. AI at the photomultiplier 20.
In accordance with the teachings of the invention which may best be explained in conjunction with FIG. 2, the output of photomultiplier 20 is supplied to a sampling oscilloscope 25, whose external trigger input (EXT- TRIG) is connected to the output of a timing circuit 26. A pulsing circuit or pulser 30 is connected to both circuit 26 and crystal 15. In FIG. 2, the ports within the dotted line are those diagrammed in FIG. 1. The photomultiplier 20 and oscilloscope 25 have a fast response so that they faithfully follow fast changes in light intensity. Pulser 30 is of the type capable of delivering pulses of up to several hundred volts in amplitude at a selected pulse repetition rate. In one application, a mercury switch was employed delivering 500 volt pulses at a rate of 500 pulses per second (p.p.s.). The pulse duration was chosen to be nanoseconds (ns.). The output of pulser 30 is diagrammed in line a of FIG. 3, which is a waveform type diagram, useful in explaining the invention. In FIG. 3, the width of each pulse is greatly exaggerated in order to be visible. The actual voltage amplitude is chosen to produce a desired angular rotation, typically one or more degrees.
The timing circuit 26 responds to each pulse from pulser 30 to provide two identical trigger pulses which are used to trigger the oscilloscope. These are diagrammed on line b of FIG. 3.
The first trigger pulse occurs as close as possible to the start of each high voltage pulse from pulser 30. The second trigger pulse provided by timing circuit 26 occurs at a fixed time after the first trigger pulse, such that it lies midway between consecutive high voltage pulses. The second trigger pulse occurs when there is no voltage applied to the crystal 15.
The output of photomultiplier 20 is sampled at time T measured from the leading edge of each high voltage pulse or the first trigger pulse produced coincidentally therewith. The time T is manually controllable by manually controlling the internal sweep circuit of the oscilloscope 25. The sampling times of oscilloscope 25 are diagrammed by vertical arrows in a line c of FIG. 3. As seen therefrom, the oscilloscope in addition to sampling the output of the photomultiplier at a time T after the leading edge of the high voltage pulse supplied to the crystal, is also triggered midway between the pulses when no voltage is applied to the crystal.
Basically, the oscilloscope samples the output voltage of the photomultiplier 20 near the time when the high voltage pulse is supplied to the crystal. It then holds or provides this fixed voltage at its y output until the second trigger pulse is supplied thereto from the timing ci rcuit 26. The y output thereof then changes and holds a voltage proportional to the photomultiplier output at such sampling time, which occurs T after a time midway between high voltage pulses to the crystal.
The output of the oscilloscope diagrammed in line d of FIG. 3, may be seen to comprise of a noisy audio signal which is in phase with the high voltage pulses from pulser 30. The average amplitude of this noisy audio signal is a measure of the difference between the light level existing at time T after a high voltage pulse is supplied to the crystal and at an intermediate time when the effect of the voltage pulse on the crystal is no longer present. In line d of FIG. 3, the magnitude of this signal part contributed to the audio signal is greatly exaggerated. Actually, the noise greatly dominates the audio signal.
To eliminate the effect of the noise, conventional demodulation, followed by an integrator to reject noise and provide a large DC loop gain and remodulation techniques are used to obtain a current with which the Faraday cell 18 is driven to rotate the plane of polarization by an angle a, substantially equal to the angle and thereby provide a measure of the retardation caused 'by the crystal. That is, the audio signal from the oscilloscope is first demodulated, with the output then being integrated over a sufiiciently long period to reject the effect of the noise. The integrated output is then remodulated to provide an AC signal which is amplified and thereafter supplied to the Faraday cell. The magnitude of the AC current supplied to the Faraday cell is electronically automatically adjusted in response to the large total gain in such a feed-back loop, to yield at time T after a high voltage pulse is supplied to the crystal the same light level at the photomultiplier as at a time when the crystal is undisturbed by a high voltage pulse.
Referring again to FIG. 2, therein the y output of the oscilloscope 25 is shown connected to a demodulator 32, whose output is connected to an integrator 34. Integrator 34 is in turn connected to a modulator 36, whose output is connected to a power amplifier '38, whose current output is shown connected to the Faraday cell 18. The current from power amplifier 38 is also supplied to a peakto'peak meter 40, the function of which is to monitor the current supplied by the amplifier 38 to the Faraday cell 18. Quantitive determination of the retardation induced in the crystal is obtained by calibrating the Faraday cell and measuring the peak amplitude of this drive current necessary for the angle of rotation or produced by the cell to equal the angle of rotation 0 which in turn is equal to /2 the total retardation 6 of the crystal produced by the high voltage pulses. The gains in the loop are large enough so that the Faraday cell calibration is the only parameter that need be known in order to measure the reta'rdaton 8. The current supplied to the cell is diagrammed in line e of FIG. 3.
As seen from FIG. 2, the polarimeter of the present invention may further include a flip-flop 42, responding to the trigger pulses from timing circuit 26, to provide a reference signal to demodulator 32 and modulator 36, with the necessary phase relationship to the trigger pulses.
The foregoing description of the invention may be summarized by considering the sampling oscilloscope 25 as an error sensor and the Faraday cell as a feed-back element forming part of a feed-back loop. The sampling oscilloscope is triggered alternately, first at the time that a high voltage pulse is applied to the crystal 15, and then midway between pulses. If a difference in light level at the photomultiplier exists between these two times, the output of the oscillator will change from one level to the other, alternately producing an AC signal. The amplitude of this signal represents the difference in light level at these two times, and therefore also represents the angular rotation of the plane of polarization between 6 sampling times, caused by the retardation (6) of crystal 15.
In simplest terms, the oscilloscope output may be though of as being amplified and used to drive the Faraday cell. The amplitude of the alternating rotation produced by the Faraday cell, is subtracted from that produced by the induced retardation of the crystal and is automatically adjusted by the feed-back loop, which consists of demodulator 32, integrator 34, modulator 36 and power amplifier 38, so that the intensity differences seen by the photomultiplier at these two times is zero. This means, that the rotation produced by the Faraday cell, designated in FIG. 1 by or, must be equal to the angle of rotation 0 from the quarter-wave plate 16, which in turn is equal to /2 the total retardation 6 produced by the crystal. Thus, by quantitatively measuring the current supplied to the Faraday cell 38, and therefrom by means of the calibration curves of the cell, knowing the angle of rotation or produced by the Faraday cell, the retardation of the crystal may be determined. As is appreciated, maximum deflection of the plane of polarization by the Faraday cell, occurs with alternating sign at each sampling time.
In practice, the sampling time T is manually controllable by the external sweep input of the oscilloscope 25. Thus, by changing the sampling time, the retardation in crystal 15 at given instances after the leading edge of each of the high voltage pulses may be carefully and accurately determined. The time period over which the output of the demodulator 32 must be integrated to obtain an acceptable noise level may be controlled by the selection of a capacitor in integrator 34. It should also be pointed out that the oscilloscope 25 is used as an electronic circuit having an internal time delay circuit and means for externally triggering it, rather than in the conventional sense as a display device with its cathode ray tube. It should further be pointed out, that in the polarimeter of the present invention, the analyzer 22 once positioned, remains fixedly positioned during all measurements, since the desired measurements are electronically accomplished, rather than by manual adjustment of the analyzer, as is required by the polarimeters of the prior art.
The polarimeter may further include an x-y plotter 45 to which is supplied the x output of the oscilloscope 25 and the output of the meter 40 in order to plot the meter output, versus the instant of sampling t after the application of a trigger pulse to the scope. Since the meter output is related to a which is automatically adjusted to equal 6, the latter being in turn equal to /26, the plot represents a graph of total retardation 5, versus T In tests actually performed with a polarimeter of the present invention it has been found that the response time of the measurement is limited by the rise time of the photomultiplier 20 to a step function of light. This rise time is about 5 nanoseconds. However, with faster photodetectors, the response time of the measurement may be reduced to as low as 0.5 nanosecond.
Herebefore, the invention has been described in conjunction with a polarimeter for determining changes in retardation measured with respect to fixed axes of the crystal 15. However, the teachings disclosed herein may be extended to measure angular change in birefringent axes in a crystal with slight modifications. Briefly, if the technique for observing transient retardation derived from rotating the analyzer to obtain a null, the measurement of angular change of birefringent axes may be derived by rotating the crystal itself to achieve a null, with two Faraday cells used to generate an equivalent rotation of the crystal placed between them.
Such an optical arrangement is shown in FIG. 4 to which reference is made herein. Basically, a polarizer 50 polarizes light from a source (not shown) in selected plane of reference. The light transmitted through an analyzer 52 is directed to a photomultiplier (not shown) 7 like photomultiplier 20 which is sampled as herebefore described. Between the polarizer 50 and analyzer 52 is located crystal 55 whose axes form an angle with respect to the original plane of polarization established by polarizer 50. A voltage pulse applied with appropriate electrodes to the crystal induces an additional change in the orientation of its optic axes, A'y. Two Faraday cells 56 and 57 are placed on opposite sides of the crystal.
The two cells receive alternating current signals of opposite polarities, designated i and i The signals are supplied from a power amplifier, such as amplifier 38 (FIG. 2) through appropriate circuitry to reverse the polarity of the signals supplied to one cell with respect to those supplied to the other. By measuring the peak-to-peak signals supplied to one of the cells, the angular change in the birefringent axes, A7 is determined.
It should be pointed out that although in the foregoing the polarimeter of the invention has been described as one for determining electro-optical properties, it need not be limited thereto. Rather, the teachings may be employed to measure any phenomenon which can be translated into light polarized in a plane, rotated from a reference plane, by an angle which is a function of the phenomenon to be measured.
There has accordingly been shown and described herein, a novel polarimeter for measuring transient birefringence changes in materials at a very fast response. All optical parts once initially aligned remain fixedly positioned since all adjustments are automatically performed by means of a closed loop feed-back arrangement. It is appreciated that those familiar with the art may make modifications and/or substitute equivalents without departing from the spirit of the invention. Therefore, all such modifications are deemed to fall within the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.
What is claimed:
1. A polarimeter comprising:
a source of light polarized in a reference plane;
an analyzer having an axis of polarization fixedly positioned with its axis rotated through a selected angle with respect to said reference plane;
a Faraday cell placed between said analyzer and said source;
support means adapted to support matter whose effect on polarized light is to be determined between said Faraday cell and said source;
a quarter-wave plate positioned between said support means and said cell for converting the effect of said matter on polarized light into light polarized in a plane rotated from said reference plane by an angle which is related to the effect of the matter on the polarized light from said source;
pulsing means for subjecting said matter to transient physical phenomenon; and
output means responsive to the light transmitted through said analyzer for controlling said Faraday cell to rotate the light passing therethrough whereby the light transmitted through said analyzer is substantially constant, said output means including light sampling means responsive to light transmitted through said analyzer at selected sampling times during said transient physical phenomena and therebetween to provide an error signal, means for converting said error signal into an alternating current signal and for supplying said alternating current signal to said Faraday cell, and means for determining the amplitude of said alternating current signal.
2. The polarimeter as recited in claim 1 wherein said matter is a crystal having electro-optical characteristics and said pulsing means provide a sequence of voltage pulses at a selected rate to which said crystal is subjected, each pulse having a duration of less than one microsecond, said polarimeter further including means responsive to each voltage pulse for generating a first trigger pulse in response thereto and a second trigger pulse between successive voltage pulses; and
means for actuating said light sampling means with said first and second trigger pulses to sample the light at selected intervals after said first and second trigger pulses are supplied to said light sampling means.
3. A polarimeter for measuring the retardation effect on polarized light induced by a crystal of matter when subjected to transient periodically changing voltage comprising:
a source of light polarized in a first plane of reference;
a Faraday cell in the path of said polarized light;
means adapted to support a crystal of matter between said source and said cell, said crystal being of the type retarding the polarized light as a function of voltage pulses applied thereto;
a quarter-wave plate positioned between said crystal and said Faraday cell for converting the light retarded by said crystal to light polarized in a plane rotated through an angle 0 from said first plane, 0 being equal to one-half the retardation of said light by said crystal;
photomultiplier means for providing an output proportional to light incident thereto;
an analyzer having an axis of polarization fixedly positioned between said cell and said photomultiplier means, whereby the change of output of said photomultiplier means is substantially linearly proportional to the change in 0;
pulsing means for successively applying voltage pulses to said crystal; and
output means defining a feed-back loop responsive to the outputs of said photomultiplier means at selected intervals after the leading edge of each voltage pulse and midpoint between successive voltage pulses for providing an averaged error signal and for controlling said cell with signals related to said averaged error signal, whereby said cell rotates the plane of polarization of the light passing thereto by an angle substantially equal to 0, so that the output of said photomultiplier means is substantially constant.
4. The polarimeter as recited in claim 3 wherein said output means includes a timing circuit responsive to each voltage pulse for generating a first trigger pulse substantially coincidental therewith and a second trigger pulse substantially midpoint between successive voltage pulses, and means utilizing said first and second trigger pulses to sample the output of said photomultiplier means at adjustably selected intervals after said first and second trigger pulses, whereby successive samples of the output of said photomultiplier means represent outputs when said crystal is subjected to a voltage pulse and between voltage pulses.
5. The polarimeter as recited in claim 4 wherein said output means include a demodulator responsive to the sampled outputs of said photomultiplier means;
means for integrating the output of said demodulator to provide an averaged error signal;
modulating means for providing an alternating current signal of a frequency related to the rate of said voltage pulses and of an amplitude which is a function of the amplitude of said averaged error signal; means for energizing said cell with said alternating current signal; and means for monitoring the amplitude of said alternating current signal.
References Cited UNITED STATES PATENTS 3,312,141 4/1967 Cary 356-117 3,397,607 8/1968 Goodwin 356117 (Other references on following page) 3,520,617 9 10 OTHER REFERENCES Tetragonal BaTiO Journal of Optical Society of Amer- B. Carroll and I. Blei: Measurement of Optical Activ- July 1965 828 834' zlggivzggnproaches, Science, vol. 142, Oct. 11, 1963, RONALD L. WIBERT Primary Examiner A. R. Johnston and J. M. Weingart: Determination 5 H ERG, istant Examiner of the Low-Frequency Linear Electra-Optic Elfect in


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When was the eclipse in the Bible?
The only total eclipse visible in Jerusalem in this era occurred late in the year AD 29, on 24 November at 11:05 AM. Around the Sea of Galilee, it would have been visible for just one minute and forty-nine seconds.
Does the Bible talk about lunar eclipse?
The blood moon prophecies are a series of prophecies in the Bible which, according to Christian preachers John Hagee and Mark Biltz, state that a tetrad (a series of four consecutive lunar eclipses—all total and coinciding on Jewish holidays—with six full moons in between, and no intervening partial lunar eclipses) …
What is the spiritual meaning of an eclipse?
Both a solar and lunar eclipse spiritually means that it’s time to start over or try new things. When you see an eclipse, it’s a signal to pay attention.
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In astrology, eclipses are like a portal for exponential growth. Specifically, eclipses are a time of rapid change, either from internal or external circumstances. We are forced to face change in a way that might be uncomfortable, but that ultimately lead to maturity.
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Around the world people used to believe that during a solar or lunar eclipse, the Sun or the Moon was being consumed by mythical animals or demons. To chase away the supposed animal or demon, people would bang pots and pans or even beat drums to make a lot of noise and scare them away.
What is the Ring of Fire eclipse?
Solar eclipses happen when the moon passes in front of the sun, from the viewpoint of our planet. … A “ring of fire” or annular eclipse happens when the moon is near its farthest point from Earth during an eclipse, so the moon appears smaller than the sun in the sky and doesn’t block the whole solar disk.
What does the Bible say about red moon?
“The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord,” – Joel 2:31. “The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and notable day of the Lord.” – Acts 2:20.
What is Blood Moon eclipse?
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves into the Earth’s shadow. … A totally eclipsed Moon is sometimes called a blood moon for its reddish color, which is caused by Earth completely blocking direct sunlight from reaching the Moon.

domain: astronomy


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Pauline Roche honors the creative process and is fast becoming known for works depicting people involved in artistic pursuits. Such works offer Roche the chance to capture people enthralled and in the moment, she says.
Josh Clare speaks of beginning to discover a distinctive style of translating visual beauty—and, he believes, spiritual truth—into a language of paint. He has gained a growing collector following and won a number of awards, including first and second place, artists’ choice, and best of show, at plein-air invitational and juried exhibitions around the...
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Colorado painter Michael Ome Untiedt captures contemporary and historic visions of the West

domain: painting


Corbett Set to Outline Next Step with Lottery
Gov. Tom Corbett is expected to say how he'll respond now that Attorney General Kathleen Kane has rejected his effort to hire a British firm to manage the $3.5 billion Pennsylvania Lottery.
Corbett has said he'd reveal his next move Friday, before the bid by London-based Camelot Global Services expires. Camelot hasn't commented about its plans, either.
Kane said last week that she wouldn't approve the 20- to 30-year contract with Camelot because state law doesn't allow the governor to privatize the management of the lottery nor does it allow the expansion of gambling that the contract would permit.
Corbett can challenge Kane's decision in court.
The contract's legality is also being challenged in court by Democratic lawmakers and the union that represents lottery employees.
Copyright 2013 The Associated Press.


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Publication 2021: Evaluation of the implications of ice-jam flood mitigation measures
Section 1: Publication
Das, A., & Lindenschmidt, K. E.
Evaluation of the implications of ice-jam flood mitigation measures
Journal of Flood Risk Management, e12697
Das, A., & Lindenschmidt, K. E. (2021a). Evaluation of the implications of ice-jam flood mitigation measures. Journal of Flood Risk Management, e12697.
Section 2: Abstract
Ice-jam flood risk management requires new approaches to reduce flood damages. Although many structural and non-structural measures are implemented to reduce the impacts of ice-jam flooding, there are still many challenges in identifying appropriate strategies to reduce the ice-jam flood risk along northern rivers. The main purpose of this study is to provide a novel methodological framework to assess the feasibility of various ice-jam flood mitigation measures based on risk analysis. A total of three ice-jam flood mitigation measures (artificial breakup, sediment dredging and dike installation) were examined using a stochastic modelling framework for the potential to reduce the ice-jam flood risk along the Athabasca River at Fort McMurray. An ensemble of hundreds of backwater level profiles was used to construct ice-jam flood hazard maps to estimate expected annual damages, using depth-damage curves for structural and content damages, within the downtown area of Fort McMurray. The results show that, while sediment dredging may be able to reduce a certain level of expected annual damages in the town, and artificial breakup and a dike with a crest elevation of 250 m a.s.l. can be the most effective measures to reduce the amount of expected annual damages.
Section 3: Download
Section 4: Computed Information
T-2021-11-14-M1ECTixQ7GEWqnTCPIVmM3KQ Publication 1.0


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The adult years tend to be the healthiest years for most dogs. That doesn't mean they are worry-free, however. As with people, any number of problems can crop up.
Communicable diseases, such as canine distemper, parvovirus and rabies, can sicken and kill adult dogs who have not been properly immunized. A year after the puppy vaccinations are completed, adults should receive a booster vaccination. Following this, they should receive regular vaccinations based on their age and lifestyle, as directed by your veterinarian.
Intestinal parasites can also affect adults. Your veterinarian can diagnose intestinal parasites from a stool sample and prescribe appropriate treatment as well as preventive medications.
Heartworms can be deadly. You should have your dog tested yearly for heartworms, and placed on heartworm preventive.
External parasites, especially fleas and ticks, can make your dog's life miserable. Not only do their bites itch, but some dogs are allergic to flea saliva; a single flea bite causes the dog to itch all over. Fleas can carry tapeworms, so if your dog swallows a flea, he can become infected. Ticks can carry several diseases, such as ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Keep your dog on a monthly flea preventive that is also effective against ticks. Some types of mites can be even itchier than fleas. Sarcoptic mange mites cause hair loss and intense itchiness. Ear mites cause itchy ears, so the dog may shake his head and scratch at his ears, which often have a dark discharge. Your veterinarian can diagnose these conditions and prescribe treatment.
Allergies most often arise in adulthood, with itchiness that can affect any area of the body. The skin often becomes infected from constant chewing, biting, scratching and licking. Dogs can be allergic to fleas, foods, seasonal pollens and a variety of other allergens. Your veterinarian can diagnose the problem through allergy testing or by placing the dog on a special diet, if food allergy is suspected, and can make treatment recommendations based on the results.
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text:
STRP: Species Counterpoint by Antoine Bertin
Oct 16 Oct 24 2021–
Heuvelgalerie 148 • Eindhoven
What is the difference between you … and a plant?
Not so much if you asked our DNA. Although a plant and you – generally – look very different, you share the same 4 chemical letters (A, G, C and T) and a large part of the “data” in your DNA. Crazy. But also pretty, when you have an ear for it.
Species Counterpoint makes the harmony between our “human DNA” and that of plants audible. A mechanical piano simultaneous plays the codes that make us human / plant. When you listen closely, you hear two different music pieces. When you listen a bit longer you will start hearing the similarities: two chords, two genes, which, if only for a moment, are the same in sound.
Does this bring us back to a universal song? A place where everything starts? Spire your ears and dream away with the soundtrack of our DNA.
Species Counterpoint is a collaboration with Dutch Design Week and is free to visit.

domain: artistic


text:
Recommended by 99%
Shashin Khanna · Married on 08/24/2019
I first heard of Jashim by seeing some of his work on social media from different friend's weddings. I was always impressed with his angles, shots and professional yet pleasantly unique looking photos. He brought nothing short of his A game to our wedding weekend in Maryland. From the mehndi at the house to the baraat on the terrace to the wedding and reception at the hotel, Jashim worked tirelessly to get so many good shots!Sent on 09/17/2019
We have only seen a sneak peek released so far but if the full gallery looks anything like this, we are going to be ecstatic with the outcome.
I would recommend Jashim to anyone who wants a modern and professional photographer that will understand your taste and make your photos come to life.
I look forward to working with him on future events!
Sneha Buonanno · Married on 10/07/2017
amazing amazing amazing!
Jashim was absolutely wonderful from our initial meeting all the way through until after our wedding. He was thoughtful, amazingly organized, friendly, and captured every single detail possible. He was so easy to work with and we are lucky to have found him!! We have already referred so many of our friends to work with Jashim because he truly was wonderful to work with. We are beyond happy with our engagement and wedding photos and love following Jashim's work on instagram :) THANK YOU!Sent on 04/10/2019
Avanti · Married on 09/30/2017
Book him now!
Jashim has been hands down the best vendor we booked for our wedding. He has an eye for composing shots that is very unique, so the photos we ended up with are truly amazing. Jashim and his team covered the entire spectrum including candids, posed shots, detail shots, family photos, group shots before and after events. He and his team had exceptional attention to detail and made it their priority to ensure that all near and dear ones are in our photos and felt comfortable. Even in potentially stressful moments he effortlessly took us aside to try out some new angles and shots. We can genuinely say that we came out of the process with some wonderful photos and a good friend.Sent on 11/23/2018
There were several occasions where they went above and beyond to adjust and stick to the demanding schedule of an Indian wedding. We hired him for our Engagement shoot, Sangeet, Wedding Ceremony and Reception - and each and every event was handled with utmost care and professionalism. All our photos were also delivered on time. We’re thrilled with them and cannot recommend him enough!
Bushra · Married on 07/15/2017
Hiring Jashim was the best choice I made. He is very talented, is very inspired. As it was very difficult to deal with a lot at my wedding, he managed to get great pictures, and was very focused. Definitely looking forward to book Jashim for my next event :)Sent on 11/25/2016
Betsy · Married on 05/27/2017
Jashim was a pleasure to work with from the moment we met him! My husband and I got married in May and we booked Jashim last summer. He was recommended to us by a friend. It was one of the best decisions I made. He was so helpful, professional, accommodating, and friendly! On the day of our wedding, Jashim and his team did a great job working around our hectic schedule and was able to provide wonderful results. Our wedding pictures are amazing! I can't thank him enough for the phenomenal job he did.Sent on 09/22/2017
Look no further because Jashim is the photographer for you!
Kanika · Married on 04/16/2017
Absolutely amazing!Sent on 05/02/2017
I didn't even know he was there taking pictures of me!!! He is so subtle and professional! Outstanding work and nothing tacky!
This guy is going to be my family photographer! His work is just so much better than his competitors! Very professional service!
apoorva · Married on 10/22/2016
When my husband first told me that jashim is going to be our wedding photographer and shared me his instagram page, i was like woaahhh looking at his work! he did an amazing job on our wedding day, he captured every single special moment!! I'm in love with every single picture! highly professional and very friendly! It was a rainy and a windy day and we had our photo shoot outside, but jashim made sure that my makeup and hair is on point by offering me umbrella and his jacket! He really takes care of his clients and gives his 100%, I would highly recommend him to others.Sent on 08/12/2017
James and Apoorva.
Neelam · Married on 05/07/2016
Best Decision Ever!
Where to start with Jashim? From our initial meeting w/ Jashim, we knew he was the right fit for us and our wedding. Jashim was extremely personable (got to us and our families), has a great vision, and is extremely accommodating! Our engagement shoot was rained on 3 times and Jashim did not hesitate to reschedule all three times! He made sure my vision came to life, and I could not be happier with how my photos throughout my wedding week turned out.Sent on 04/03/2019
He's great with big families and multiple directions (at the same time!), makes sure he captures all things important to the couple (and then some), and best of all captured candid moments of our guests throughout all the events!
Best decision ever!!
Davmek · Married on 11/07/2015
Highly recommend. Jashim did a wonderful job photographing our wedding. We loved his artistic style and his ability to make us and our guests feel comfortable in front of the camera. Jashim is very professional and responsive. We would definitely hire Jashim again for future events.Sent on 01/12/2016
Genesis · Married on 10/31/2015
Jashim was amazing!!! Every step of way. If I ever got married again he would be my photographerSent on 12/17/2016
User4682579 · 2+ years ago
My husband and I worked with Jashim and his wonderful team for our East Coast wedding reception. In the era of modern technology, most of the communications we had were via email or Skype since we were planning cross-country. However, Jashim made everything so easy for us. I would say this was one of the most effortless parts of our reception, knowing that Jashim would deliver his quality images. I would highly recommend him to anyone looking for a photographer in the NY area (or beyond). He and his team are professional, flexible, and an effortless component of your special day (or days!).Sent on 08/21/2015
Rania · Married on 08/03/2014
I loved working with Jashim. He is very pleasant and easy to work with. I had planned my wedding according to when he was available. I was recommended by a friend and I am so happy with the outcome of pictures I have. I had used Jashim for my engagement party and once I got my pictures I knew that I had already had my wedding photographer. His style is great and he makes you feel comfortable. Anyone who is looking for a great photographer should definitely contact him.Sent on 01/12/2015
Jashim Jalal Studios's reply:Hey Rania!
User4617186 · 2+ years ago
Thanks to Facebook I was able to find Jashim! I started to see all of these fabulous engagement/wedding photos on my newsfeed and I was so impressed. I was so intrigued with his work that I knew I would book him, even before our consultation. During our consultation, I just smiled and listened quietly as he explained all the details. It really didn't matter what he said, because his work spoke for itself! It is also great that on his website the pricing is available. Although it might be a bit of a stretch for some, it really is worth every dollar. Brides usually look at the sticker price, and don't realize the time and effort that quality photographers put into their finished photos. Trust me, if you need to save money, cut it from the invites or the favors or something else. The money you spend for your wedding photos are a true investment. It will be the only lasting memory of your special day! I have heard so many stories of brides saving $ on photos, only to be very upset later. Not to be a snob, but I've compared my photos to other brides that have gotten married this year, and there is no comparison. Mine are beautiful, bright, artistic, classic... just perfection. Rest assured, Jashim will always go above and beyond to get a perfect shot. It was really great to work with a young, ambitious professional. During our meet and greet, he also told me a little about his own personal journey to becoming a photographer. His passion for photography really reflects in the quality of his work. He always responds to your concerns in a timely fashion. He listens to your requests, but also gently guides you in the right direction. I had to cancel my Engagement session and he was totally accommodating and understanding. After the wedding is over, he makes it super easy to review your shots, create an album, and guides you through the process. My finished album is clean and classic! Everything I dreamed of!Sent on 12/17/2014
Jashim Jalal Studios's reply:Wow! Farnaaz! I really appreciate this! Hope the sunshine state is treating you both well!
Trisha · Married on 05/04/2014
Jashim is an outstanding photographer that I would recommend without hesitation. He was able to accommodate a few changes we needed throughout the process and was so understanding. He took the time to get to know us as a couple. We were both a little uncomfortable in front of the camera but Jashim and his team made us feel at ease. His contract process is straight forward and we never had any issues with communication. So far, Jashim and his team have captured the most amazing memories at 4 weddings of friends. That is the type of service he provides, everyone ends up wanting him for their event once they see him in action. Most importantly, he takes the most insanely beautiful pictures you've ever seen. He finds beauty in the most unique ways and is a truly talented individual.Sent on 12/16/2016
User3652219 · 2+ years ago
Jashim was an amazing photographer, in terms of professional service and personal guidance. He really loves what he does and took the time see his vision as well as my own. He encourages feedback which is awesome and not only captures your special day but helps in any way possible through the process. I had multiple hurdles during my wedding and Jashim was right there to help me and to make sure I wasn't stressed and just focused on my day. He is great and I would recommend him to anyone!Sent on 04/15/2014
cindu · Married on 03/01/2014
Jashim's photography skills speak for itself, his pictures are great and he knows how to get you to relax and forget that pictures are being taken. He may seem young but he is skilled beyond his years. His talent will definitely take him farSent on 04/01/2014
Jashim Jalal Studios's reply:Thank you Cindu! Hope you and Michael are well! - Jashim
Sadaf · Married on 09/27/2013
Where do I start with reviewing Jashims work?! His talent for photography is beyond what one could ask for a wedding photographer.Sent on 11/25/2013
Though he is based in NY and my wedding was being held in Boston, it was still very easy working with him. Even before I signed the contract with Jashim, we exchanged four/ five emails and made me feel comfortable about hiring him as my wedding photographer. Throughout the entire planning process, Jashim was a great help and very easy to get a hold of. He was always willing to answer my questions and help give input on how to prepare for the wedding pictures.
Jashim and his assistant were such a pleasure to work with during both wedding days. They were extremely helpful and patient with the entire bridal party. One of the most helpful parts of working them was how helpful and talented they were in helping us set up the poses for the pictures. Jashims eye for seeing and setting up pictures is beyond belief. On top of everything, Jashim and his assistant are both extremely professional, easy going and fun to work with. And even during times of the event when Jashim could see I was feeling stressed out he was quick to help ease my tension.
But the real magic happened when I got the pictures. The quality of the pictures was BYOND BELIEF. Some how he was able to catch every detail of the wedding that I could have possibly wanted. He captured all the details of the room, the food and the people. The first time I looked at the baratt pictures I teared up, the true emotion of both of the days was captured so well. And all of the poses that I requested to have (examples that I had pulled from Pinterest or other weddings from his website) been captured exactly how I expected.
I know this is a long review, but I still do not feel I can write down in words how pleased I am with my wedding pictures. Jashim truly has a natural talent for taking great pictures.
I highly highly recommend Jashim Jalal Photography.
Jashim Jalal Studios's reply:Aww Sadaf. You're the best. It was such a pleasure working with you and Omar!
Mouazam · Married on 08/17/2013
My wife and I had the privilege of having Jashim Jalal as our wedding photographer in August this year.Sent on 10/23/2013
The short version: I am a photography lover and a wedding photographer myself, so hopefully that adds some credibility to my review. Everything from his service to personality to photography was spot on. We had a great time with him and loved each and every one of the photos he provided us with. IF HE IS AVAILABLE BOOK HIM ASAP. Trust me, you will be thankful you did.
Here is how to get good photos of you and your significant other with Jashim:
1) show up
2) trust him
**For a more detailed review, see my review on yelp since this place limits the characters. **
OVERALL: We couldn't have picked anyone better, and he really was the perfect photographer for us. Expectations were exceeded!
Everything from our wedding is gone and what's left is just his photos, and let me tell you those photos let us relive our wedding once again. Thanks Jashim!
Jashim Jalal Studios's reply:Mouazam, this means a lot coming from a fellow photographer. It was truly an honor to be your wedding photographer! Hope all is well pal!
Umber · Married on 06/15/2013
After searching far and wide for a photographer for our Massachusetts wedding in June of 2013, I came across Jashim's website randomly. I can't say what exactly convinced me to call him (his great sample photos or maybe his personable "About Me" blurb) but I am so glad I did! I only needed to speak to him once to know I had made the right decision. Jashim was not only very friendly but also much interested in the vision for our 3-day wedding. He also took the time to set up multiple Skype dates with my husband and I so that he could get to know his interests as well! Other photographers we spoke to were quick to sell themselves and even quicker to mention the prices of their packages. Jashim was genuinely interested in what we were looking for from a photographer and what we hoped to take away from the experience. He was very accommodating (price-wise) and was honest on what he would bring to the table the day of.Sent on 06/02/2014
On the wedding day itself, he did an AMAZING job getting to know my family members and capturing the perfect moments within every event. Him and his team provided many suggestions (and assistance!) to help ensure the day went smoothly, something I was very grateful for. His ability to connect with the couple (and even my 10 bridesmaids!) definitely made for a more entertaining and meaningful experience. I can say hands down, the best decision my husband and I made while planning was hiring Jashim as our wedding photographer. Our pictures and album are absolutely flawless! We have had SO many people from all over Massachusetts ask who our photographer was (and have gladly told them!). I'm sure you won't be disappointed either!
Jashim Jalal Studios's reply:This means a lot to me Umber. Thank you so much! I really appreciate it!
User3818685 · 2+ years ago
Jashim is amazing!!! I can't tell you how easy going and professional he is. I was searching for someone who was had photo-journalistic appeal with some creative style to their work, and Jashim fit the bill, and then some. It definitely didn't hurt to know that no matter what the weather conditions were going to be (january bride), I knew Jashim would have things under control and still get some creative photos for us. He truly cares for his craft and his couples, and got that from spending a day with him! I would highly highly recommend Jashim for your wedding!Sent on 01/15/2014
User2754805 · 2+ years ago
Jashim was a pleasure to work with, before, during and after the wedding. He was great at responding to all of our questions speedily, and at the actual weddings he took beautiful pictures and made sure everyone felt comfortable. My husband and I are very happy that we chose to work with him, and would recommend his services to anyone.Sent on 11/05/2012
Jessica · Married on 07/07/2012
We struck wedding-photographer-gold with Jashim, no question! Super talented, has a great eye for interesting, creative (but not overly artsy) shots. Our wedding pictures are fantastic! A combo of non-cheesy poses, fun candids + simple décor shots.Sent on 08/17/2012
With the posed shots, it took a while to trust Jash’s directions (2 one-hour pre-wedding sessions actually!). Poses felt awkward. But he knows what he’s doing; the pictures came back looking natural. Without those sessions to allow us to get used to the camera, the wedding day would’ve been a lot less comfortable.
The day-of, Jashim arrived + went straight to work. Other than the few times he purposely pulled us aside to get specific shots, he went unnoticed. We went about our evening; he captured it all without getting in the way.
His turnaround is fast. He had a few teaser pictures on his blog within 2 weeks, the balance online 2 weeks later. His prices are very fair + competitive. He made himself available, easily reachable to answer questions, bounce ideas off of, etc… Didn’t show any impatience/frustration (even though I was a very needy bride!).
Having first obsessed over Jash’s blog and now our pictures, I can tell that in addition to his style and to some degree his personality, he also reflects the couple’s personality in each pic very well. He doesn’t take cookie-cutter pictures, and while there is definitely a common Jashim thread, they are all very different from each other. I know ours represent us and our wedding perfectly.
The one thing I would maybe complain about now (if this even is a complaint) is that the pictures are so great, I can’t get enough of them and I want more, more, more!!!
Couldn’t be happier with Jashim. We had high expectations; with no videographer, it was crucial that the photos come back PERFECT! He didn’t just meet them; he exceeded them by far. Will be recommending him for years!
Bottom line, if he’s available on your wedding day, you would be a fool not to hire him!
Elizabeth · Married on 05/12/2012
Jashim is all around terrific and is on track to be a best-in-class photog. From the engagement shoot to the wedding day, he was professional, responsive and creative; the shoots resulted in shots that were candid yet clearly professionally done. He also has a flair for dramatic and glamourous shots, some of which turned out to be my favorite. He did suggest a few poses that felt awkward but was open to our feedback and never pushy. I would suggest reviewing "must have" shots with him, just to ensure you have everything you want, and then trusting him to capture them. I recommend him for weddings and will definitely seek him out for any other "big" occasion.Sent on 06/20/2012
Denali · Married on 07/09/2011
Jashim Jalal is a delight to work with and his photos are beautiful. As a couple who didn't feel comfortable in front of a camera, we were anxious about finding the right photographer and Jashim was it. His creative vision allowed us to get beautiful pictures with a minimum number of posed shots. Not only did we get great wedding pictures but also some really lovely engagement shots (Jashim even shot in the rain!).Sent on 08/02/2011
Jashim had the quickest turnarounds on getting us our pictures of any wedding I know of and he uses Pictage, which makes viewing and ordering prints easy.
Jashim is a rising star so get to him while you can!
Bhakti · Married on 05/29/2017
Jashim was the best! We were so grateful for the way he made us feel comfortable during our engagement shoot...our photos are amazing! His creativity , especially with involving my husband's motorcycle as a prop ..was spot on and the bike photos are some of our favs! On D-Day, we have no idea how and when he took some of the shots he delivered! Thanks Jash, for your flexibility, your talent, and your friendship!Sent on 08/18/2017

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