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Amaryllis flowers are some of the most dramatic you can grow, especially if you’re growing them indoors.
Getting them to flower the first time around is fairly simple, but what do you do when the bulb has finished flowering?
Well, if you treat your amaryllis bulbs with the right care, paying attention to light, how to get the plant to go dormant, and when to feed it, your amaryllis bulbs will live for years and years.
It can feel like a little pressure to get the care right so that your plant will rebloom the following year, but it isn’t difficult, and once you’ve done it once, it’s a breeze!
It’s worth noting that this plant is considered toxic to dogs and cats, so keep these beautiful plants well out of reach.
Let’s get started.
How To Plant Amaryllis
It’s worth mentioning that the bulbs we’re talking about in this post come from the Hippeastrum genus, where amaryllis is the common name.
We’re not talking about Amaryllis belladonna, also known as the belladonna lily, as this is a completely separate species and not the one you’ll commonly see sold as Amaryllis.
Amaryllis bulbs are not complicated, but you can’t treat them like leafy tropical plants and expect them to come back year after year. No, you need to treat them like bulbs!
If you can get the care aspects right, both for when they are actively flowering and when they should go dormant, you will have a gorgeous plant for years to come, sometimes even decades!
What To Look For When You Buy Amaryllis
It’s a good idea to start with a robust bulb. When you buy amaryllis, it’s worth doing so in person, no matter where you get it from.
Aim for the biggest amaryllis bulb your bank account can stretch to. There is little point in buying a tiny amaryllis bulb if you want one that will come back year after year.
It’ll do fine for one season, but it’s not worth the effort of getting it to rebloom.
Go for bulbs that you can see. Most will be packaged in netting underneath the cardboard picture, so always turn it over and gently squeeze the bulb to make sure it is firm and healthy.
If you can only get amaryllis bulbs online, go for the sites that tell you how big you can expect the bulbs to be, and get them from a reputable seller.
Make Sure The Pot Is The Right Size
One of the most important aspects you need to think about when planting amaryllis is the size of the container it will go in.
You don’t want a huge pot, but it can’t be too small, either. Unlike you would with tulips, you’re not burying the whole bulb into the soil, so keep this in mind.
A good rule of thumb is to choose a pot that will leave about two inches of space between the bulb and the edge of the pot.
If you can, use a ceramic or terracotta container, as this will help weigh down the bulbs. As the flowers appear, the bulbs can become top-heavy and flop over, breaking the stems!
Terracotta pots will also help prevent root rot, as they lose moisture faster than plastic containers.
How Deep Do You Plant Amaryllis?
When you pot up the amaryllis, leave about half of the bulb exposed, making sure the rest is under the soil.
Don’t plant it any deeper than that, as it might not flower at all. Any shallower, and the plant may tip over as it gets heavier, and this is something you want to avoid!
When it comes to the type of compost you should use, any all-purpose compost will do. If you like, you can use a compost formulated for bulbs, but all-purpose works just as well.
It’s a good idea to incorporate some general fertilizer within the compost, but make sure that it doesn’t have lots of Nitrogen, as that’s not great for bulbs.
For best results, use a bulb feed that’s designed to go into the compost just before you plant the bulb.
Once you’ve put the bulb into the soil, make sure you firm the soil down a little to anchor the bulb into the pot. Give it some water, not too much, but enough to hydrate the soil.
How To Encourage Your Amaryllis To Flower
Put your amaryllis bulb in the brightest and warmest place in your home. Honestly, the more light you can give amaryllis bulbs, the better they will do.
While you can place the bulb in indirect sunlight, you won’t see the best that these plants are capable of without some direct sunlight.
A Southern-facing window is perfect for this plant, and giving it enough sunlight is the key to getting it to flower.
But you will need to pay attention to the moisture levels in the soil. With brighter light, the soil will dry out quicker, so be prepared to check the soil often.
Do not overdo the watering schedule. Before the bulb’s growth takes off, it won’t need a huge amount of water, so only give it a drink when the top two inches of soil are dry.
Keep Rotating The Pot
An important aspect of setting your plant up to be stable is to keep rotating the pot every couple of days.
Plants will always grow toward the light, and you want to make sure that the stem is as straight as it can be.
Keep doing this even when the plant produces buds, as it’ll stop any dramatic leaning that could cause the stems to snap.
When your amaryllis does produce a flower stalk, expect about 4 buds on a healthy plant, which will create an amazing display.
So what should you do when the flowers have finished?
What To Do Once The Flowers Have Finished
Some people throw out their amaryllis bulbs after the flowers have finished, but you don’t need to do this, and it would be a shame when you can allow the bulb to go dormant, giving the plant the rest it needs for another blooming cycle later on.
Cut Back The Flower Stalks
When the plant has finished blooming, take down the stalks, right back to the bulb, but do not cut any leaves.
This stops the plant from putting any more energy into the flower stalk. Now, you need to look after the amaryllis bulbs, sustaining the growth until the following year, and it will rebloom before you know it.
Caring For Your Amaryllis Plants
Provide It With The Right Conditions Inside To Allow The Leaves To Mature
Once the flower stalks have been cut from the bulb, it’s time to encourage as much growth as possible when it comes to the leaves.
The plant does not immediately go dormant after it has finished flowering. Instead, the leaves keep growing, so keep caring for the plant at this stage.
The more consistent the care, the better the plant will flower when it is time for it to rebloom. Allow the leaves to mature and new growth to form over the next few months.
This is easy to fit in alongside any other plant care, and once you’ve done it once, it becomes second nature.
A Bright And Sunny Windowsill
Give your amaryllis the brightest position possible at this point.
The idea here is to give the plant as much energy as possible, as how much light it can convert into energy at this stage will affect how well the next flowering display goes, including how many flowers you get, and how big they get.
A Southern-facing window is ideal, as it will also give the plant some direct sunlight, which is perfect!
If you don’t have a Southern-facing window, put it in the brightest window possible, getting it as close to the window without touching the glass as possible.
You’ll soon know if the place you’ve chosen isn’t bright enough. Dim light causes weak growth that is prone to flopping over, so if this happens in the brightest spot in your home, you may want to use a grow light instead.
Water When The Top Inch Of Soil Is Dry
When it comes to watering during the active growth stage, it’s important to allow the top inch of the soil’s surface to dry out.
This will stop the bulb from rotting, but it will keep it hydrated enough that it won’t cause the plant any stress. Water when the top inch goes dry, but do not allow the plant to sit in water, as it will rot quickly.
Use A Bulb Fertilizer
Do not use a general houseplant fertilizer for amaryllis bulbs, especially one with balanced ingredients. Go for a fertilizer that is specially designed for bulbs, with higher levels of Phosphorus and Potassium for optimum growth.
Giving your plant the occasional feed while it is actively growing can make a world of difference when it comes to how many flowers are produced, and how big they will be.
It is always worth it. Just make sure that you follow the instructions on the label when it comes to dosage and how often you should feed, rather than general instructions elsewhere, as each fertilizer is different.
Gradually Harden Off The Bulb And Place It Outside
Once the weather warms up, it’s a good idea to put your amaryllis bulbs outside for a while.
Only do this when it’s safe enough to put the fussiest of your houseplants outdoors for the majority of the day, as you don’t want any cold temperatures to damage your amaryllis.
You’ll need to gradually harden off the bulbs, just as you would with putting any houseplant outside for a while.
If you don’t, your plants can suffer from leaf scorch, and even shock. It doesn’t matter what sort of position they were in indoors, full sunlight or otherwise, they still need a transitional period.
Once the weather warms up, move your amaryllis plants outside, into the shadiest part of your garden for a couple of hours, giving it a little longer each day.
Gradually increase the light levels, starting with morning sunlight. Don’t be tempted to try and speed up this process, otherwise, you will damage the plant.
How To Prepare For The Re-Blooming Process
Once summer is over and the temperatures are starting to dip, it’s time to bring the plant back indoors, or at least, move it to a sheltered spot.
If temperatures stay above 55°F, it’s fine to leave the plant outside.
Stop Watering Your Plant!
This is your secret weapon when it comes to starting the dormancy phase in any plant: put down the watering can or spray bottle.
Do not water your plant. The foliage will turn yellow and look incredibly sickly, but this is normal. You haven’t killed it! All that energy is going right back into the bulb, so don’t cut it off just yet.
Remove The Foliage Once It Has Died Back
Once all the foliage has wilted, let it dry up, and then take some sharp and clean scissors, and cut it all off. Take it back to the neck of the bulb, and it will instantly look a thousand times better if a little bare.
Let The Plant Go Dormant
To allow the plant to rest, put your amaryllis somewhere cool and dark for about 6 weeks or so. You don’t want any light or lots of warmth waking up the bulb before it is ready.
The majority of amaryllis bulbs need this period of dormancy to sustain healthy growth. Just something to keep in mind. The only notable exception is the butterfly amaryllis, also known as Hippeastrum papilio.
Keep a note of the day you put the plant into plant purgatory so that you can return to it in six weeks.
Return The Amaryllis To A Bright Spot
After six weeks, bring your plant back to the sunniest and warmest place in your home.
It’s a good idea at this point to feed the plant using a specially formulated bulb fertilizer, to help give the plant everything it needs at this point.
Remember to stay away from houseplant fertilizers, as these usually contain too much nitrogen.
Give the plant a good watering, but don’t give it a waterfall at this point. It doesn’t need it, especially when the growth hasn’t picked up yet.
If you can, use a fish emulsion fertilizer every so often, which will also give the plant everything it needs for healthy growth.
Pretty soon after you’ve introduced it back to the bright windowsill, you’ll notice new growth. After that, the growth rate will pick up, and you’ll see the stalks or the leaves first.
It’s a good idea to keep a note of when your amaryllis puts on its spectacular display of flowers, so you know exactly when this individual plant is supposed to bloom.
You can also trigger the dormancy period earlier or later to make sure it blooms in time for the holiday period, or, just after, when everything seems a little bare and the house needs a pop of color.
What To Do With A Waxed Amaryllis Bulb
Waxed amaryllis bulbs are becoming more and more popular. The idea behind them is that you don’t have to do any work with these bulbs at all, simply place them as they are in front of a window, and wait for them to burst into flower.
The bulbs are covered in wax, which helps keep the plant hydrated. It means you don’t need to plant them, nor do you need to worry about watering them.
It’s a good trick, but it will mean that it is a one-and-done bulb. It won’t come back the following year.
Considering how easy it is to get these bulbs to flower, and how beautiful they are, this is a big waste.
If you want a long-lived amaryllis that will come back year after year, make sure you get a healthy bulb that has not been treated with wax.
If you have a waxed amaryllis bulb that you want to try and save, you need to try and peel off the wax as quickly as possible.
As you go along, you may find that the surface of the bulb doesn’t look great. Sometimes the contact with the wax means that the surface starts to rot or become mushy, so peel this layer off to stop that from spreading.
There may also be some wire at the very bottom of the bulb, designed to keep it upright. Get rid of this too.
Once you’ve done that, time to set the bulb aside for a couple of days. It’s important to do this, as it allows the air to get to the bulb, which it has sadly been missing when it’s been coated in wax.
After that, pot up the bulb as you would with unwaxed amaryllis. Hold off on watering the plant for a few days to let it recover, and then give it a drink.
Put the pot in the brightest and warmest place in your home, and hope for the best. Keep in mind that it may not be possible to save the bulb, depending on how long it has been in the wax.
To save yourself from disappointment, it’s a good idea to grow an unwaxed amaryllis bulb at the same time.
Things To Consider When Growing Amaryllis
What To Do If Amaryllis Flowers Are Not Appearing
If it’s the time of year when your amaryllis flowers should be growing (and this will change depending on when the bulb is put through its dormancy period), and your plant is not flowering, it doesn’t have the energy.
Plants will not produce flowers until they have the energy to do so, so move your plant to a brighter position to achieve this. If possible, give your amaryllis as much direct sunlight as you can.
Should You Deadhead Amaryllis Flowers?
You should deadhead amaryllis flowers, but only after all of them have wilted. Don’t make the mistake of treating them like a rose where you would cut off the flower at the first sign of wilt.
Wait until all the flowers have died back, and then remove the flower stem with sharp and clean scissors or secateurs.
The reason for this is to let the energy go back into the bulb, rather than cutting the flowers off and letting them go to waste.
Try to avoid nicking any leaves. You want to leave them on the bulb so that the plant can store as much energy as possible before the dormancy period, as this will lead to better flowers.
Once you know the secret to amaryllis care, and when you should trigger the dormancy period, you will see your amaryllis bulbs thrive under your care.
The flowers will come back year after year, as long as you remove the flower stalks once they have finished, and you care for the plant, leaving the leaves intact.
Don’t forget that nearly all amaryllis bulbs need a dormancy period to bloom, otherwise they will not have the energy to do so.
It’s a natural process designed to keep the plant alive, and the better you can mimic its natural growing conditions, the longer your plant will live.

domain: agronomy


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Strange star modulation, a phenomena the gringa will call SSD, has some scientists thinking that hundreds of space aliens are calling. The gringa says, “Who dat? What aliens? Where dey from? What dey sayin’?”
According to Cornell University published research penned by scientists E.F. Borra and E Trottier, they analyzed a swathe of sky containing more than 2.5 million stars. They discovered that 234 stars had some interesting signals that could not be explained away. The possibilities for the signals offered by Borra and Trottier are:
- Rotational transitions of molecules (whatever the heck that means)
- Rapid pulsations
- Extraterrestrial intelligence
That’s right. Cornell research performed by scientists who have real science degrees believe they have discovered signals from ET’s. Borra is an astronomy professor at Quebec’s Universite Laval. Eric Trottier is one of his graduate students. And this is not the first time they have published research data crediting aliens with cosmic signals. In fact, they claim these signals are identical to previous signals they attributed to ET’s.
Working off of their possible theories for what could be the origins of the signals, they dispelled the molecule idea and rapid pulsation possibility. The reason they go with the alien origin theory is that it confirms their previous alien theory with identical signals. So, basically, the scientists began with the most sane explanations that could be disproven through known scientific methods. Once all possibilities were eliminated the only option left was ET’s.
Now, if you are skeptical as to the credibility of these two scientists, consider that much of their work, not just this alien signal stuff, has been published in reputable science and astronomy journals around the world for some time. For example: “Measurements of stellar magnetic fields with the autocorrelation of spectra” published in Astronomical Journal; “Quantitative evaluation of the hypothesis that BL Lacertae objects are QSO remnants” published in Astrophysical Journal Letters; and “Very long baseline interferometry and observations of gravitational lenses using intensity fluctuations: an analysis based on intensity autocorrelation” published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Main Journal. Now, these two fellas seem to have some very good credentials. And they believe in space aliens. It would be an understatement to say that the gringa is intrigued. Awe is a better adjective for how the gringa feels about this story.
Now, let’s then accept the hypothesis that these signals originate with extra terrestrials. What do they mean? Are they trying to contact us? Seeing as how the signals occur between hundreds of stars, the gringa wonders if it is a communication network between hundreds of alien civilizations.
Now, even if the signal is a clarion call to galactic war and mayhem, at least our generation shouldn’t have anything to worry about. The star is billions of light years away. Doubtful any alien invasion force will be arriving anytime soon. Unless some of that strange space/time continuum thing is going on. What if the signals originated millions of years ago when an alien invasion force first launched? What if the signals were scheduled to reach Earth proximity so detection was possible about the time their arrival would be imminent? Aaaargh! Now the gringa’s awe is replaced with, “Now what the heck should we do?”
Well, maybe we should all take to becoming stargazers and paying better attention to the heavens surrounding our fragile blue planet. You see, if you join or follow the work of Planet Hunters, a web based organization that networks citizen scientists in planetary and cosmic projects, you will find that they noticed strange happenings with the star quite some time ago. One of their astronomer members with a doctorate from Yale reported a 20% decrease in light about a month ago. Such a flicker is not a characteristic of stars. They either shine or they don’t.
The main star at the center of all the hoopla is KIC 8462852. Now, when the first report on this phenomena came out on this star, the gringa wrote a post about it. The scientists at the time attributed the flicker to perhaps the passage of comet fragments across the face of the star. But now that it has happened in an identical fashion, the comet theory is dead in the water. And that’s why scientists think that it is possible that a federation of 234 star civilizations are communicating with one another via lasers and we have detected their signals. The gringa is dying to say, “Hello. How ya doin’?”
Image Credit: www.techpowerup.com

domain: astronomy


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The three-body scatter signature (TBSS) is a radar artifact that appears downrange from a high-radar-reflectivity core in a thunderstorm as a result of the presence of hailstones. It is useful to identify the TBSS artifact for quality control of radar data used in numerical weather prediction and quantitative precipitation estimation. Therefore, it is advantageous to develop a method to automatically identify TBSS in radar data for the above applications and to help identify hailstones within thunderstorms. In this study, a fuzzy logic classification algorithm for TBSS identification is developed. Polarimetric radar data collected by the experimental S-band Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) in Norman, Oklahoma (KOUN), are used to develop trapezoidal membership functions for the TBSS class of radar echo within a hydrometeor classification algorithm (HCA). Nearly 3000 radar gates are removed from 50 TBSSs to develop the membership functions from the data statistics. Five variables are investigated for the discrimination of the radar echo: 1) horizontal radar reflectivity factor ZH, 2) differential reflectivity ZDR, 3) copolar cross-correlation coefficient ρhv, 4) along-beam standard deviation of horizontal radar reflectivity factor SD(ZH), and 5) along-beam standard deviation of differential phase SD(ΦDP). These membership functions are added to an HCA to identify TBSSs. Testing is conducted on radar data collected by dual-polarization-upgraded operational WSR-88Ds from multiple severe-weather events, and results show that automatic identification of the TBSS through the enhanced HCA is feasible for operational use.
The three-body scatter signature (TBSS) was a term coined by Zrnić (1987) to describe a region of radar reflectivity aligned radially downrange from a highly reflective echo core (Lemon 1998). The TBSS is attributed to non-Rayleigh (i.e., Mie or resonance) scattering from a region of large hydrometeors made up of spongy ice spheres with a sizeable effective water thickness (i.e., wet hail) (Zrnić 1987). The signature was known originally as a “hail spike” and was documented first by the Joint Airport Weather Studies project on 24 June 1982 by data collected from the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) C- (~5 cm) and S-band (~10 cm) Doppler radars (Wilson and Reum 1986). Other terms used to describe this signature include “flare echo” (Wilson and Reum 1988) and three-body scatter spike (also given by the acronym TBSS; Lemon 1998). Throughout this paper, the signature will be referred to simply as a TBSS (for three-body scatter signature or three-body scatter spike).
Zrnić (1987) attributed TBSS to a three-step scattering process by the electromagnetic wave transmitted from and received by the radar: 1) scattering of electromagnetic field by large hydrometeors to the ground, 2) backscattering by the ground to hydrometeors, and 3) scattering by hydrometeors back to the radar. Figure 1 is a schematic that depicts the path and associated geometry of the radar signal responsible for TBSS. Large hydrometeors are located at point C, at a distance R from the radar. The radar beam strikes the large hydrometeors, which causes scattering toward the ground. The scattered signal strikes the ground in a conical region under the storm, where some of the signal is reflected by the ground. This power strikes the hydrometeors again, and some of the power returns to the radar.
Thus, it is important to note that TBSS is strictly a radar artifact, and it does not represent the hydrometeor scattering at the apparent data location (Lemon 1998). Therefore, for quantitative use of radar data for meteorological applications, such as the assimilation of radar data in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models and quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) from radar reflectivity, it is important to identify and remove all TBSSs from the radar data. Automatic identification would eliminate (or at least reduce) the time spent to manually identify TBSSs in radar data, using software such as the NCAR Solo-II radar data editing and visualization program (Oye et al. 1995).
TBSS has been observed extensively by S-band radars (e.g., Wilson and Reum 1986, 1988; Zrnić 1987; Lemon 1998; Hubbert and Bringi 2000; Lindley and Lemon 2007; Picca and Ryzhkov 2012). Wilson and Reum (1988) conducted the first in-depth observational study of TBSS by looking at several cases in Alabama and Colorado at multiple radar frequencies. Lemon (1998) and Lindley and Lemon (2007) exclusively focused on radar data collected by S-band Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D). In the observations, Lemon (1998) found that the reflectivity core intensity had to exceed ~62 dBZ for a TBSS to be present. Within TBSSs, the radar reflectivity factors were <20 dBZ. While previous studies found TBSSs extended radially outward from 4 to 30 km (e.g., Wilson and Reum 1988; Lemon 1998), Picca and Ryzhkov (2012) observed an unusual TBSS that extended radially outward 80 km at S band.
Operationally, TBSS has been associated with severe weather such as microbursts and large hail at the surface (e.g., Wilson and Reum 1988; Lemon 1998; Lindley and Lemon 2007; Picca and Ryzhkov 2012). Lemon (1998) concluded that hail at least 2.5 cm in diameter should be expected at the surface with signature-bearing storms at S band. Lemon (1998) found that TBSS usually preceded large hail (and often strong winds) by 10–30 min. However, Lemon (1998) only focused on severe storms in the Great Plains. Wilson and Reum (1988) investigated TBSS in storms located in Colorado and Alabama. It was found that TBSSs in Alabama were not associated with significant hail at the surface unlike in Colorado. It was assumed that the higher freezing level and higher-humidity environment reduce the probability of hail reaching the ground because of melting.
Polarimetric signatures associated with TBSS were investigated first by Hubbert and Bringi (2000). They found that measurements of differential reflectivity ZDR within TBSS are very high close to the hail shaft, decrease, and then eventually become negative with range. It was also found that the copolar cross-correlation coefficient ρhv is typically 0.8 or less in a TBSS. Kumjian et al. (2010) defined the typical “polarimetric TBSS” as the beginning portion of the TBSS marked by high ZDR and very low ρhv, located radially behind the reflectivity core. Using T-matrix calculations, Kumjian et al. (2010) was able to determine that the largest hailstones will not result in the typical polarimetric TBSS. As a result of Mie scattering and its effects on the scattering pattern of the hydrometeors, the ZDR pattern does vary depending on the size of the hailstones and the wavelength of the radar.
Polarimetric radar measurements have been utilized in classifying radar echoes for different hydrometeors and nonmeteorological targets in hydrometeor classification algorithms (HCAs; Straka and Zrnić 1993). HCAs were first studied by Straka and Zrnić (1993) and have become more sophisticated in recent years (e.g., Zrnić and Ryzhkov 1999; Vivekanandan et al. 1999; Liu and Chandrasekar 2000; Zrnić et al. 2001; Lim et al. 2005; Park et al. 2009). Fuzzy logic has been the basis for a majority of HCAs (e.g., Liu and Chandrasekar 2000, Zrnić et al. 2001; Lim et al. 2005; Marzano et al. 2006; Park et al. 2009; Snyder et al. 2010). So far, no HCA identifies TBSS as a separate category.
The goal of this study is to utilize polarimetric radar measurements to automatically identify (i.e., classify) the radar echoes associated with TBSS, by enhancing an existing HCA used at S band. The development of an enhanced HCA and the associated membership functions for the new TBSS class are outlined in section 2. The results of the enhanced HCA applied to polarimetric radar data for a number of independent cases are given in section 3. An overview of the results and some further discussion are given in the final section.
2. Development of the TBSS classification
a. Introduction of the modified HCA
Park et al. (2009, hereinafter P09) developed an HCA for polarimetric (S band) WSR-88D. The HCA is based upon fuzzy logic, and discriminates between 10 classes of radar echo: 1) ground clutter and anomalous propagation (GC/AP), 2) biological scatterers (BS), 3) dry aggregated snow (DS), 4) wet snow (WS), 5) crystals (CR), 6) graupel (GR), 7) big drops (BD), 8) light and moderate rain (RA), 9) heavy rain (HR), and 10) a mixture of rain and hail (RH). Their algorithm, or any other HCA that we are aware of, does not have the three-body scattering echo as an identified class.
In this study, a modified version of the P09 HCA is developed. This HCA is chosen because a version of it is implemented on the WSR-88D network. Three major simplifications are made to the original algorithm. First, specific differential phase KDP is not used in the algorithm. In P09, KDP (for radar reflectivity Z < 40 dBZ) is obtained from a slope of a least squares fit of heavily filtered differential phase ΦDP (averaging of 25 successive samples). In this study, it was found that ΦDP is incredibly chaotic and noisy within a TBSS. Therefore, the usefulness is already captured in the standard deviation of ΦDP [SD(ΦDP)], rather than in a calculation of KDP for TBSSs. In all but three classes in P09, KDP is already given zero weight. Second, there is no attenuation correction for the horizontal radar reflectivity factor ZH or for ZDR. As a result of the noisy ΦDP, attenuation would be incorrectly calculated within TBSS. Third, confidence vectors are not used in the algorithm. The confidence vectors require information that is not included in the archived level-2 data such as the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and degree of beam blockage. Currently, all archived level-2 data are quality controlled to remove some low SNR. The modified P09 HCA provides a background of non-TBSS classes to test the new TBSS class. The results from our modified HCA are similar to those of the operational algorithm used to produce the HCA categories in the level-3 WSR-88D data.
Therefore, in our algorithm, the five variables utilized for the discrimination of hydrometeor types are 1) ZH; 2) ZDR; 3) ρhv; 4) a texture parameter, SD(ZH); and 5) another texture parameter, SD(ΦDP). The texture fields are calculated for each gate by calculating the standard deviation along the radial using five gates (i.e., the current gate, and the two gates before and after the current gate along the radial). The standard deviations are calculated by dividing by the total number of observations n (i.e., 5) and not by n − 1.
Certain classes are restricted based upon the heights that bound the melting layer. P09 used the melting-layer detection algorithm developed at the National Severe Storms Laboratory. In this study, the depth of the melting layer is estimated using the ρhv rings. The top of the melting layer (i.e., the estimated freezing level) is the height associated with the farthest distance of the ρhv ring, while the bottom of the melting layer is the height associated with the closest distance of the ρhv ring. Above the freezing level, the only classes allowed are DS, CR, GR, and RH. Within the melting layer, the only class not allowed is BS. Below the melting layer, the only classes allowed are GC/AP, BS, BD, RA, HR, and RH.
All the membership functions, weights, and hard thresholds are the same as in P09. In P09 the membership functions are fitted to trapezoidal functions with a maximum value of 1 and a minimal value of 0. The trapezoidal functions are described by four parameters: x1, x2, x3, and x4. The weights, which are determined subjectively, characterize the discriminating efficiency of each variable with respect to each class.
For each radar gate, an aggregation value Ai for the ith class (i = 1, 2, …, 10) of radar echoes is calculated. As in P09, Ai is defined as
where is the trapezoidal membership function for the jth variable for the ith class and Wij is a weight between 0 and 1 assigned to the ith class and jth variable. The classification of the radar echo is determined by which class has the largest aggregation value. The final step is a nine-point smoothing of the raw classifications to account for errors in the HCA output. In this smoothing technique, the mode of the raw classes of the current gate plus the surrounding eight gates (nine total gates) determines the smooth value of the current gate.
Figure 2 provides examples of classification results with the modified P09 HCA that does not have a TBSS classification. In the first example (Fig. 2a), the TBSS is below the melting layer. In this case, the TBSS is misclassified as primarily BS with some RA and GC/AP. In the second example (Fig. 2b), the TBSS is above the freezing level. As a result, the TBSS is misclassified primarily as CR with some GR. Similar misclassifications are present in WSR-88D level-3 HCA data (Fig. 3).
The next step is to add a new class of TBSS and develop a set of membership functions for the 11th class to create an enhanced HCA. Radar gates are subjectively identified as TBSS and are used as truth to determine the parameters for the enhanced HCA. Therefore, in this study, real radar observations of the TBSS are used to develop the membership functions for the TBSS class.
The following specific steps for developing the enhanced HCA that includes TBSS as the 11th category are taken. First, TBSSs are manually identified from radar data. All the values of the radar variables (i.e., ZH, ZDR, ρhv, ΦDP, radial velocity, and spectrum width) are tabulated. Although velocity and spectrum width are not used in our HCA, statistics are still calculated for these data. The standard deviations of ZH and ΦDP are calculated at this stage as well. Second, analysis and probability statistics are conducted on the dataset to determine the best membership functions and weights. Third, any necessary constraints for the TBSS class are considered. Finally, the membership functions and weights are tested on independent radar data.
b. Data and statistics of radar variables in TBSSs
The experimental KOUN WSR-88D, located in Norman, Oklahoma, provided polarimetric radar observations for this study. Observations from the 14 June 2011 severe-weather event are used because of the large amount of TBSSs present in the dataset. KOUN is an S-band radar with a beamwidth of 0.925°, a range resolution of 250 m, and an azimuth increment of 0.5° for the lowest two elevations. At higher elevations, the azimuth increment is 1.0°. The effective beamwidth is 1.23° due to rotational smearing and its maximum unambiguous range is 230 km for radial velocity in a standard operating mode. KOUN was scanning with volume coverage pattern (VCP) 11, which is one of the primary VCPs used for severe convection (Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research 2013). In VCP 11, each scan volume takes approximately 5 min and includes 360° plan position indicator (PPI) scans collected at 0.5°-, 1.45°-, 2.4°-, 3.34°-, 4.3°-, 5.25°-, 6.19°-, 7.5°-, 8.69°-, 10.0°-, 12.0°-, 14.0°-, 16.7°-, and 19.5°-elevation angles.
Approximately 20 min of data between 2334 and 2356 UTC were analyzed for the presence of the TBSSs. These TBSSs were associated with one storm that was in the process of splitting into two cells. After 0010 UTC, the storm produced hailstones up to 3.8 cm in diameter at the surface per the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) storm reports (SPC 2013). In total, 2975 radar gates of data were manually extracted from 50 different TBSSs. Note that TBSSs on different PPI scans were counted as separate TBSSs even if there was vertical or temporal continuity between the TBSSs. Within PPI scans, TBSSs were counted as separate TBSSs if there was an azimuthal break in the subjectively identified TBSS data. Velocity dealiasing and calculations of the texture parameter calculations were done on the dataset. These TBSSs were present at elevation angles ranging from 2.4° to 10.0°. All but two of the TBSSs were at least two radials wide azimuthally, while 11 were greater than five radials wide azimuthally. Additional TBSSs occurred after 2356 UTC, but 2975 radar gates of data were deemed a large enough sample for the development of the membership functions.
Table 1 is a statistical summary for the radar variables extracted and/or calculated from the 50 TBSSs. Columns 1–5 describe the five variables that are used to develop membership functions for the TBSS class. Figures 4 and 5 are histograms that illustrate the distributions of all 2975 radar gates for the different variables.
The ZH (Fig. 4a), SD(ZH) (Fig. 4d), SD(ΦDP) (Fig. 4e), and spectrum width (Fig. 5b) all have positively skewed distributions. The skewness is greatest on the SD(ZH) distribution at ~3.2319. This is followed by skewnesses of 1.2767, 0.8778, and 0.5284 for SD(ΦDP), ZH, and spectrum width, respectively. Visual inspections of the distributions validate these calculations. Recall that Lemon (1998) found that the TBSS has radar reflectivities <20 dBZ. In this distribution, nearly all the radar gates are <20 dBZ, except for a few gates. The generally higher spectrum width values also match the observations by Lemon (1998). Note that only 1 out of 2975 radar gates has a spectrum width that is 0 m s−1.
The ZDR distribution (Fig. 4b) demonstrates a significant limitation of the level-2 radar data. The ZDR is capped at 7.9375 dB. The reason behind this assertion is that 310 out of 2975 (~10%) gates have a value of exactly 7.9375 dB. It is statistically unlikely that 10% of the radar gates have this value because the precision of ZDR is to four decimal points. The maximum ZDR value was evident in all level-2 data from the cases in this study. If the radar data could provide greater ZDR values, the distribution may have been normally distributed (i.e., a skewness near zero). There is a bias toward positive measurements for ZDR (i.e., mean ZDR of 2.32 dB and median of 2.06 dB). However, 27% of the ZDR measurements are also negative.
Because of the difference in scattering patterns of the horizontally and vertically polarized waves, the bistatic ZDR varies depending on the size of the hailstones. Figure 6 shows sample calculations of ZDR as a function of scattering angle using Mie theory (Bohren and Huffman 1983) (TBSS mainly begins near 90°). As the hail size increases, the ZDR becomes more chaotic as a function of angle (Fig. 6). From experience in identifying TBSS in radar data, it is evident the majority of TBBSs start with positive ZDR values, but there are some that start with negative ZDR values and have a chaotic pattern. While it cannot be proven without observations at the height of the radar measurements, the theory would attribute these TBSSs to larger hailstones aloft.
A similar issue that affects the ZDR distribution is present in the ρhv distribution (Fig. 4c). The minimum ρhv value in the level-2 radar data is 0.2083. In this case, 165 out 2975 gates have a value of exactly 0.2083. As with the ZDR, the minimum ρhv value was evident in all level-2 data from the cases in this study. If radar data could provide smaller ρhv values, the ρhv distribution may have been normally distributed.
The ρhv distribution matches previous observations by Hubbert and Bringi (2000) that 95% of the ρhv measurements are below 0.80. The low ρhv in the polarimetric TBSS can be explained by some previous nonpolarimetric observations by Lemon (1998). He (and through his personal communication with Zrnić) concluded that observations of broad spectrum widths in the TBSS indicated that measured velocities were not only from hail regions within the storm, but also from contamination by vegetation and other ground target motions. Natural land covers (such as trees, grass, and vegetation) have very low ρhv (Schuur et al. 2003). The low ρhv can be attributed to very irregular nonspherical shapes, which similarly explains the low ρhv in the tornado debris (e.g., Ryzhkov et al. 2005). Therefore, a decrease in ρhv is to be expected because of contamination by scattering from the ground.
The radial velocity distribution (Fig. 5a) has a skewness of −0.4716, which indicates the distribution is slightly negatively skewed. It is noteworthy that out of 2975 radar gates, not a single gate has a positive or zero radial velocity measurement. The measured radial velocity associated with the TBSS has been shown to also have operational significance in determining the fall speed of TBSS-causing hydrometeors (Zrnić 1987; Wilson and Reum 1988). Wilson and Reum (1988) observed a TBSS where the velocities changed from initially all positive (maximum of 16 m s−1) to all negative (minimum of −20 m s−1) in less than 8 min. During the same period, the core velocities changed from an average of +4 to −3 m s−1. It was surmised that TBSS radial velocities evolved from positive to negative in response to an updraft changing to a downdraft. This was supported by an observation of a microburst shortly after the TBSS velocities became negative. However, Lemon (1998) had concerns about using TBSS velocities to detect microbursts. Lemon concluded that broad spectrum widths suggested that the velocities in the TBSS are from contributions of fall speeds and radial speeds from a variety of hail regions, and from contamination by vegetation and other ground target motions. Also, since hailstones are responsible for three-body scattering, large terminal fall velocities are to be expected. Therefore, velocities are almost always negative, except within very strong updrafts (Lemon 1998). Therefore, the absence of positive radial velocity measurements is not surprising, as previous studies noted the rarity of positive radial velocity measurements in TBSSs (Wilson and Reum 1988; Lemon 1998).
c. Determination of membership functions and hard thresholds
After subjectively analyzing the membership functions of P09, and taking into account the distributions for all the variables, the following criteria from the collected data are used to determine the four parameters in the five trapezoidal membership functions: x1, 0.5 percentile; x2, 20th percentile; x3, 80th percentile; and x4, 99.5th percentile.
As a result, 60% of the radar data collected would have a membership value of 1, and 39% of the radar data would have a membership value between 0 and 1. The remaining 1% of the radar data collected would have a membership value of 0. The minimum and maximum are excluded from the calculation of x1 and x4, respectively, to account for outliers in the dataset. The physical origin of these outliers could be mixed targets and estimation errors in the radar variables. These parameters are also rounded to what is considered reasonable precision for each variable (e.g., ρhv rounded to the nearest hundredth). Note that these criteria can easily be modified if necessary.
These criteria are modified for the ZDR and ρhv membership functions. As noted earlier, the maximum ZDR in the level-2 radar data is 7.9375 dB, and the minimum ρhv is 0.2083. Theoretically, it is safe to assume that higher ZDR and lower ρhv values would have been present. Therefore, if x4 = 8 dB for the ZDR membership function (i.e., 99.5th percentile), the membership value would be artificially too low (i.e., nearly zero) in the case where ZDR was 7.9375 dB. A similar situation would be present if x1 = 0.21 for the ρhv membership function. Assuming a Gaussian distribution and adding a buffer, the standard score calculation results in a ZDR value of approximately 12 dB at the 99.5th percentile. As a result, the ZDR membership function for the TBSS (i.e., x4) is set to 12 dB instead of 8 dB. For the ρhv membership function, x1 is set to 0.00 instead of 0.21 to account for the radar data’s limitation. Table 2 is a summary of the parameters for the membership functions for the TBSS class at S-band frequency. These parameters are overlaid on the distributions in Fig. 4.
Next, the weights for the different classes are determined. Recall the weights characterize the discriminating efficiency of each variable with respect to the class. P09 subjectively determined these weights. The weights in their scheme had values of 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, or 1.0. Each variable’s weight was different for each of the 10 classes. For the TBSS membership functions, ZDR and SD(ΦDP) have high membership values that encompass nearly the entire range of those variables. As a result, there is a high overlap between those trapezoidal functions and the trapezoidal functions of other classes in the scheme of P09. This is not the case for the other three variables. Therefore, ZDR and SD(ΦDP) must be weighted less than the other three variables. As a result, ZDR and SD(ΦDP) are weighted at 0.2, while ZH, ρhv, and SD(ZH) are weighted at 1.0. These weights can be modified if necessary.
Finally, any constraints to restrict the class are determined. P09 called these constraints “hard thresholds.” No restrictions are placed on the TBSS class based on the heights bounding the melting layer. Recall that a TBSS always occurs downrange from a highly reflective echo core (Lemon 1998). This is the crux of the scattering theory for the signature. Therefore, it seems reasonable (if not obligatory) to make a hard threshold based on this fundamental aspect of theory. As a result, a high-reflectivity core and RH classification must exist uprange from a possible TBSS classification. To be conservative, a threshold of 58 dBZ is used even though studies have suggested that reflectivity echo cores that result in a TBSS are associated with larger reflectivity values at S band (e.g., Lemon 1998). Examination of the geometry of the TBSS formed the basis of this hard threshold.
The scattering path’s angle of incidence with respect to the ground θr will determine the distance r that the signal will travel from point C to the ground (Fig. 1). The shortest path (i.e., the fastest time of arrival) will be for vertical paths directly below the large hydrometeors (θr = 90°), as noted by an h in Fig. 1. Therefore, the TBSS begins at distance h from point C. The length of the TBSS will depend on the maximum length of r since the signals travel a total distance of 2(R + r), and will be displayed as a radial distance R + r from the radar.
Because the TBSS starts a distance h from the hail core, it is reasonable to assume that the maximum distance a TBSS may begin to appear downrange from a hail core is 10 km (the scale height of the troposphere). Applying this hard threshold is a two-step process. First, there is a check to see if there is at least one radar gate with a radar reflectivity ≥58 dBZ and at least one gate with RH classification, uprange 10 km (40 gates) from a possible TBSS class. If there is, then the TBSS class would be allowed for that gate. If there is not at least one radar gate 10 km uprange with a 58-dBZ measurement and at least one radar gate with RH classification, a second check is conducted. In this check, if there is at least one TBSS class 2 km (eight gates) uprange, the TBSS class would be allowed for this gate. This check is implemented because of lengthy TBSSs; some of the distant radar gates would not pass the first check because the 58-dBZ core is >10 km away. Essentially, this check is looking for radial continuity. If this check fails, then the TBSS class is not allowed for that radar gate. The class with the next-highest aggregate value will replace the TBSS class.
One other hard threshold was considered, based upon a radar variable that was not used in the fuzzy logic portion of the HCA—radial velocity. Radial velocity was a variable used as a hard threshold in P09 HCA for the ground clutter and anomalous propagation class. They had a hard threshold that no ground clutter or anomalous propagation would be allowed if the radial velocity was >1 m s−1. Recall that no zero or positive radial velocity measurements are present in the distribution (Fig. 5b). Therefore, it was considered to include a constraint that no TBSS would be allowed if the radial velocity was ≥0 m s−1; however, Wilson and Reum (1988) documented a TBSS that (briefly) had positive measured radial velocities in a strong updraft. In addition, all the TBSSs used to determine the parameters were from two storms that were generally moving toward or at an approximately constant range from the radar during the time frame of the extracted radar data. Zrnić (1987) determined that mean Doppler shifts associated with the TBSS are caused by both the vertical and true radial components of hydrometeor velocities. Because the storms were generally moving toward the radar, a negative bias in velocity would be expected from the radial component of the hydrometeor velocities. Therefore, a hard threshold using measured radial velocity is not utilized.
3. Analysis and results
The enhanced HCA is tested on five different significant hail events that occurred between 15 June 2011 and 22 April 2013. Table 3 is a summary of all the cases. These events are from five different operational WSR-88D that had been upgraded to dual-polarization mode. All of these events had reported hailstones between 5.1- and 10.2-cm diameters at the surface. All of these events also had a TBSS aloft, as detected by radar. The hailstone reports are from the public storm reports that are aggregated by the SPC from the local National Weather Service (NWS) Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) (SPC 2013). Therefore, it is possible that some event times and hail sizes are approximate; however, the radar data from these events suggests that all of the reports are reasonable.
In addition to the enhanced HCA classifications, radar reflectivity factor and ρhv are shown for each case study. These radar variables were picked because it is easiest to visually confirm the presence of a TBSS in these data. The quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor is also shown for each event. In the quality-controlled data, all nonmeteorological targets (i.e., GC/AP, BS, and TBSS) are removed to demonstrate the benefits for NWP and QPE.
The enhanced HCA is also tested on the KOUN radar data that were collected on 15 June 2011. Note that these radar data are from immediately after the radar data that were used to develop the membership functions. This was done to prevent testing the membership functions on the same dataset that created the membership functions. In this event, a left-split storm produced a 6.4-cm-diameter hailstone at the surface at approximately 0020 UTC. Figure 7 is the radar scan from the 3.3°-elevation angle at 0014 UTC, 6 min before the hailstone was reported at the surface. At the 3.3°-elevation angle, the maximum radar reflectivity factor is 63 dBZ at ~2.2 km above radar level (ARL) (Fig. 7a). In several ≥60-dBZ gates ρhv is <0.80, indicating the presence of hail mixed within the precipitation (Fig. 7b). In the entire volume scan, the maximum radar reflectivity factor was 72 dBZ at ~4.9 km ARL. The freezing level was ~3.8 km ARL, and the melting layer extended down to ~2.6 km ARL. Therefore, this TBSS at 3.3°-elevation angle extended into the melting layer.
In the HCA output (Fig. 7d), a few TBSS radar gates are misclassified as BS; however, for the quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor (Fig. 7c), this misclassification has no effect on the results because all nonmeteorological targets are removed. Even for real-time operational use, the misclassification is not detrimental because it is clear when analyzing the HCA output that there is a TBSS downrange from a high-reflectivity core. Otherwise, there are no obvious false TBSS gates present in the HCA output for this storm.
The second event the enhanced HCA is tested on occurred on 30 March 2012. Radar data collected by the KVNX WSR-88D near Enid, Oklahoma, are used to test the enhanced HCA for this hail event. In this event, a nocturnal supercell produced a 10.2-cm-diameter hailstone at the surface at approximately 0515 UTC. Figure 8 is an example that shows the time evolution of a developing TBSS from 0442 to 0456 UTC. Without the added capabilities of dual-polarized radar measurements, the TBSS is not apparent until much later radar scans in radar reflectivity. The area of TBSS remained fairly constant for the next two radar scans, until 0510 UTC. Figure 9 is the radar scan from the 0.5°-elevation angle at 0510 UTC, 5 min before the hailstone was reported at the surface. A TBSS is now evident in reflectivity. At the 0.5°-elevation angle, the maximum radar reflectivity factor is 67 dBZ at ~3.6 km ARL (Fig. 9a). The ρhv within the 67-dBZ core is between 0.81 and 0.86, indicating the presence of hail (Fig. 9b). In the entire volume scan, the maximum radar reflectivity factor was 68 dBZ at ~7.4 km ARL. The freezing level was ~3.2 km ARL, and the melting layer extended down to ~1.8 km ARL. Therefore, this TBSS at 0.5°-elevation angle was above the freezing level.
In the HCA output (Fig. 9d), there is a slight discontinuity in the TBSS classification. The HCA output has TBSS class followed downrange by CR or GR class and then TBSS class once again. There is a very sharp gradient in ρhv where the HCA transitions from GR to TBSS classification. The sharp cutoff of reflectivity in the quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor (Fig. 9c) and the downrange change of class to CR or GR suggest the algorithm may have slightly overclassified the TBSS. A more gradual reflectivity gradient is more realistic, as seen by the reflectivity gradients elsewhere in the precipitation data. A downrange change from precipitation to TBSS to precipitation within the same storm is not realistic either. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume there is a mix of radar returns from both the TBSS artifact and the hydrometeors in some of the radar gates. Otherwise, the results for the classification of the TBSS seem very good in this case.
The third event the enhanced HCA is tested on occurred the next day on 1 April 2012. Radar data collected by the KBMX WSR-88D near Birmingham, Alabama, are used to test the HCA for this event. In this event, an evening supercell produced a 7.6-cm-diameter hailstone at the surface at approximately 0007 UTC. Figure 10 shows the radar scan from the 0.5°-elevation angle at 0002 UTC, 5 min before the hailstone was reported at the surface. At the 0.5°-elevation angle, the maximum radar reflectivity factor is 68 dBZ at ~1.1 km ARL (Fig. 10a). The ρhv within the 67-dBZ core is 0.94; however, some of the ≥60-dBZ gates have ρhv as low as 0.83 (Fig. 10b). In the entire volume scan, the maximum radar reflectivity factor was 71 dBZ at ~4.6 km ARL. The freezing level was ~3.1 km ARL, and the melting layer extended down to ~1.9 km ARL. Thus, the TBSS at 0.5°-elevation angle was below the freezing level.
In this example, a few TBSS radar gates are misclassified as BS in the HCA output (Fig. 10d). As in the first example, the misclassifications are nonmeteorological, which has no effect on the quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor (Fig. 10c). Otherwise, there are no obvious false TBSS gates present in the HCA output for this storm.
The fourth event the modified HCA is tested on occurred on 29 March 2013. Radar data collected by the KTLX WSR-88D near Norman, Oklahoma, are used. In this event, an evening thunderstorm produced a 6.4-cm-diameter hailstone at the surface at approximately 2342 UTC. Figure 11 presents the radar scan from the 1.3°-elevation angle at 2341 UTC, approximately a minute before the hailstone was reported at the surface. At the 1.3°-elevation angle, the maximum radar reflectivity factor is 69.5 dBZ at ~1.7 km ARL (Fig. 11a). The ρhv within the 69.5-dBZ gate is 0.94; however, an adjacent radar gate has ρhv as low as 0.62 (Fig. 11b). Several other radar gates with ≥60 dBZ have ρhv < 0.80, indicating the presence of hail. Within the entire volume scan, the maximum radar reflectivity factor was 72 dBZ at ~2.2 km ARL. The freezing level was ~2.8 km ARL, and the melting layer extended down to ~1.8 km ARL. Therefore, the TBSS at 1.29°-elevation angle was below the freezing level, but within the approximate melting layer.
In this case, a few TBSS radar gates are misclassified as CR; however, the underdetection of TBSS generally seems limited (Fig. 11d). There is a sharp cutoff of reflectivity in the quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor (Fig. 11c), which is associated with a sharp gradient in ρhv where the HCA transitions from RH or RA to TBSS class. For example, on one of the azimuths, ρhv decreases radially from 0.98 to 0.44 in one radar gate. As in the second event, it is reasonable to assume that within some of the TBSS class immediately downrange from the RH or RA class there is a mix of radar returns from both the TBSS artifact and hydrometeors. This demonstrates a significant downside of this HCA; it only outputs the highest aggregation and does not take into account the possibility that a sampling volume may have multiple classes except in the case of RH. In those radar gates, it is possible both hydrometeors and TBSS contribute to the reflectivity. However, the radar echoes are dominated by TBSS, which has a larger contribution to the reflectivity than the hydrometeors.
The final event the HCA is tested on occurred on 22 April 2013 near KICT, the Wichita, Kansas, WSR-88D. In this event, an evening supercell produced a 5.1-cm-diameter hailstone at the surface at approximately 0004 UTC 23 April 2013. Figure 12 is the radar scan from the 1.3°-elevation angle at 2359 UTC, approximately 5 min before the hailstone was reported at the surface. At the 0.5°-elevation angle, the maximum radar reflectivity factor is 74 dBZ at ~2.2 km ARL (Fig. 12a). This was also the maximum within the entire volume of the storm. The ρhv is reduced to <0.80 for several gates within the hail core (Fig. 12b). In some gates, it is anomalously low (<0.70) within high reflectivity (≥60 dBZ). The freezing level was ~2.9 km ARL, and the melting layer extended down to ~1.8 km ARL. As a result, the TBSS at 0.5°-elevation angle was below the freezing level, but within the approximate melting layer.
In the HCA output, there is possible overidentification of TBSS on the southern part of the storm (Fig. 12d). As a result, a nearly enclosed hole is present on the southern part of the storm in the quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor (Fig. 12c). Once again, there is a sharp gradient in reflectivity. A decrease of ρhv within this region is probably the reason for the slight overidentification of TBSS. The reduced ρhv could possibly be because of nonuniform beam filling or low SNR. Outside of this region, the identification of TBSS seems quite reasonable.
4. Summary and conclusions
The three-body scatter signature, or TBSS, is a radar artifact that appears downrange from a high-reflectivity core in a thunderstorm. Previous studies have shown that TBSSs have been precursors to severe weather such as large hailstones and damaging winds at the surface. Therefore, identification of TBSS is useful for severe-weather operations. Since TBSS is a radar artifact, identification and removal are also important for the quality control of radar data used in NWP and QPE. In this paper, an automated method for identifying TBSS in S-band radar data was developed for possible real-time applications.
The current S-band WSR-88D network that is in operational use in the United States uses a version of the P09 HCA to distinguish among 10 classes of hydrometeors for level-3 data products. TBSS was added as a new 11th class. Using true polarimetric radar measurements, trapezoidal membership functions were developed using statistics of data that were manually selected. These membership functions allowed for the addition of a TBSS class to an enhanced HCA based upon the P09 HCA for S-band radars.
The results of the TBSS classification are promising, as indicated by the rather reliable identification of TBSSs in five significant hail events tested. The identifications were not perfect though. There were examples of possible over- and underidentification of the TBSS class. In the overidentification cases, the quality-controlled reflectivity factor had a sharp cutoff of reflectivity. These radar gates tended to have a sharp radial decrease in ρhv. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume there was a mix of radar returns from both the TBSS artifact and the hydrometeors within these radar gates. The membership functions and weights were determined using a dataset that appeared to be pure TBSS (or at least the TBSS is the dominant signal), so mixtures may result in quality-control errors where TBSS is not the dominant signal. Overidentification is also possible in areas of low SNR because of reduced ρhv, and large errors in ZDR and ΦDP. The underidentification cases occurred when the TBSS was below the melting layer. Generally, the TBSS was misclassified as biological scatterers. For the quality-controlled radar reflectivity factor, this misclassification has no effect on the results because all nonmeteorological targets are removed. Note that all misclassifications are speculative because the truth is not completely known. Even with the possible misclassifications, the results are promising enough that the new TBSS membership functions could be eventually implemented operationally. The algorithm can be further tuned by testing it on a much larger number of hail cases before such operational implementation. Similar algorithms can also be developed for radars at other wavelengths, such as X- and C-band radars, where attenuation and other factors will play a role. These developments are planned for the future.
The authors thank John Krause at the Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies (CIMMS) for providing code to convert raw WSR-88D data to netCDF format. This work was supported by NSF Grant AGS-1046171. The third author was also supported by NSF Grant AGS-0802888.

domain: physics


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Elikliv LCD Digital Microscope, 2000X Biological Microscope with Digital & Microbial Lens, 7'' IPS Display, 10 LEDs, 12MP Resolution, Windows & Mac OS Compatible
- 【Dual Lenses For Versatile Uses】 Elikliv microscope uses the most advanced concept , creatively equipped with digital lens and microbial lens, using 50-500X range digital lens (“Lens 1”) enables you to observe details of macroscopic objects like error coins, printed circuit board, insects, plants ; using 100-2000X microbial lens allows you to observe cells, microorganism and slides, It is very practical and convenient to meet your requirements of different fields with one set only.
- 【7 inch Large IPS LCD Screen】 Up to 1200x magnification, 1080P/720P large HD 7-inch display screen shows exquisite details and delicate pictures. the Screen is a perfect size, nice and bright. The lcd digital microscope has a large viewing area and is very easy to operate to get it focusing and zooming in on the desired object, making your observation more intuitive. with rotatable(75 degrees) screen design, more convenient for user from different angle to view it, friendly for different people.
- 【Adopted 11 LED Light Design】 The 10 Adjustable LED illuminator ensures your specimens are clear and bright; Use USB cable to connect the cell microscope and base to power the bottom light, suitable for observing glass specimens, provides more excellent detail and optimal clarity and allows to capture pictures or video even in some dark places.
- 【Support Connection with PC for Larger and Clearer Visual Experience 】 this video microscope is compatible with Windows XP/Vis ta/7/8/10 or Mac 10.5/Above. it is easy to record high-definition video and picture with larger scale, enabling you to accurately measure specimens.
- 【Save & output Images and Videos】 Elikliv solding microscope can capture 4032*3024P image and 1920*1080P video, You can save the images and videos obtained during the observation process to the Micro card and output.
- 【Built-in 2600mAh Rechargeable Battery】 The long lasting 2600mAh battery(18650 lithium battery) is rechargeable and replaceable, the scope can work for 2-3 hours for a long time without the shackles of power cables, supporting power bank charging. This USB microscope can be used without the base and stand, 2(microscope and screen) in 1 compact design delivers great convenience for outdoor use.
80-120X Clip-On LED Cell Phone Microscope Mini Smart Phone Lens Microscope Magnifier Universal Lens with LED/UV Lights
- Mini smart phone microscope, portable and easy to use.
- 80-120X zoom magnification, free adjusted as you need.
- Equipped with universal clip, to fix the mini microscope on your phone.
- Built-in LED lights, 2 two brightness optional, Power is supplied by 3 AAA Batteries (Not Included)
- Suitable for skin detection, hair detection, industrial detection, education purpose, printing industry, jewelry and stamp inspection.
ESSLNB 1000X Microscope for Kids Students 40X-1000X Biological Compound Microscopes with Cell Phone Adapter Double Layer Stage Abbe Condenser and Slides
- Student Biological Microscope Magnification:4X, 10X, and 40X DIN achromatic full-glass objectives in metal barrels that provide high-resolution color-corrected images built with multi-coated highly transparent optical glass with eyepieces WF 10X,WF 25X. 45°inclination with 360°rotation capability reduces eye and neck strain and provides a more comprehensive view and enable sharing.
- Brightfield Microscope:N.A=0.65 Abbe condenser with 6-hole iris diaphragm provide better lighting conditions and brighter field to illuminate specimens. And coaxial coarse and fine focus adjustment offers precise location for sharp and clear images. A set of slides leads you to explore the fantastic tiny things.
- Solid Construction and Durable Usage:Solid all-metal framework and smooth focusing knob. Plain double layer stage with clips and stain resistant finish. It’s an excellent microscope for kids and hobbyists to learn science.
- Compound Light Microscope:Incident and transmitted LED light sources with adjustable brightness,which provides bright, cool light for working with temperature-sensitive or live specimens.With a phone adapter, it can record beauty,acquire knowledge in the micro world and cultivate love of science.
- 2 Kinds of Power Supplies:The biological microscopes is powered by a power adapter (adapter included) or 3 AA batteries(not included) for different usage situation.( AC Input 110V,DC ouput 6V).It’s a perfect choice for those who love science as a gift.
7 inch LCD Digital Microscope with Dual Lens 32G TF Card,Koolertron 2000x Optical Magnification Biological Cell Microscope with Digital & Microbial Lens for Cells/Circuit Board Soldering PCB Coins
- 【7" IPS Large Screen】7 inch 1080P IPS LCD display large screen allows you to get a larger field of view directly from the screen without an external large screen display. 12 megapixels ultra focusing camera sensor delivers impressive performance on displaying good color details.
- 【Dual Lenses For Versatile Uses】Creatively equipped with digital lens and optical lens, 500x digital lens (“Lens 1”) enables you to observe details of macroscopic objects like error coins, printed circuit board, insects, plants . 2000x optical lens (“Lens 2”) allows you to observe cells, microorganism and slides with microbial lens.Knob focus range 2-55mm.
- 【Supports Connect with PC】 This digital microscope supports connect with PC to obverse, support Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 or Mac 10.5/Above. Software: Please follow the user manual within package; For WIN OS, please download the software, or contact support; For MAC OS, please use the software called PHOTO BOOTH that comes with computer.
- 【Save & Output of Images and Videos】 This microscope includes a 32 GB TF card(in the card slot) to save lots of photos and videos.Support capturing 4032x3024P picture and 1920x1080P video in memory modeME. In PC mode, the resolution of captured pictures and videos will be limited to 1280x720P.
- 【Rechargeable Battery】This 7 inch digital microscope included a replaceable rechargeable lithium battery(2600mAh), the digital microscope operates up to 2 hours after full charges.It very portable and convenient for outdoor use.
- 【Great Gift】This LCD digital microscope is perfect for observe cells, microorganism,slides,circuit board inspection, QC inspection, watch/clock repair, textile industrial, kids education inspection, biological observation, medical professionals, scientific researchers, insects, coins, jewelry, and stamps. It's the best gift for children, students, hobbyists, and other users.
Opqpq 7" LCD Digital Microscope W/32GB, 50-2000X Cell Microscope,12MP Microscope Camera Video for Science Observing Coin PCB Plants
- ★High-Resolution Microscope: this cell microscope comes with a 7" IPS 1080P LCD screen, the camcorder images more high-definition, more realistic. 75°vertical rotatable screen eliminates eye and neck strain. 2600mAh rechargeable cordless microscope runtime for 2-3h. Non-slip foot pads are added at the digital microscope bottom to make observation more stable.
- ★50-2000x Dual Lens: 50-500x ordinary lens is suitable for coin/ PCB/insect etc. 2000x microbial lens is suitable for microbial/cell observation. USB microscope knob focus range 2-55mm, image adjustment wheel (1x/1.5x/3x) on the side of the screen. Portable microscope 50-2000X continuous magnification, always finding a suitable multiple for you to.
- ★Save & output Images and Videos: This electron microscope built-in 12MP digital microscope camera, 1080P high definition imaging. coin microscope can capture 4032*3024P image and 1920*1080P video. This handheld microscope equipped with a Micro SD card slot and a 32G tf card(Max supports 64G card).
- ★Compatible with Windows & Mac OS system: this electron microscope compatible with Windows XP/Vis ta/7/8/10 or Mac 10.5/Above. Provides a wide field of view for easy viewing. Kids microscope widely used for a school class, home kids funny play and so on. Enhancing the interactivity between parents and kids, teachers and students.
- ★Dual Light Source: soldering microscope kit has top and bottom LED light sources. The bright bottom source shines upward, suitable for observing glass specimens. The wireless microscope led lights are adjustable, allowing you to set the desired level of illumination. Use USB cable to connect the microscope and base to power the bracket light source.
- ★Professional Observe Design: microscope for kids designed with a safety regulation area like a traditional microscope, the appropriate adjustable upper limit can avoid damage to the specimen and lens due to excessive adjustment. A firm fixing clip is installed on the object stage, the surface of the microscopes object stage is non-slip treatment.
Jiusion 30X Zoom Bright LED Stereo Microscope Magnifier Clip-On Cell Phone Mobile Phone Camera Lens Compatible with Apple iPhone Samsung iPad
- Portable microscope works for iPhone/iPad/Samsung mobile and tablet. You can take the photo and save it on your phone.
- It fits for all smartphone or tablet thickness between 0.5inch and the distance between the camera and edge under 0.9inch.
- Built in led light, it is great for observations like coins, stamps, plants and insects.
- Magnification is 30 times.
AmScope SK6-72P100S22-PP10 Microscope Stains Vital Stain Kit for Living Cells - 6 Different Microscope Slide Stains, 72 Pre-Cleaned Blank Slides, 100 Coverslips and 10 Pipettes for Specimen Transfer
- AmScope SK6-72P100S22-PP10 is a complete slide staining package for general biology microscope slide preparation
- Seven 30mL bottles of stains are included with colors: Bismarck Brown, Brilliant Cresyl Blue, Cupric Acetate, Cupric Sulfate, Janus Green, Methylene Blue, Neutral Red
- Includes AmScope 72 piece pre-cleaned blank slides and 100 piece 22mm x 22mm coverslips
- Includes MSDS sheets
- Includes 10 piece 1mL pipettes
Mobile Phone Microscope, KKmoon Microscope 20X-400X Universal Portable Mobile Phone Microscope Magnifier Magnification Lens for Android for iOS
- ◕‿◕【Micro photography】Lightweight and portable, light to 3g, thin to 5mm, let you play micro photography anytime, anywhere.
- ◕‿◕【20-400X magnification】2 um optical resolution, flat-field achromatic micro-objective lens. Approximately 20-400X magnification, 5mm diameter field of view, ultra high resolution.
- ◕‿◕【Suitable for any models】Compatible with Android and iOS and other smart phones, not limited to models.
- ◕‿◕【With 12pcs stickers】Equipped with 12pcs mini traceless adhesive stickers, each sticker can be reused for about 100 times, very economical and practical.
- ◕‿◕【Application】Perfect for paper fiber, droplets, camphor leaf, cloth, rice weevil, mite, stamps, antiques, precision parts, etc.
LED Mobile Phone Microscope with HD Optical Lens, 100x Pocket Size Mobile Phone Microscope Compatical with 98% Smartphone, Phone Microscope Portable for Kids to Discover The Microworld.
- 【100X MAGNIFICATION】this 100x Phone Microscope Makes You Take Amazing Enlarged High-resolution Photos and Videos. Although It is a Mini Phone Microscope, It Can See a Whole New World, and the Wonderful Micro World is Opened.can Be Used with the Focal Length of the Mobile Phone to Achieve Greater Magnification
- 【LIGHTWEIGHT AND EASY TO USE】our Handheld Microscope Phone Microscope Only Needs to Be Clamped on the Phone Lens, No need to install app, Needn’t Traceless Adhesive Stickers. the 100x Microscope Lens Size is 55*23*12 Mm with 10.5g Weight Only. Take It with You and Explore the Wonderful Moments of the World Anytime, Anywhere.
- 【POCKET MICROSCOPE WITH LIGHT】our iphone microscope attachment Has an Led Light Ring with 6 Led Lights, Stepless Adjust the Bright,ssuniform Lighting, and Clear Imaging.not Afraid Darkness mobile microscope Can Provide the Illumination Clear and More Stereoscopic Image to You , the Handheld Microscope Lens with Multilayer Coating Has a Protective Cover to Prevent Scratches and Easy Storage.
- 【WIDELY USE】 microscope for phone camera Can Use for Observe Plants and Insects ， Industrial Testing (pcb, Material), Cultural Relic Appreciation, Textile Industrial, Jewelry & Stamp (collections) Inspection，check Hair and Skin Etc.
- 【PERFECT GIFT】the 100x Microscope Lens for Phone Opens a Window for You to Explore the Unknown Around You, a Leaf, a Snail, or an Ant... This is a Perfect Gift for Kids、adults.
Microbiologist,Medical Technologist,Hematologist MICROSCOPE with View of Cells 1.2" Enamel Pin.Perfect on Your ID Badge or Lab Coat Lapel
- Microbiologist,Chemist,Medical Technologist,Hematologist MICROSCOPE with View of Cells 1.2" Enamel Pin
- Arrives in Organza Gift Bag Beautiful Colors,Detail & Superior Quality!
- Please check our Amazon Store for our CELL FIE Enamel Pin, other DNA,Microbiology, Genetics, & Hematology Pins,Key Chains,& Jewelry
Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy IV (Volume 162) (Methods in Cell Biology, Volume 162)
- Hardcover Book
- English (Publication Language)
- 456 Pages - 03/22/2021 (Publication Date) - Academic Press (Publisher)
BlooDroid Cell Counter
- User friendly full screen layout
- Distinctive sound for each cell type, special sound and (optional) vibration once a cell group of certain size is counted
- Customized count limit and cell group size
- Undo functionality
- Copy and paste support
- English (Publication Language)
In Search of the Polio Vaccine (History Channel) (A&E DVD Archives)
- Factory sealed DVD
- English (Publication Language)
- Audience Rating: NR (Not Rated)
OMAX 40X-2000X LED Binocular Compound Lab Microscope w/ Double Layer Mechanical Stage + Blank Slides, Cover Slips, & Lens Cleaning Paper, M82ES-SC100-LP100
- Total magnification: 40X-80X-100X-200X-400X-800X-1000X-2000X; Eyepieces: wide field WF10X and WF20X; Objectives: achromatic DIN 4X, 10X, 40X(S), 100X(S, Oil); Viewing head: 45 degrees inclined 360 degrees swiveling binocular; Sliding adjustable interpupillary distance: 2-3/16inch ~ 2-15/16inch(55~75mm); Ocular diopter adjustable on both eyetubes
- Nosepiece: revolving quadruple; Stage: double layer X-Y mechanical stage with scales, size: 4-1/2inchx 4-15/16inch (115mm x 125mm), translation range: 2-13/16inch x 1-3/16inch (70mm x 30mm); Stage upward moving lock protects objectives and slides
- Condenser: NA1.25 Abbe condenser with iris diaphragm; Illumination: transmitted (lower) LED light, intensity adjustable; Focus: Coaxial coarse and fine knobs on both sides
- Full solid metal frame construction with stain resistant enamel finish; Power supply: AC/DC adapter, 7.5V/7.5W (UL approved) - Input: 100-240V; 100-piece blank glass slides with 100-piece cover slips and 50-sheet lens cleaning paper included
- 5-year warranty against manufacturing defects
- English (Publication Language)
The Truth About Contagion: Exploring Theories of How Disease Spreads
- Amazon Kindle Edition
- Morell, Sally Fallon (Author)
- English (Publication Language)
- 262 Pages - 02/22/2021 (Publication Date) - Skyhorse (Publisher)
Wireless Digital Microscope Handheld USB HD Inspection Camera 50x-1000x Magnification with Stand Compatible with iPhone, iPad, Samsung Galaxy, Android, Mac, Windows Computer
- App Provided: Optional software for IOS, Android, Windows 7 8 10 XP, OS X. Can work with all smartphone like iPhone and Samsung, windows Computer Tablet and Macbook.
- Magnification & High Definition: 2 million pixels, 1080P HD picture quality for smartphone, 720P for computer, 50x more magnification can meet your daily needs. Built-in 8 Dimmable LEDs provide enough illuminance.
- Easy to Carry: It is very easy to charge and the charge lasts for a long time. It makes for a very useful and fun tool to always have with you in the outdoors. You can enjoy the portable mini pocket microscope on your nature hikes.
- A Funny Tool: This is an electron microscope, not a traditional microscope, Not suitable for professional serious biologists! This is definitely a very interesting thing for parents, adults, teachers, students, kids, children, collectors, testers, electronics' repair folks, and inquisitive folks who interested in exploring the microscopic world.
- Not only a Microscope: More than a microscope, it is a camera, It can not only zoom in but also take photos and record videos. The ability to take video and still photos is amazing. It’s really useful when documenting plant phases throughout their lifecycle.
- Wifi Connection for Phone: Download the software on the user manual from Google Play or APP Store; Turn on the microscope, connect the wifi (no password) which emits from the microscope; Run the app and it is easy to use.
God's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness
- Amazon Prime Video (Video on Demand)
- David A.R. White, John Corbett, Shane Harper (Actors)
- Michael Mason (Director) - Michael Mason (Writer) - Brittany Yost (Producer)
- English (Playback Language)
- English (Subtitle)
- Audience Rating: PG (Parental Guidance Suggested)
KINGMAS 60X Clip-On Microscope Magnifier Lens with LED Lights Jeweler Loupe for iPhone, Samsung and More Mobile Phones (Universal)
- 1) 60X Universal Phones Zoom Microscope Magnifier Lens for Great for Industrial Purpose, Circuit Board And Printing , Industry, Gardening, Coin, Stamp, Jewelry, Appraisal, Education, Geography, Home And Office
- 2) Quick and Easy to Attach to Your Phone's Camera with The Detachable Clip. Matched with a Special Microscope Cover for Mobile Phones, it Can Simply Connect to Your Mobile Phones Camera Lens;
- 3) Illuminated by LED . Bright LED light of the Magnifying Glass provides enough light at any dim conditions;
- 4) The Pocket Size is Convenience to Carry, You Can Use it in Everywhere and Every Time. On/Off Witch for LEDs, the LED Lights powered by 3 LR1130 cell batteries (included).
- 5) Package Content: 1 x 60X Microscope LED Currency Detecting Magnifier with Clip-On ; 3 x LR1130 batteries; 1X Carry Pouch
After seeing the best Microscope Cells 2021 lets look into the future:
Best Microscope Cells 2022
These are the new Microscope Cells releases available. Will the best Microscope Cells 2022 be among them?
- Plant Cells Microscope
- Microscope That Can See Cells
- Cells Microscope Slides
- Digital Microscope Cells
- Microscope To See Live Cells
Last update 2021-06-21. Price and product availability may change.


Due to the digitization of our world, the rise of cyber crimes has become more common. These attacks can cause severe damage and affect the operations of our systems. As people rely more on the internet for their daily activities, such as storing their credit card details, cyber crimes are becoming more prevalent.
Cybercrime is a type of criminal activity that involves the exploitation of technology-dependent enterprises and computer networks. There are various types of these crimes, which can be carried out through malicious code. These include stealing data from companies and individuals and demanding a ransom. The three broad categories of cybercrime are government, individual, and property.
Types of Cybercrime
There are various degrees of cybercrime, each with its own set of consequences. Continue reading to discover a few of these that you should be aware of.
Phishing attacks use a fake link to trick their victims into entering their personal information. These types of attacks are usually carried out by individuals who are looking to access the data of specific organizations. Unlike other types of cybercrime, these attacks are not carried out by random attackers. They are usually carried out by individuals who are trying to obtain valuable information with an end goal in mind.
Malware is a type of malicious program or code that is designed to attack or affect a computer system without the user’s permission.
A ransomware attack usually blocks access to a victim’s data, and it will also delete this stolen data if the victim does not pay a ransom.
A web attack is usually carried out through the downloading of viruses from the internet. These infections can cause irreversible and large-scale damage to the system and an organization as a whole.
The first step in an eavesdropping attack is to intercept network traffic. This type of cybercrime is usually carried out by individuals who are looking to steal the data that other devices, such as smartphones, send to each other.
In addition to eavesdropping, inside attacks are also commonly carried out by individuals who have access to a system. This type of cybercrime is carried out by individuals who have authorized insider access to a network.
Due to the advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning, these attacks are expected to become more sophisticated in the future. This technology allows computers to perform various tasks on their own, but it can also take over certain systems, such as autonomous vehicles and drones.


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Up to half of French primary schools could close tomorrow (January 13) as teachers join strike action over the current Covid-related rules imposed in educational settings.
Primary teacher union Snuipp-FSU has said that 75% of teachers at this level could strike, adding in a statement that: “This mobilisation, which is historic in its size, is not a ‘strike against the virus’ but illustrates the growing despondency within schools.”
This was in response to comments by Education Minister Jean-Michel Blanquer, who said: “Strikes will not solve these problems; you can’t strike against a virus.”
The union also criticised “worsening working conditions” and the “continual lies of the education minister.”
Government had announced some rule relaxations
On Monday, Prime Minister Jean Castex announced three slight rule relaxations regarding pupil testing requirements, in the hope of easing the pressure on teachers and parents.
Pupils who are identified as close contacts of a Covid case identified in a class must carry out three tests, and parents had previously been required to collect their children and take them to a testing centre straightaway.
However, now they will be able to wait until the end of the day, and will also be able to access three free self-administered tests for the purpose.
Parents will also only have to provide one attestation to prove that their child has tested negative and not three.
However, these changes did not satisfy unions and the strike action was maintained.
Guislaine David, co-secretary general of the Snuipp-FSU, criticised the fact that Mr Castex made his announcements without consulting teaching bodies, and that the government has relaxed certain measures while case numbers continue to rise.
“Teachers were able to listen to the prime minister announcing yet another relaxation this evening, while we are asking for heightened hygiene measures in schools,” she said.
‘No longer a school but a ‘day-care centre’’
“Not only does the current protocol not protect pupils, staff and families, but it also completely disorganises school life,” the Snuipp-FSU said in its statement.
“So, although the government has repeatedly argued to the contrary, it is no longer a school which is open but a type of ‘day-care centre’.
“Under current conditions, pupils cannot learn properly, as their number fluctuates a lot and it is impossible to apply the hybrid system combining in-person and online learning.”
The Snuipp-FSU also criticised the “non-replacement of sick teachers, which is becoming untenable.”
It says that it will “do everything it can to make the government finally understand the anger of staff.
“After January 13, if necessary, it will propose further action against the government’s contempt, for the safety of schools and the necessary recruitment of staff.
“Teachers’ anger is not an by-product of the circumstances but originates both from the incompetent incapacity to manage the health crisis within schools but also more generally in the educational policy in force for the last five years which is ruining schools and showing contempt for staff.”
Mr Castex told the Assemblée nationale that as of yesterday (January 11) there are currently 10,400 – or 2% of all primary – classes closed due to Covid.
The Snuipp-FSU’s call for strike action has been supported by the majority of other teaching unions, including the SE-Unsa, Snes-FSU, Snalc, CGT Educ’action, SUD Education, FO and Sgen-CFDT.
Up to 80% of teachers to strike in Seine-Saint-Denis
The Snuipp-FSU has estimated that in Seine-Saint-Denis the number of primary teachers on strike could rise to 80%, and more than 50% of schools could have to close.
“For two years now, we have been calling for protective measures (CO2 sensors, surgical masks, FFP2 masks, air purifiers…) and extra staff to help teachers to do their job,” it said.
Parent union FCPE has also asked parents not to send their children to school on Thursday to support the teachers’ strike.
The union’s co-president Nageate Belahcen told Franceinfo that “the moment has come to say ‘no’ to the health protocol. It is not adapted to the situation.
“We have just experienced a very chaotic return from the Christmas holidays. Teachers and parents are cracking.

domain: politics


For over 500 years, Agriculture in Cameroon and Africa has yet to see and feel a change. While countries like Holland, Israel and Finland are making remarkable advancements in their pursuits towards sustainability in agriculture.
So, while Cameroonian farmers still trek long distances for farming and incure losses from undesirable farm to market roads, somewhere in Isreal, most farmers are reaping the benefits of greenhouse farms and sustainable agriculture.
Greenhouse farms were never popular in Cameroon until they were introduced by Greenhouse Ventures in 2014. The company remains, till date, the sole developer and marketer of the affordable greenhouse technology. They are also into the cultivation of several vegetables, seeds and even organic manure using the biogas.
Since the company’s inception, they continue to expand their footprints into several regions of Cameroon and very recently, they are about to launch the “100 Greenhouse Farms Campaign”.
“The goal of the campaign is to introduce these greenhouse farms into several Cameroonian communities thereby engaging multiple growers for target markets,” Roland Fomundam, the company’s CEO explains to us.
Most importantly, the company is using a network marketing model to introduce its greenhouses into several communities by enabling participants to earn commissions from making referrals for any acquisition.
For more information on this, visit


In the dynamic world of construction, ensuring the safety of workers and protecting the environment are paramount concerns. Scaffold wrap, a versatile and innovative solution, has gained significant attention for its multifaceted benefits. This article explores the intricacies of scaffold wraps, shedding light on their types, benefits, installation processes, and much more.
The Importance of Scaffold Wraps in Construction
Enhancing Safety Measures
Construction sites often involve working at heights, exposing workers to various risks. Scaffold wrap act as a protective barrier, minimizing the chances of accidents and providing a secure environment for workers to operate.
Protecting the Environment
Beyond safety, scaffold wraps contribute to environmental protection by containing dust and debris generated during construction activities. This not only maintains air quality but also prevents pollutants from affecting the surrounding ecosystem.
Types of Scaffold Wraps
Mesh Scaffold Wraps
Mesh scaffold wraps offer a balance between visibility and protection. They allow adequate light penetration while effectively containing debris, making them suitable for projects where maintaining a view is crucial.
PVC Scaffold Wraps
PVC scaffold wraps provide robust protection against adverse weather conditions. Their water-resistant properties make them ideal for projects in regions prone to heavy rainfall or extreme temperatures.
Debris Netting Scaffold Wraps
Designed specifically for debris containment, these wraps are lightweight yet durable. They play a crucial role in preventing debris from scattering, ensuring a safer working environment.
Benefits of Using Scaffold Wraps
Scaffold wraps act as a shield against unpredictable weather, safeguarding both workers and the structure. This weather resistance ensures construction projects stay on schedule despite external conditions.
Construction activities generate dust, which can pose respiratory risks and harm the environment. Scaffold wraps effectively contain dust, promoting a healthier work environment and reducing the project’s environmental impact.
Beyond safety and protection, scaffold wraps offer a unique space for advertising. Construction companies can utilize these wraps as a branding tool, enhancing visibility and creating a positive image within the community.
Choosing the Right Scaffold Wrap for Your Project
Consideration of Environmental Factors
The selection of scaffold wraps should align with the environmental conditions of the construction site. Understanding factors like wind speed, temperature, and precipitation ensures optimal performance.
Durability and Longevity
Different projects demand different levels of durability. Assessing the expected lifespan of scaffold wraps helps in choosing materials that align with the project’s duration and environmental demands.
Installation Process of Scaffold Wraps
Installing scaffold wraps involves a systematic process. From preparing the structure to securing the wraps in place, a step-by-step guide ensures a seamless installation, maximizing the effectiveness of the wraps.
Maintenance and Cleaning Tips
To ensure the continued effectiveness of scaffold wraps, regular maintenance is crucial. Simple cleaning procedures and timely inspections can extend the lifespan of wraps, providing long-term value for construction projects.
Cost-Efficiency of Scaffold Wraps
Comparisons with Traditional Methods
While the initial cost of scaffold wraps may raise eyebrows, a comparative analysis with traditional methods reveals their cost-efficiency. Reduced labor costs, faster installation, and long-term benefits make scaffold wraps a viable investment.
Case Studies: Successful Applications of Scaffold Wraps
Examining real-world applications showcases the success stories of scaffold wraps. From iconic structures to everyday construction projects, case studies provide insights into how scaffold wraps have transformed the construction landscape.
Sustainability and Eco-Friendly Aspects
Recyclability and Reusability
As sustainability gains prominence, scaffold wraps contribute by being recyclable and reusable. This eco-friendly aspect aligns with the global shift towards greener construction practices.
Future Trends in Scaffold Wrap Technology
Innovations and Advancements
The field of scaffold wraps continues to evolve with technological advancements. Innovations such as smart wraps with integrated sensors and improved materials are shaping the future of construction safety and efficiency.
Common Misconceptions About Scaffold Wraps
Addressing Myths and Clarifications
Dispelling myths surrounding scaffold wraps is essential for informed decision-making. From misconceptions about their environmental impact to doubts about durability, addressing these concerns ensures transparency in the application of scaffold wraps.
Regulatory Compliance and Standards
Ensuring Adherence to Safety Guidelines
Adherence to safety standards is non-negotiable in construction. Scaffold wraps must meet regulatory requirements to guarantee the safety of workers and compliance with industry norms.
User Testimonials and Experiences
Real user testimonials provide valuable insights into the practical benefits of scaffold wraps. Hearing firsthand experiences from those who have implemented scaffold wraps adds credibility to their efficacy.
In conclusion, scaffold wraps stand as a testament to innovation in the construction industry. From enhancing safety to contributing to environmental sustainability, their multifaceted advantages make them a valuable asset for any construction project.
- Are scaffold wraps suitable for all types of construction projects?
- Scaffold wraps are versatile and can be adapted to various construction projects, but considerations should be made based on the project’s specific requirements.
- How long do scaffold wraps typically last?
- The lifespan of scaffold wraps depends on factors such as material quality, environmental conditions, and maintenance. On average, they can last several years.
- Can scaffold wraps be customized for branding purposes?
- Yes, many scaffold wrap manufacturers offer customization options, allowing construction companies to incorporate branding elements for promotional purposes.
- Do scaffold wraps contribute to environmental sustainability?
- Yes, scaffold wraps, especially those made from recyclable materials, contribute to environmental sustainability by reducing waste and promoting reusability.
- What safety standards do scaffold wraps need to meet?
- Scaffold wraps should meet industry-specific safety standards, and adherence to local regulations is essential to ensure the well-being of workers and compliance with laws.