Article,Section,Revision Id,Timestamp,Author,Previous Section Text,Edited Section Text,Gold Labels
Context-free grammar,Example 1,148665,2002-08-10T11:08:47Z,Jan Hidders,,"A simple context-free grammar is
:S -> aSb | ε
where | is used to separate different options for the same nonteminal and ε stands for the empty string. This grammar generates the language {anbn : n ≥ 0} which is not [[regular language|regular]].","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Hypnosis,(Top),258324,2002-01-10T18:40:35Z,Sodium,"The American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis begins its definition of '''hypnosis''' ""a procedure during which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or subject experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior."" Any definition is necessarily vague, as the underlying mechanism is little understood and the condition is characterised by its symptoms. Some theories view hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness, others as a type of focused attention.
Scientists first became involved in hypnosis around 1770, when Dr Franz Mesmer started investigating an effect he called 'animal magnetism' or 'mesmerism' (the latter name still remaining popular today.) Hypnosis has been used with variable success for hundreds of applications, including entertainment, pain-relief and psychoanalysis. Generally, under hypnosis people become more susceptible to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave, although contrary to popular belief they do still remain in control of their actions. Hypnosis also generally stimulates a feeling of relaxation, and this has helped the development of it in to a therapy--[[hypnotherapy]]--although some of the treatments practiced, such as [[regression]], are viewed by some with scepticism.
Hypnosis is usually brought on by a hypnotist carrying out an induction procedure. Different people respond more or less successfuly to suggestion. Some people actually do seem able to display 'enhanced functioning', such the suppression of pain, under hypnosis. However studies suggest that these qualities are not exclusive to hypnosis, and it is the drama and fantasizing that encourages the behaviour.
:''See also:'' [[Mind control]]","The American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis begins its definition of '''hypnosis''' ""a procedure during which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or subject experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior."" Any definition is necessarily vague, as the underlying mechanism is little understood. Some theories view hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness, others as a type of focused attention.
Scientists first became involved in hypnosis around 1770, when Dr Franz Mesmer started investigating an effect he called 'animal magnetism' or 'mesmerism' (the latter name still remaining popular today.) Hypnosis has been used with variable success for hundreds of applications, including entertainment, pain-relief and psychoanalysis. Generally, under hypnosis people become more susceptible to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave, although contrary to popular belief they do still remain in control of their actions. Hypnosis also generally stimulates a feeling of relaxation, and this has helped the development of it in to a therapy--[[hypnotherapy]]--although some of the treatments practiced, such as [[regression]], are viewed by some with scepticism.
Hypnosis is usually brought on by a hypnotist carrying out an induction procedure. Different people respond more or less successfuly to suggestion. Some people actually do seem able to display 'enhanced functioning', such the suppression of pain, under hypnosis. However studies suggest that these qualities are not exclusive to hypnosis, and it is the drama and fantasizing that encourages the behaviour.
:''See also:'' [[Mind control]]",[2]
Human cloning,limits of cloning,573273,2003-01-09T05:04:34Z,142.177.78.132,,"First, none of these techniques provide ''exact'' clones - they would be 99.7% identical to the DNA donor, because some important genes--which are present outside the nucleus, in [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]]--come from the donor egg-cell. How much change this would lead to in the clone is being investigated, but it could spell problems for therapeutic cloning, where compatibility is essential because of the risk of rejection.
Second, difficulties with cloning organisms from their somatic (non germline) cells tend to lead to (what seems to be) premature aging in higher animals. If a new brain is generated in that body, there is no reason to believe that conciousness, apart from the ethics of the move, can ever be moved from one brain into a new brain even if it is genetically identical. Identical twins often show uncanny parallels if life choices, but rarely do they exhibit any characteristics that would cause one to believe that genetic similarities in brains lead to any kind of compatibility of conciousness. If a brain is moved from an old body to a new one, even a clone, it would continue to lose size and capacity to regenerate cells, and continue to be subject to such disorders as [[Alzheimers]]. Given all this, 'immortality' seems a difficult goal to achieve, and even extended lifespan may be at a low quality of life.
Given these limits, the main reason for interest in the speculations is that they may be driving funding for research, and providing active lobbying for legal or political protections for the cloning industry. Concerns regarding the [[Raelian movement]] tend to focus on this issues.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),608254,2002-06-13T15:22:13Z,Manning Bartlett,,"The '''Circadian rhythm''' is name given to the ""internal body clock"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these ryhthms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[Chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The Circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the Circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm with no predictable pattern. This research has influenced the design of spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The Circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a Circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the retina which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found behind the hypothalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Disruption to Circadian rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of fatigue, disorientation and insomnia. A number of other sleep disorders are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
The University of [[Virginia]] offers an excellent [http://www.cbt.virginia.edu/tutorial/TUTORIALMAIN.html onlne tutorial] in this subject.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,External link,658196,2003-01-22T13:18:01Z,Olivier,,*The University of [[Virginia]] offers an excellent [http://www.cbt.virginia.edu/tutorial/TUTORIALMAIN.html onlne tutorial] in this subject.,"[1, 11]"
Genetic engineering,See also:,944393,2003-05-21T00:33:17Z,Anthere,"* [[Cell biochemistry]]
* [[Cloning]]
* [[Engineer]]
* [[Gattaca]]
* [[Gene therapy]]
* [[Genetic modification]]
* [[Genetically modified food]]
* [[Genetically modified organism]]
* [[Genome]]
* [[Human Genome Project]]
* [[Protein engineering]]
* [[Proteomics]]","* [[Cell biochemistry]]
* [[Cloning]]
* [[Engineer]]
* [[Gattaca]]
* [[Gene therapy]]
* [[Genetically modified food]]
* [[Genetically modified organism]]
* [[Genome]]
* [[Human Genome Project]]
* [[Protein engineering]]
* [[Proteomics]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External link,1752787,2003-11-16T09:40:25Z,Denelson83,*The University of [[Virginia]] offers an excellent [http://www.cbt.virginia.edu/tutorial/TUTORIALMAIN.html online tutorial] on this subject.,*The University of [[Virginia]] offers an excellent [http://www.cbt.virginia.edu/tutorial/TUTORIALMAIN.html online tutorial] on this subject. (404),[11]
Trie,(Top),1971036,2003-11-30T20:06:37Z,Dcoetzee,"A '''trie''' is a [[tree data structure]] that is used for searching a key/value map. With a trie, the keys are restricted to strings whose alphabet has limited cardinality (e.g. the [[English alphabet]]). Each node has at most N+1 children (where N is the cardinality of the alphabet), and all of the children of that node share a common prefix denoted by the node's position and value in the tree.
See also [[search algorithm]].
This article is a [[Wikipedia:The perfect stub article|stub]]. You can help Wikipedia by [[Wikipedia:Find or fix a stub|fixing it]].'","In [[computer science]], a '''trie''' (confusingly pronounced ""tree"") is an [[ordered tree data structure|ordered tree]] [[data structure]] that is used to store an [[associative array]] where the keys are [[string]]s. Unlike a [[binary search tree]], no node in the tree stores the key associated with that node; instead, its position in the tree shows what key it is associated with. All the descendants of any one node have a common prefix of the string associated with that node, and the root is associated with the [[empty string]]. Values are normally not associated with every node, only with leaves and some inner nodes that happen to correspond to keys of interest.
[[Image: trie_example.png | An example of a trie]]
In the above example, keys are listed in the nodes and values below them. Each complete English word has an integer value associated with it. Tries can be seen as a determinstic [[finite automaton]], although the symbol on each edge is often implicit in the order of the branches.
Although it seems restrictive to say a trie's key type must be a string, many common data types can be seen as strings; for example, an integer can be seen as a string of bits. Integers with common bit prefixes occur as map keys in many applications such as [[routing table]]s and [[virtual memory|address translation tables]].
Tries have the additional advantage that they make it efficient to associate a particular value with a group of keys that have a common prefix. They also make longest-prefix matching or lookup efficient.
Tries are most useful when the keys are of varying lengths and we expect some key lookups to fail, because the key is not present. If we have fixed-length keys, and expect all lookups to succeed, then we can improve key lookup by combining every node with a single child (such as ""i"" and ""in"" above) with its child, producing a [[Patricia tree]]. This is particularly useful in maps where many keys have a long common prefix.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Alzheimer's disease,Etiology,2400383,2004-02-15T12:09:51Z,TonyClarke,"Associated neuropathologic changes include loss of brain tissue cells (with a typical upward progression through [[memory]] centers such as the [[entorhinal cortex]] and the [[hippocampus]]) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary (""tau"") tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of the disintegration of brain tissue), although the currently dominant hypothesis assigns cause to plaque.
Some work is being done to investigate the role of raised levels of homocysteine, and possible prevention or treatment through taking of foods high in B vitamins and antioxidants to control the levels of homocysteine. This view is supported by Teodoro Bottiglieri, a neuropharmacologist at the Baylor Institute of Metabolic Disease in Dallas, Texas, and Andrew Mc Caddon, a researcher at the University of Wales.(See the Times newspaper, January 31 2004 ""Could vitamins help delay the onset of Alzheimer’s?"" by Jerome Burne).
Whatever the mechanism, a strong epidemiological association has been shown between a diet high in fat and cholesterol and development and progress of the disease. In addition, animal feeding trials of high cholesterol and fat have demonstrated increased anatomical symptoms upon autopsied brains. This may confirm the B vitamin approach, since the hgh fat diet may be low in foods containing B vitamins.","Associated neuropathologic changes include loss of brain tissue cells (with a typical upward progression through [[memory]] centers such as the [[entorhinal cortex]] and the [[hippocampus]]) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary (""tau"") tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of the disintegration of brain tissue), although the currently dominant hypothesis assigns cause to plaque.
Some research is pursuing the possibility that it is a dietary deficiency, possibly of B vitamins, which is an underlying cause.
Whatever the mechanism, a strong epidemiological association has been shown between a diet high in fat and cholesterol and development and progress of the disease. In addition, animal feeding trials of high cholesterol and fat have demonstrated increased anatomical symptoms upon autopsied brains. This may confirm the B vitamin approach, since the hgh fat diet may be low in foods containing B vitamins.","[1, 2]"
Meditation,Specific Traditions,2455196,2004-02-20T11:03:46Z,Luis Dantas,,"* [[Theravada]] Buddhist practice involves both Samadhi and Vipassana, as well as the developing of ""loving kindness"" (Metta).
* [[Zen Buddhism]] practices [[Zazen]], similar to Vipassana.
* Most Abrahamic traditions practice forms of meditation that use their God, Saints and/or Prophets as concentration focus
* Some people, including the controversial Guru [[Rajneesh]] (also known as ""Osho"") taught forms of ""Dynamic Meditation"" that involve violent exercise and hyperventilation, akin to [[Aerobic exercise]].
[[de:Meditation]]
[[eo:Meditado]]
[[fr:Méditation]]
[[pl:Medytacja]]
[[pt:Meditação]]
See also: [[Chan Buddhism]], [[Qi]], [[Qigong]], [[Samadhi]], [[Taijiquan]], [[Transcendental Meditation]], [[Vipassana]], [[Zen Meditation]]","[1, 9, 4]"
Context-free grammar,Example 4,2596452,2004-03-02T12:01:21Z,203.200.2.61,"Another interesting example for a context-free grammar is the grammar governing a class of Tamil language Poetry called Venpa.
Please read our Technical Paper on the subject from http://infitt.org/ti2003/papers/19_raman.pdf","Another interesting example for a context-free grammar is the grammar governing a class of Tamil language Poetry called Venpa.
Please read our Technical Paper entitled ''Context Free Grammar for Natural Language Constructs - An implementation for Venpa Class of Tamil Poetry'' on the subject from http://infitt.org/ti2003/papers/19_raman.pdf
Authors:
L.BalaSundaraRaman
Ishwar.S
Sanjeeth Kumar Ravindranath",[5]
Human brain,Study of the brain,3376755,2004-04-29T00:41:35Z,172.197.86.214,"During many past millennia, the function of the brain was unknown. Ancient Egyptians threw the brain away prior to the process of [[mummification]]. Ancient thinkers such as [[Aristotle]] imagined that mental activity took place in the [[heart]]. The [[Alexandria]]n biologists [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]] were among the first to conclude that the brain was the seat of intelligence. [[Galen]]'s theory that the brain's cavities, or ''ventricles'', were the sites of [[thought]] and [[emotion]] prevailed until the work of the Renaissance anatomist [[Vesalius]].
The brain is now studied in [[neurology]] and [[psychiatry]], and known to be the organ responsible for the phenomena of [[consciousness]], [[thought]] and [[emotion]].
Studies of brain damage from accidents led to the identification of specialized areas of the brain devoted to functions such as the processing of seeing and hearing.
[[Brain imaging]] has allowed the function of the living brain to be studied without damaging the brain. For the first time, this has allowed the study of the neurophysiology of the brain to be studied in detail in a wide range of psychological tests. [[Functional neuroimaging]], including ([[fMRI]]), allows researchers to monitor activities in a brain while they are happening.
A new discipline of [[cognitive science]] has started to fuse the results of these investigations with observations from [[psychology]], [[philosophy]] and [[computer science]].","Though folklore about the dormant 90 percent of the human brain has proven unfounded, researchers until the [[1990s|mid 1990s]] focused on only a small portion of the brain in efforts to understand its computational capacity.
Grey matter, the thin layer of cells covering the cerebrum, was believed by most scholars to be the primary center of cognitive and conscious processing. White matter, the mass of [[glial cell]]s that support the cerebral grey matter, was assumed to primarily provide nourishment, physical support and connective pathways for the more functional cells on the cereberal surface. But research fueled by the interest of Dr. Mary Diamond in the glial structure of [[Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein's]] disintered brain led to a line of research that offered strong evidence that glial cells serve a computational role beyond merely transmitting processed signals between more functional parts of the brain. In [[2004]], [[Scientific American]] published an article suggesting scientists in the early [[21st Century]] are only beginning to study the ""other half of the brain.""
For many millennia, the function of the brain was unknown. Ancient Egyptians threw the brain away prior to the process of [[mummification]]. Ancient thinkers such as [[Aristotle]] imagined that mental activity took place in the [[heart]]. Greek scholars assumed correctly that the brain serves a role in cooling the body, but incorrectly presumed the brain to function as a sort of [[radiator]], rather than as a [[thermostat]], as is now understood. The [[Alexandria]]n biologists [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]] were among the first to conclude that the brain was the seat of intelligence. [[Galen]]'s theory that the brain's cavities, or ''ventricles'', were the sites of [[thought]] and [[emotion]] prevailed until the work of the Renaissance anatomist [[Vesalius]].
The brain is now studied in [[neurology]] and [[psychiatry]], and is known to be the organ responsible for the phenomena of [[consciousness]], [[thought]] and [[emotion]]. Studies of brain damage resulting from accidents led to the identification of specialized areas of the brain devoted to functions such as the processing of seeing and hearing.
[[Brain imaging]] has allowed the function of the living brain to be studied in detail without damaging the brain. New imaging techniques allowed blood flow within the brain to be studied in detail during a wide range of psychological tests. [[Functional neuroimaging]], including ([[fMRI]]), allows researchers to monitor activities in a brain while they are happening.
In addition to [[pathology|pathological]] and imaging studies, the study of [[computational neuroscience|computational network]]s, largely in [[computer science]]s, provided a third key to unlocking many of the secrets of how the human brain functions. A body of knowledge developed for the production of electronic mathmatic computational systems provided a basis for researchers to develop and refine hypotheses about the computation function of biological computational networks. The study of [[neural network]]s now involves study of both biological and artificial computational systems.
A new discipline of [[cognitive science]] has started to fuse the results of these investigations with observations from [[psychology]], [[philosophy]] and [[computer science]].","[1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 4]"
Human cloning,The current law on human cloning,3999167,2004-06-04T12:59:36Z,Paranoid,"In 1998, 2001, and 2003 the US [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] voted to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic. Each time, divisions in the Senate over therapetic cloning prevented either competing proposal (a ban on both forms or reproductive cloning only) from passing. President George W. Bush is opposed to human cloning in any form. Some states ban both forms of cloning, while some others outlaw only reproductive cloning.
Current regulations prohibit federal funding for research into human cloning, which effectively prevents such research from occurring in public institutions and private institution such as universities which receive federal funding. However, there are currently no laws in the United States which ban cloning completely, and any such laws would raise difficult Constitutional questions similar to the issues raised by abortion.
The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic but not reproductive cloning in a debate in January. However on 15th November 2001 opposition groups won a High Court legal challenge that effectively blocked cloning of embryos for therapeutic purposes. They discovered a loophole which allows reproductive cloning to be performed also. Anti-abortion groups say that a new debate is necessary because of recent technologies having been developed that might circumvent the need for embryonic cloning. The government overruled this attempt at the beginning of March 2002 and currently therapeutic cloning is allowed.
Australia has a government committee still considering the issues, having already introduced a variety of regulations on cloning in general. However organisations devoted to clone humans, such as the [[Raelites]] and the Las-Vegas based Clonaid, as well as Antinori and Zavos, are very hard to control. Many think these groups would shift their operations to other countries, where a lack of regulation could bring dangerous results.
Many 3rd world countries have no such ban on cloning, so there may, not likly, be some cloning of humans there.
The United Nations has been debating a global treaty to ban human cloning. As in the United States Congress, divisions over therapeutic cloning have prevented any proposal from making significant progress.","In 1998, 2001, and 2003 the US [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] voted to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic. Each time, divisions in the Senate over therapetic cloning prevented either competing proposal (a ban on both forms or reproductive cloning only) from passing. President George W. Bush is opposed to human cloning in any form. Some states ban both forms of cloning, while some others outlaw only reproductive cloning.
Current regulations prohibit federal funding for research into human cloning, which effectively prevents such research from occurring in public institutions and private institution such as universities which receive federal funding. However, there are currently no laws in the United States which ban cloning completely, and any such laws would raise difficult Constitutional questions similar to the issues raised by abortion.
The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic but not reproductive cloning in a debate in January. However on 15th November 2001 opposition groups won a High Court legal challenge that effectively blocked cloning of embryos for therapeutic purposes. They discovered a loophole which allows reproductive cloning to be performed also. Anti-abortion groups say that a new debate is necessary because of recent technologies having been developed that might circumvent the need for embryonic cloning. The government overruled this attempt at the beginning of March 2002 and currently therapeutic cloning is allowed.
Australia has a government committee still considering the issues, having already introduced a variety of regulations on cloning in general. However organisations devoted to clone humans, such as the [[Raelites]] and the Las-Vegas based Clonaid, as well as Antinori and Zavos, are very hard to control. Many think these groups would shift their operations to other countries, where a lack of regulation could bring dangerous results.
Many 3rd world countries have no such ban on cloning, so there may, not likly, be some cloning of humans there.
The United Nations has been debating a global treaty to ban human cloning. Lawrence Goldstein, professor of cellular and molecular medicine at the University of California at San Diego, says that United States, unable to pass a national law, forced [[Costa Rica]] to start this debate in the UN over the international cloning ban.
So far, as in the United States Congress, divisions over therapeutic cloning have prevented any proposal from making significant progress. The vote on the treaty has been postponed till November 2004.","[1, 5, 9]"
Prion,Structural Features of Prion Proteins,4319010,2004-06-27T22:44:52Z,169.230.8.155,,"A great deal of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of yeast prion proteins, conducted primarily by the research groups of [[Susan Lindquist]] and [[Jonathan S. Weissman.]]
All known yeast prion proteins contain regions that rich in the amino acids glutamine and aspargine; these glutamine- and asparagine-rich domains are required for prions to arise, forming the core of the prion's structure. Ordinarily, prion domains are flexible and lack a defined structure. When they convert to the prion state, several molecules of a particularl protein come together to form a highly structured fiber known as an amyloid. The end of the fiber acts a template for the addition of free protein molecules, causing the fiber to grow. Small differences in the amino acid sequence of prion-forming regions lead to distinct structural features on the surface of prion fibers. As a result, only free protein molecules that are identical in amino acid sequence to the prion protein can be recruited into the growing fiber. This ""specificity"" phenomenon may explain why transmission of prion diseases from one species to another (such as from sheep to cows or from cows to humans) is a rare event.
The mammalian prion protein ( [[PrP]] ) does not at all resemble the prion proteins of yeast in its amino acid sequence. Nonetheless, the basic structural features (formation of amyloid fibers and a highly specific barrier to transmission between species) are shared between mammalian and yeast prions. The prion variant responsible [[Mad Cow Disease]] and [[nvCJD]] in humans has the remarkable ability to bypass the species barrier to transmission.","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
Methamphetamine,(Top),4775632,2004-07-22T01:18:12Z,Eequor,"'''Methamphetamine''' (""'''crystal meth'''"") is a synthetic [[stimulant]] [[drug]] which induces a strong feeling of [[euphoria]] and is highly [[addiction|addictive]]. Pure methamphetamine is a colorless [[crystalline]] solid, sold on the streets as ''glass'', ''ice'', or ''crystal''. It is also sold as less pure crystalline powder termed ''crank'' or ''speed''. Methamphetamine was first synthesized in [[1919]] in [[Japan]] by chemist [[A. Ogata]].
{| border=""1"" cellpadding=""2"" cellspacing=""0"" width=""250px"" align=""right"" style=""border-collapse: collapse""
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""center"" colspan=""2""|
[[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png|center|200px|Chemical structure of {{PAGENAME}}]]
''{{PAGENAME}}''
|-
|align=""center"" colspan=""2""|
''[[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name''
|-
|align=""center"" style=""border-bottom: 3px solid gray""|
'''[[CAS number]]'''
?
|align=""center"" style=""border-bottom: 3px solid gray""|
'''[[ATC code]]'''
?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Chemical formula]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Molecular weight]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Bioavailability]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|Metabolism
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[half life|Elimination half life]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Excretion]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|Delivery
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""left"" colspan=""2""|
'''Indicated for:'''
*?
'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''
*?
'''[[Ethics|Unethical]] uses:'''
*?
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""left"" colspan=""2""|
'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''
*?
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""left"" colspan=""2""|
'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
'''''{{red|Severe:}}'''''
*?
'''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:'''''
*?
'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Hematological]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Respiratory]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Urogenital]] and [[reproductive]]:'''''
*?
'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*?
|}
In some instances, these substances when found on the street are diluted or ''cut'' with inert substances like [[mannitol]] or [[Vitamin B12]]. In most instances, the methamphetamine is usually of a pure nature, but diluted mainly with the chemicals that were used to synthesize it.","'''Methamphetamine''' (""'''crystal meth'''"") is a synthetic [[stimulant]] [[drug]] which induces a strong feeling of [[euphoria]] and is highly [[addiction|addictive]]. Pure methamphetamine is a colorless [[crystalline]] solid, sold on the streets as ''glass'', ''ice'', or ''crystal''. It is also sold as less pure crystalline powder termed ''crank'' or ''speed''. Methamphetamine was first synthesized in [[1919]] in [[Japan]] by chemist [[A. Ogata]].
{| border=""1"" cellpadding=""2"" cellspacing=""0"" width=""250px"" align=""right"" style=""border-collapse: collapse""
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""center"" colspan=""2""|
[[Image:Methamphetamine.png|center|200px|Methamphetamine's chemical structure]]
''Methamphetamine''
|-
|align=""center"" colspan=""2""|
''(S)-N,a-di[[methyl]][[benzene]]-[[ethanamine]]; d-N-methyl[[amphetamine]]''
|-
|align=""center"" style=""border-bottom: 3px solid gray""|
'''[[CAS number]]'''
537-46-2
|align=""center"" style=""border-bottom: 3px solid gray""|
'''[[ATC code]]'''
?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Chemical formula]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|{{carbon}}{{sub|10}}{{hydrogen}}{{sub|15}}{{nitrogen}}
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Molecular weight]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|149.24
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Bioavailability]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|Metabolism
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[half life|Elimination half life]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Excretion]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|?
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|[[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|
Schedule II ([[USA]])
Class B (oral) ([[UK]])
Class A (injectable) ([[UK]])
|-
|bgcolor=""#efefef""|Delivery
|bgcolor=""#dfefff""|5mg tablets
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""left"" colspan=""2""|
'''Indicated for:'''
*[[attention deficit disorder]]
*[[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]]
*[[narcolepsy]]
*[[obesity]]
'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''
*[[euphoria]]
*[[stimulant]]
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""left"" colspan=""2""|
'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''
*?
|-
|bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""left"" colspan=""2""|
'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*[[hypertension]]
'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*elevated [[body temperature]]
'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*dilated [[pupil]]s
'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*[[diarrhea]]
*[[nausea]]
*[[vomit]]ing
'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*altered brain chemistry
'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''
*[[euphoria]]
'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*[[rash]]
'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*[[insomnia]]
*restlessness
*[[weight loss]]
|}
In some instances, these substances when found on the street are diluted or ''cut'' with inert substances like [[mannitol]] or [[Vitamin B12]]. In most instances, the methamphetamine is usually of a pure nature, but diluted mainly with the chemicals that were used to synthesize it.","[1, 9, 10, 4]"
Asperger syndrome,A gift and a curse,5815404,2004-09-12T00:06:27Z,ScudLee,"Recently, some researchers have speculated that many well-known people including [[Glenn Gould]], [[Nikola Tesla]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Isaac Newton]] had AS, as they showed some Asperger's related tendencies (such as intense interest in one subject and social problems); such diagnoses remain controversial, however (c.f. BBC News, ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2988647.stm Einstein and Newton ""had autism""]'', 30 April 2003). The obvious social contributions of such individuals has led to a shift in the perception of Asperger's and autism away from the simple view of a disease just needing to be cured towards a more complex view of a syndrome with both advantages and disadvantages. There is a semi-jocular theory within [[science fiction fandom]], for example, which argues that many of the distinctive traits of that [[subculture]] may be explained by the speculation that a significant portion thereof is composed of people with Ass Burger's. A [[Wired Magazine]] article called ''[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html The Geek Syndrome]'' suggests that Asperger's syndrome is more common in the [[Silicon Valley]] because of all the computer scientists and mathematicians who inhabit the region.","Recently, some researchers have speculated that many well-known people including [[Glenn Gould]], [[Nikola Tesla]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Isaac Newton]] had AS, as they showed some Asperger's related tendencies (such as intense interest in one subject and social problems); such diagnoses remain controversial, however (cf. BBC News, ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/2988647.stm Einstein and Newton ""had autism""]'', 30 April 2003). The obvious social contributions of such individuals has led to a shift in the perception of Asperger's and autism away from the simple view of a disease just needing to be cured towards a more complex view of a syndrome with both advantages and disadvantages. There is a semi-jocular theory within [[science fiction fandom]], for example, which argues that many of the distinctive traits of that [[subculture]] may be explained by the speculation that a significant portion thereof is composed of people with Asperger's. A [[Wired Magazine]] article called ''[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html The Geek Syndrome]'' suggested that Asperger's syndrome is more common in the [[Silicon Valley]], a haven for computer scientists and mathematicians. It created an enduring myth popularized in the media and self-help books that ""Geek Syndrome"" equals Asperger's syndrome, and precipitated a rash of self-diagnoses. Though these conditions do share overlap, there is a consensus that most geeks are arguably ""variant normal"" and do not exhibit autistic spectrum behaviors.",[4]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),6701639,2004-09-26T16:39:23Z,JTN,"The '''Circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal body clock"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around the day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[Chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The Circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the Circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm with no predictable pattern. This research has influenced the design of spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The Circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a Circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the retina which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the [[retina]], interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found behind the hypothalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Disruption to Circadian rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and insomnia. A number of other [[sleep disorder|sleep disorders]] are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","The '''Circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around the day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[Chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The Circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the Circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm with no predictable pattern. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The Circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a Circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found behind the hypothalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Disruption to Circadian rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
[[Category:Sleep]]",[9]
Code injection,External links,7636651,2004-10-13T19:41:22Z,62.134.121.173,,"*Article ""[http://www.codeproject.com/threads/winspy.asp Three Ways to Inject Your Code into Another Process]"" by [[Robert Kuster]]
*Article ""[http://codebreakers-journal.com/viewarticle.php?id=36 Unpacking by Code Injection]"" by [[Eduardo Labir]]
*Article ""[http://www.technicalinfo.net/papers/CSS.html HTML Code Injection and Cross-site scripting - Understanding the cause and effect of CSS (XSS) Vulnerabilities]"" by [[Gunter Ollmann]]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=code+injection Citations from CiteSeer]
[[Category:Software development]]
{{stub}}","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
Prion,Classification,7671425,2004-11-12T05:42:49Z,203.114.131.19,"
[[Mammal]]ian prions, agents of spongiform encephalopathies
",[11]
Genetic engineering,Ethics,8062427,2004-12-02T07:24:56Z,67.38.162.238,"Proponents of genetic engineering argue that the technology is not harmful, and that it is necessary in order to maintain [[food]] production that will continue to match population growth. However, others argue that food distribution, not production, is the problem, citing that the population growth is actually a result of uneven distribution of food (and wealth).
Others oppose genetic engineering on the grounds that genetic modifications may have unforeseen consequences, both in the initially modified organisms, and their environments. For example, certain strains of [[maize]] have been developed that are toxic to plant eating insects (see [[bt corn]]). However, when those strains cross-polinated with other varieties of wild and domestic maize, the relevant genes were passed on in unintended ways. This introduced a new gene into the [[gene pool]] of the maize population outside of the crop field. The ecological and environmental effects of [[transgenic plants]] are constantly being investigated to prevent negative impacts.
Anti-genetic-engineering groups propose that genetic releases such as this represent the opening of a [[Pandora's box]] which may ultimately accelerate the collapse of the modern system of [[agriculture]], decreasing rather than increasing the food supply. They say that with current recombinant technology there is no way to ensure that [[genetically modified organism]]s remain under control, and the use of this technology outside of secure laboratory environments carries grave risks for the future.
Many also fear that certain types of genetically engineered crops will enable the elimination of all [[biodiversity]] in the cropland; [[herbicide]]-tolerant crops will for example be treated with the relevant herbicide to the extent that there are no wild [[plant]]s ('weeds') able to survive, and plants toxic to insects will mean [[insect]]-free crops. This could result in major declines in other wildlife (e.g. [[bird]]s) which depend on weed [[seed]]s and/or insects for food resources. The recent (2003) farm scale studies in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] found this to be the case with GM [[sugar beet]] and GM [[rapeseed]], but not with GM maize (though in the last instance, the non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treated with environmentally damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use in the [[EU]]).
Proponents of current genetic techniques as applied to food plants cite the benefits that the technology can have, for example, in the harsh agricultural conditions of third world countries. They say that with modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under the relatively hostile conditions providing much needed food to their people. While submitting that precautions should be made to ensure that any modified crops are contained, they say that their genetically engineered crops are not significantly different from those modified by nature or humans in the past, and by extension are not dangerous to other crops. There is gene transfer between unicellular [[eukaryote]]s and [[prokaryote]]s. There have been no known genetic catastrophes as a result of this.","Proponents of genetic engineering argue that the technology is safe, and that it is necessary in order to maintain [[food]] production that will continue to match population growth. However, others argue that food distribution, not production, is the biggest problem, citing that the population growth is actually a result of uneven distribution of food (and wealth).
Others oppose genetic engineering on the grounds that genetic modifications may have unforeseen consequences, both in the initially modified organisms, and their environments. For example, certain strains of [[maize]] have been developed that are toxic to plant eating insects (see [[bt corn]]). However, when those strains cross-polinated with other varieties of wild and domestic maize, the relevant genes were passed on. This introduced a new gene into the [[gene pool]] of the maize population outside of the crop field. The ecological and environmental effects of [[transgenic plants]] are constantly being investigated.
Anti-genetic-engineering activists say that with current recombinant technology there is no way to ensure that [[genetically modified organism]]s will remain under control, and the use of this technology outside of secure laboratory environments carries unacceptable risks for the future.
Some fear that certain types of genetically engineered crops will further reduce [[biodiversity]] in the cropland; [[herbicide]]-tolerant crops will for example be treated with the relevant herbicide to the extent that there are no wild [[plant]]s ('weeds') able to survive, and plants toxic to insects will mean [[insect]]-free crops. This could result in declines in other wildlife (e.g. [[bird]]s) which depend on weed [[seed]]s and/or insects for food resources. The recent (2003) farm scale studies in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] found this to be the case with GM [[sugar beet]] and GM [[rapeseed]], but not with GM maize (though in the last instance, the non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treated with environmentally damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use in the [[EU]]).
Proponents of current genetic techniques as applied to food plants cite the benefits that the technology can have, for example, in the harsh agricultural conditions of third world countries. They say that with modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under the relatively hostile conditions providing much needed food to their people. Proponents also like to cite golden rice, a genetically engineered rice variety (still under development) that contains elevated vitamin A levels. There is hope that this rice may alleviate vitamin A deficiency that contributes to the death of millions annually.
Proponents say that genetically engineered crops are not significantly different from those modified by nature or humans in the past, and by extension are as safe or even safer than such methods. There is gene transfer between unicellular [[eukaryote]]s and [[prokaryote]]s. There have been no known genetic catastrophes as a result of this.","[1, 2, 3, 6]"
Dream,Lucid dreaming,8144234,2004-12-04T17:48:12Z,Conti,"{{cleanup}}
Lucid dreaming researchers often define lucid dreaming as simply ""being aware in a dream that one is dreaming"". Many others define a lucid dream as a dream in which the dreamer has full awareness that the situation he is in is a construct of his mind, and thus can analyse the situation logically and react accordingly. Such full awareness adds numerous extra abilities to the dreamer. The dreamer usually has control of the direction of the dream and can thus explore the dream world. This control is particularly helpful during nightmares, when the dream self can turn round and face the attacker to confront or destroy it. When lucid, the dreamer usually has direct control of the dream environment, and hence can do things impossible in real life, such as making new objects appear, polymorphing, or flying. Lucid dreams can occur spontaneously, especially during youth, but for lucid dreams to occur more frequently, dedication and practice is almost always necessary.
Lucid dreams can be categorized into DILDs (Dream-Initiated Lucid Dreams) and WILDs (Wake-Initiated Lucid Dreams). DILDs start as non-lucid dreams, but at some point in the dream the dreamer realizes they're dreaming. In a WILD, conscious logic and reasoning is preserved while the dreamer transitions from waking to dreaming, and the dreamer is lucid from the beginning of the dream. These uses of ""WILD"" and ""DILD"" have mostly fallen into disuse (or rather they mostly never came into use), though ""WILD"" is often used to refer to any technique in general that happens to induce a wake-initiated lucid dream, by moving directly from conscious wakefulness to conscious dreaming.
''Lucid dreamers'' are those who practise lucid dreaming frequently for personal or spiritual gain. They usually induce lucid dreams through the use of one of many induction techniques. A common technique, known as MILD (Mnemonic Induction of Lucid Dreams) and developed by [[Stephen LaBerge]], consists of remembering to recognize that they are dreaming the next time they have a dream.
See the [[lucid dreaming]] article for a more in-depth look at the subject.",":''Main article: [[Lucid dreaming]]''
Lucid dreaming researchers often define lucid dreaming as simply ""being aware in a dream that one is dreaming"". Many others define a lucid dream as a dream in which the dreamer has full [[awareness]] that the situation he is in is a construct of his mind, and thus can analyse the situation logically and react accordingly. Such full awareness adds numerous extra abilities to the dreamer. The dreamer usually has control of the direction of the dream and can thus explore the dream world. This control is particularly helpful during [[nightmare]]s, when the dream self can turn round and face the attacker to confront or destroy it. When lucid, the dreamer usually has direct control of the dream environment, and hence can do things impossible in real life, such as making new objects appear, polymorphing, or [[flight|flying]]. Lucid dreams can occur spontaneously, especially during youth, but for lucid dreams to occur more frequently, dedication and practice is almost always necessary.
Lucid dreams can be categorized into Dream-Initiated Lucid Dreams (DILDs) and Wake-Initiated Lucid Dreams (WILDs). DILDs start as non-lucid dreams, but at some point in the dream the dreamer realizes they're dreaming. In a WILD, conscious logic and [[reasoning]] is preserved while the dreamer transitions from [[awake|waking]] to dreaming, and the dreamer is lucid from the beginning of the dream. These uses of ""WILD"" and ""DILD"" have mostly fallen into disuse (or rather they mostly never came into use), though ""WILD"" is often used to refer to any technique in general that happens to induce a wake-initiated lucid dream, by moving directly from conscious wakefulness to conscious dreaming.
''Lucid dreamers'' are those who practise lucid dreaming frequently for personal or [[spirituality|spiritual]] gain. They usually induce lucid dreams through the use of one of many induction techniques. A common technique, known as MILD (Mnemonic Induction of Lucid Dreams) and developed by [[Stephen LaBerge]], consists of remembering to recognize that they are dreaming the next time they have a dream.",[9]
Gene therapy,Types of gene therapy,8382446,2004-12-13T03:01:22Z,67.68.4.153,"In theory it isn't possible to transform either [[somatic cell]]s (most cells of the body) or cells of the [[germline]] (such as [[stem cell]]s, [[sperm]] and [[Ovum|egg]]s). All gene therapy so far in people has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains only a highly controversial prospect. For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the [[chromosome]]s by [[recombination]].
Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ''ex vivo'' (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and ''in vivo'' (where genes are changed in cells still in the body.) Recombination-based approaches ''in vivo'' are especially uncommon, because for most [[DNA construct]]s recombination is a very low probability event.","In theory it is possible to transform either [[somatic cell]]s (most cells of the body) or cells of the [[germline]] (such as [[stem cell]]s, [[sperm]] and [[Ovum|egg]]s). All gene therapy so far in people has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains only a highly controversial prospect. For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the [[chromosome]]s by [[recombination]].
Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ''ex vivo'' (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and ''in vivo'' (where genes are changed in cells still in the body.) Recombination-based approaches ''in vivo'' are especially uncommon, because for most [[DNA construct]]s recombination is a very low probability event.",[3]
Stem cell,Ethical implications,8909545,2004-12-29T03:04:39Z,Nectarflowed,"Some [[ethicist]]s, [[philosopher]]s, [[theologian]]s and [[clergy]] are very concerned with the ethical implications of embryonic stem cell research. In the U.S. many [[ Fundamentalism | Fundamentalist ]] and [[Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Christianity|Christian]] groups have come out strongly against embryonic stem cell research as they view it as a form of [[abortion]], which these [[Morality and legality of abortion|Pro-life]] groups see as murder (many of those opposing embryonic stem cell research advocate adult stem cell research as an alternative [http://www.usccb.org/comm/archives/2001/01-101.htm]).
However, some proponents of embryonic stem cell research point out that fertility clinics routinely destroy thousands of embryos and have not been similarly protested against, and question the motivation of opponents of research [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101040531-641157,00.html]. Proponents also point out that embryos used for stem cell research would normally be discarded or kept frozen indefinitely if not used in research. Many [[Jew]]ish groups are supportive of embryonic research, as they do not view an early stage embryo as a human being. Many [[Humanist]]s, [[Unitarian Universalist]]s, and many [[Muslim]] clerics have also come out in favor of embryonic stem cell research.
Arguing in favour of embryonic stem cell research, one scientist was quoted as saying that embryos contain only a few tens of cells and ""the smallest insect is far more human in every respect except potential"" [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101040531-641157,00.html]. Another argument made against embryo's being considered human beings is that the [[blastocyst]] from which the stem cells are taken may still divide into two embryos making [[identical twins]], or (in rare cases), merge with another fertilized zygote to create a [[chimera (animal)|chimera]], and therefore the blatocyst can not yet be considered an individual life. How surgical chimeras such as transplant recipients retain their humanity under this theory seems less than clear.
Some scientists also defend the use of embryos, citing the medical benefits that may one day be possible to achieve with them and the fact that many would have been destroyed, regardless. Pro-life groups respond that it could be possible to achieve the same benefits from the use of adult stem cells. There are many researchers who have looked at the available evidence and have concluded that after several years of research there still aren't any practical medical treatments developed from embryonic stem cells. Many researchers argue that the embryonic stem cells may not be able to treat actual medical conditions because they many not be able to grow beyond the first stages of cell development. One obstacle to the application of embryonic stem cells is that they have surface proteins that often cause rejection, and implanted embryonic stem cells also have an unfortunate tendency to multiply uncontrollably as a type of cancer.
Another controversy in the use of embryonic stem cells is the use of [[therapeutic cloning]]. This involves the [[cloning]] of early embryos from which stem cells are harvested, providing a larger source of the cells. Some see this as a form of reproductive [[human cloning]], which they think is dangerous, unethical and morally wrong in any form because it uses people as means and not ends in themselves.","Some [[ethicist]]s, [[philosopher]]s, [[theologian]]s and [[clergy]] are very concerned with the ethical implications of embryonic stem cell research. In the U.S. many [[ Fundamentalism | Fundamentalist ]] and [[Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Christianity|Christian]] groups have come out strongly against embryonic stem cell research as they view it as a form of [[abortion]], which they see as murder (many of those opposing embryonic stem cell research advocate adult stem cell research as an alternative [http://www.usccb.org/comm/archives/2001/01-101.htm]).
However, some proponents of research point out that fertility clinics routinely destroy thousands of embryos and have not been similarly protested against, and question the motivation of opponents of research [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101040531-641157,00.html]. Proponents also point out that embryos used for stem cell research would normally be discarded or kept frozen indefinitely if not used in research. Many [[Jew]]ish groups are supportive of embryonic research, as they do not view an early stage embryo as a human being. Many [[Humanist]]s, [[Unitarian Universalist]]s, and many [[Muslim]] clerics have also come out in favor of stem cell research.
US [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] announced his executive decision on [[August 11]], [[2001]], after consulting with ""scientists, scholars, bioethicists, religious leaders, doctors, researchers, members of Congress, [his] Cabinet, and [his] friends"" and reading ""heartfelt letters from many Americans,"" to prohibit the use of federal funding to work with embryonic cell lines created after that date. In [[2002]], President Bush appointed a [[Council on Bioethics]] composed of 18 doctors, legal and ethical scholars, scientists and a journalist. In [[February]], [[2004]] Bush removed from the council professors of ethics [[William May]] and biologist [[Elizabeth Blackburn]]. These two outspoken advocates of stem cell research were replaced with Benjamin Carson, Diana Schaub and Peter Lawler, all three of whom have expressed more conservative views on biotechnology.
The Bush administration's decision does not prohibit ''private'' embryonic stem cell research, but so far most [[pharmaceutical]] companies and [[biotechnology]] companies have expressed little interest because they consider therapies based on cells, which might have to be tailored to each patient, to be less profitable than one-size-fits-all drugs. Others are reluctant to enter the market because they fear government bans, preventing them from capitalizing on the reseach.
As a result of the ban, the US, normally a global leader in science, has fallen behind other countries in embryonic stem cell research, including [[South Korea]] (successfully cloning human embryos in early 2004 and extracting stem cells from them) and the [[United Kingdom]] (creating the world's first [[stem cell bank]] in May 2004). Because other countries have moved forward with their stem cell research programs, some in the US have questioned the Bush Administration's ban.
In April [[2004]], 206 members of Congress, including many [[United_States_Republican_Party#Factions_of_the_Republican_Party|moderate republicans]], and some other prominent public figures signed a letter urging President Bush to relax the policy. The 2004 Democratic presidential candidate, [[John Kerry]], had promised to support all types of stem cell research if elected President, but his defeat in the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004]] meant that embryonic stem cell research in the US would occur mainly in California, due to the passing of California's Prop. 71.","[1, 2, 4, 5, 9]"
Stem cell,Embryonic stem cells,9029657,2005-01-02T01:26:16Z,Nectarflowed,"Stem cells which derived from the inner mass cells of a blastocyst (future [[embryo]]) have pluripotent properties—they are able to grow into any of the 200 cell types in the body. Embryonic stem cells can be obtained from a cloned embryo, created by fusing a denucleated [[egg cell]] with a patient's cell. The embryo produced is allowed to grow to the size of a few tens of cells, and stem cells are then extracted. Because they are obtained from a clone, they are genetically compatible with the patient.
Embryonic stem cell researchers have not yet been able to grow the cells beyond the first stages of cell development. Another obstacle in embryonic stem cell research is that embryonic stem cells have surface proteins that often cause rejection, and implanted embryonic stem cells also have a tendency to multiply uncontrollably, producing [[cancer]].
In [[May]] of [[2003]], researchers announced that they had successfully used embryonic stem cells to produce human egg cells. Spokespersons stated that these egg cells could potentially be used in turn to produce new stem cells. If research and testing proves that artificially created egg cells could be a viable source for embryonic stem cells, they noted, then this would remove the necessity of harvesting human embryos. Thus, the controversy over donating human egg cells and embryos would be largely dismissed, except that an embryo is required to start each cycle.","Stem cells which derived from the inner mass cells of a blastocyst (future [[embryo]]) have pluripotent properties—they are able to grow into any of the 200 cell types in the body. Embryonic stem cells can be obtained from a cloned embryo, created by fusing a denucleated [[egg cell]] with a patient's cell. The embryo produced is allowed to grow to the size of a few tens of cells, and stem cells are then extracted. Because they are obtained from a clone, they are genetically compatible with the patient.
The breakthrough in embryonic stem cell research came in [[1998]] when a group led by [[James Thomson]] at the [[University of Wisconsin]] first developed a technique to isolate and grow the cells. Embryonic stem cell researchers are currently attempting to grow the cells beyond the first stages of cell development, to overcome difficulties in host rejection of implanted stem cells, and to control the multiplying of implanted embryonic stem cells, which otherwise multiply uncontrollably, producing [[cancer]].
A major development in research came in [[May]] [[2003]], when researchers announced that they had successfully used embryonic stem cells to produce human egg cells. These egg cells could potentially be used in turn to produce new stem cells. If research and testing proves that artificially created egg cells could be a viable source for embryonic stem cells, they noted, then this would remove the necessity of starting a new embryonic stem cell line with the destruction of an embryo. Thus, the controversy over donating human egg cells and embryos could potentially be resolved, though an embryo would still be required to start each cycle.","[1, 3, 4, 5, 9]"
Genetic engineering,External links,9059806,2004-12-07T10:29:38Z,LiDaobing,"*[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants]
*[http://www.nanoaging.com/modules.php?name=News&new_topic=5 News about Genomics]
[[da:Gensplejsning]]
[[de:Gentechnologie]]
[[eo:Gentekniko]]
[[nl:Genetische manipulatie]]
[[es:ingeniería genética]]
[[pl:Inżynieria genetyczna]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]","*[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants]
*[http://www.nanoaging.com/modules.php?name=News&new_topic=5 News about Genomics]
[[da:Gensplejsning]]
[[de:Gentechnologie]]
[[eo:Gentekniko]]
[[nl:Genetische manipulatie]]
[[es:ingeniería genética]]
[[pl:Inżynieria genetyczna]]
[[zh:基因工程]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),9553788,2005-01-16T03:13:47Z,Murtasa,"The '''Circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around the day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[Chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The Circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the Circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm with no predictable pattern. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The Circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a Circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found behind the hypothalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
[[Category:Sleep]]","The '''Circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around the day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[Chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The Circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the Circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm with no predictable pattern. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The Circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a Circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found behind the hypothalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]",[11]
Human cloning,References,10101737,2005-02-09T17:05:29Z,Ceyockey,"* Hwang WS, et al. Evidence of a Pluripotent Human Embryonic Stem Cell Line Derived from a Cloned Blastocyst. ''Science''. 2004 Feb 12 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=14963337&dopt=Abstract]","* Hwang WS, et al. Evidence of a Pluripotent Human Embryonic Stem Cell Line Derived from a Cloned Blastocyst. ''Science''. 2004 Feb 12 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=14963337&dopt=Abstract]
{{fnb|1}} Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (UK) (August 11, 2004). ''[http://www.hfea.gov.uk/PressOffice/Archive/1092233888 HFEA grants the first therapeutic cloning licence for research]''. Press Release.
{{fnb|2}} Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (UK) (February 8, 2005). ''[http://www.hfea.gov.uk/PressOffice/Archive/1107861560 HFEA grants embryonic stem cell research licence to study motor neuron disease]''. Press Release.","[1, 4]"
Methamphetamine,Cons,11557216,2005-03-26T23:55:34Z,212.55.212.99,"* Causes severe [[psychological addiction]]
* Causes [[depression]]
* Decreased thinking & brain activity {long-term}
* Causes severe tooth decay when smoked or snorted
* Damages the [[immune system]], making the user prone to infections
* Death","* Causes severe [[psychological addiction]]
* Causes [[depression]]
* Decreased thinking & brain activity {long-term}
* Causes severe tooth decay when smoked or snorted
* Damages the [[brain]], it is [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxic]]
* Damages the [[immune system]], making the user prone to infections
* Death","[1, 9, 4]"
K-d tree,(Top),11751540,2005-04-01T01:13:39Z,Reedbeta,,"In [[computer science]], a '''''k''d-tree''' (short for ''k-dimensional tree'') is a [[space partitioning|space-partitioning]] [[data structure]] for organizing points in a ''k''-dimensional [[Euclidean space|space]]. ''k''d-trees are a special case of [[BSP tree]]s.
Technically, the letter ''k'' refers to the number of dimensions. A 3-dimensional ''k''d-tree would be called a 3d-tree. However, the phrase ""3-dimensional ''k''d-tree"" is both more commonly used, and more descriptive (since a 3-dimensional tree could be any of a variety of different things, but the term ''k''d-tree refers to a specific
Briefly, a ''k''d-tree uses only splitting planes that are perpendicular to one of the [[coordinate system]] axes, and the axis used is rotated at each level of the tree. For example, in 2 dimensions, the splitting plane at the [[root node]] would be perpendicular to the ''x'' axis, the splitting planes at the first-level nodes would be perpendicular to the ''y'' axis, and the splitting planes at the second level would again be perpendicular to the ''x'' axis.","[1, 4, 9]"
K-d tree,Complexity,11751540,2005-04-01T01:13:39Z,Reedbeta,,"* Building a static ''k''d-tree from ''n'' points takes [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') time.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Methamphetamine,Military use,11874596,2005-04-04T06:01:26Z,68.20.33.140,"Methamphetamine is sometimes given to fighting troops and [[aviator|pilots]] during [[war]]time by their government. It tends to suppress fear and emotion and make users aggressive and violent. This is appealing to military commanders who want their soldiers to charge into battle without fear.
During [[World War II]], it was widely used by the armed forces of both sides under the name ''Pervitin''. Both the German [[Wehrmacht]] and the Soviet Red Army regularly distributed methamphetamine to its troops. It has been recently discovered that [[Hitler]] was a methamphetamine user by IV Injection. Methamphetamine was also passed out to [[Japan]]ese [[kamikaze]] pilots during World War II.","Methamphetamine is sometimes given to fighting troops and [[aviator|pilots]] during [[war]]time by their governments. It tends to suppress fear, facilitate confident violence without hesitation and sharpen response times, for instance, in pilots.
During [[World War II]], it was widely used by the armed forces of both sides under the name ''Pervitin''. Both the German [[Wehrmacht]] and the Soviet Red Army regularly distributed methamphetamine to its troops. It has been recently discovered that [[Hitler]] was a methamphetamine user by IV Injection. Methamphetamine was also passed out to [[Japan]]ese [[kamikaze]] pilots during World War II.","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,12469820,2005-04-12T21:58:01Z,Spalding,,"*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]","[1, 9]"
Context-free grammar,See also,12476030,2005-04-15T07:06:31Z,Tyler McHenry,"* [[Parsing]]
* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]
* [[SCIgen]], a random research paper generator
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[de:Kontextfreie Grammatik]]
[[fr:Grammaire hors-contexte]]
[[pl:Język bezkontekstowy]]
[[ja:文脈自由言語]]
[[zh:上下文无关文法]]","* [[Parsing]]
* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[de:Kontextfreie Grammatik]]
[[fr:Grammaire hors-contexte]]
[[pl:Język bezkontekstowy]]
[[ja:文脈自由言語]]
[[zh:上下文无关文法]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Plant Circadian Rhythms,12514296,2005-04-18T08:26:08Z,Doucher,,"Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus, they are intimatly associated with their environment. This ability to anticipate daily changes in temperature and light period is of great advantage to plants. At the most basic level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[genes]]. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs. For example, as the days grow shorter and cooler, plants are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter.
The study of circadian rhythms is of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance. A Better understanding of these genes will allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, better able to survive in cold temperatures. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),12514496,2005-04-19T10:04:01Z,217.41.241.254,jihji,no such thing,[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),12525256,2005-04-19T10:11:12Z,A scientist,no such thing,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 9, 4]"
Hypnosis,References,12928616,2005-04-27T14:01:01Z,Jpgordon,"* Mind control, Research by G. Wagstaff, Dept. of Psychology, University of Liverpool
* Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief by G. Wagstaff, (1981).
* The Highly Hypnotizable Person, Michael Heap, Richard J. Brown & David A. Oakley, (2004), Routledge
* Better and Better Every Day, [[Emile Coue]], (1960).
* Uncommon Therapy, [[Jay Haley]] (about the psychotherapeutic intervention techniques of [[Milton Erickson]])
* Advanced Self Hypnosis, [[Melvin Powers]], Thorsons Publishers, 1973, ISBN-0-7225-0058-0
* Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism, [[Georgia Byng]]
* Open to suggestion. The uses and abuses of hypnosis. [[Robert Temple]], 1989, ISBN 1-85030-710-4
* Hypnosis & Hypnotherapy Reference & Research Articles. '''Institute of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Psychotherapy''' : ''Dr Joe E.'' [[Keaney]]","* Mind control, Research by G. Wagstaff, Dept. of Psychology, University of Liverpool
* Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief by G. Wagstaff, (1981).
* The Highly Hypnotizable Person, Michael Heap, Richard J. Brown & David A. Oakley, (2004), Routledge
* Better and Better Every Day, [[Emile Coue]], (1960).
* Uncommon Therapy, [[Jay Haley]] (about the psychotherapeutic intervention techniques of [[Milton Erickson]])
* Advanced Self Hypnosis, [[Melvin Powers]], Thorsons Publishers, 1973, ISBN-0-7225-0058-0
* Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism, [[Georgia Byng]]
* Open to suggestion. The uses and abuses of hypnosis. [[Robert Temple]], 1989, ISBN 1-85030-710-4",[11]
Dream,Neurology of dreams,13284872,2005-05-03T20:20:31Z,Squirrel-monkey,"There are two competing stories as to the neurological cause of the dreaming experience. The state of REM sleep is known to be produced by a brain region known as the pons. The ''activation-synthesis theory'' states that the brain tries to interpret random impulses from the pons as sensory input, producing the vivid hallucinations we know as dreams. Sensory-based input interpretation is in turn based on past experience. Perhaps this is the reason why our dreams contain many characters and scenes from our regular lives. For some people, there are dreams that recur again and again over many years, sometimes with new additions derived from new experiences during waking life.
However, research by Mark Solms seems to suggest that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are two different brain systems. The debate between these two theories is ongoing.","There are two competing stories as to the neurological cause of the dreaming experience. The state of REM sleep is known to be produced by a brain region known as the pons. The ''activation-synthesis theory'', (developed by Hobson and McCarley), states that the brain tries to interpret random impulses from the pons as sensory input, producing the vivid hallucinations we know as dreams. Sensory-based input interpretation is in turn based on past experience. Perhaps this is the reason why our dreams contain many characters and scenes from our regular lives. For some people, there are dreams that recur again and again over many years, sometimes with new additions derived from new experiences during waking life.
However, research by Mark Solms seems to suggest that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are two different brain systems. The debate between these two theories is ongoing.",[5]
Circadian rhythm,See also,13396046,2005-05-07T12:12:54Z,213.64.90.184,"*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]","*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
Also have a look at the [[Reticular activating system]] in the [[Reticular formation]].
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]",[9]
Alzheimer's disease,External links,13902999,2005-05-18T21:04:07Z,71.36.39.51,"* [http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/Alzheimer.html Alzheimer's Disease: Molecular Mechanisms]
* [http://www.j-alz.com Journal of Alzheimer's Disease]
* [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders/dis_details.php?disID=5 Mental Health Matters: Alzheimer's Disease]
* [http://www.psychforums.com/forums/viewforum.php?f=155 Psych Forums: Alzheimer's Forum]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3959381.stm Molecule that could stop protein clumping preceding Alzheimer]
*[http://alz.org Alzheimer's Association]
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Memory disorders]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[ca:Malaltia d'Alzheimer]]
[[da:Alzheimers sygdom]]
[[de:Morbus Alzheimer]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Alzheimer]]
[[eo:Alchajmero]]
[[he:מחלת אלצהיימר]]
[[ms:Alzheimer]]
[[nl:Ziekte van Alzheimer]]
[[ja:アルツハイマー型痴呆]]
[[pl:Choroba Alzheimera]]
[[pt:Alzheimer]]
[[tr:Alzheimer]]","* [http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/Alzheimer.html Alzheimer's Disease: Molecular Mechanisms]
* [http://www.j-alz.com Journal of Alzheimer's Disease]
* [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders/dis_details.php?disID=5 Mental Health Matters: Alzheimer's Disease]
* [http://www.psychforums.com/forums/viewforum.php?f=155 Psych Forums: Alzheimer's Forum]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3959381.stm Molecule that could stop protein clumping preceding Alzheimer]
* [http://alz.org Alzheimer's Association]
* [http://helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_dementias.htm Alzheimer's and Other Dementias: Types and Diagnosis]
* [http://helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_disease_symptoms_stages.htm Alzheimer's Disease: Signs, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Stages]
* [http://helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_prevention_slowing_down_treatment.htm Preventing, Slowing Down, and Treating Alzheimer's Disease]
* [http://helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_disease_dementias_caring_caregivers.htm Caring for a Person with Alzheimer’s Disease or Another Dementia]
* [http://helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_disease_dementia_caring_final_stage.htm Caring for a Person in the Final Stage of Alzheimer’s Disease or Another Dementia]
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Memory disorders]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[ca:Malaltia d'Alzheimer]]
[[da:Alzheimers sygdom]]
[[de:Morbus Alzheimer]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Alzheimer]]
[[eo:Alchajmero]]
[[he:מחלת אלצהיימר]]
[[ms:Alzheimer]]
[[nl:Ziekte van Alzheimer]]
[[ja:アルツハイマー型痴呆]]
[[pl:Choroba Alzheimera]]
[[pt:Alzheimer]]
[[tr:Alzheimer]]",[11]
Hypnosis,Psychological hypnosis,13937260,2005-05-11T16:59:32Z,Kingturtle,"MOOOOOO BITCH
In 1993, they defined hypnosis as ""a procedure during which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or experimental participant experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior."" (Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis [1993, Fall]. ''Psychological Hypnosis: A Bulletin of Division 30'', 2, p. 7.), citation culled from [http://www.hypnosis-research.org/hypnosis/serious.html].
This definition has been revised, and as of March, 2005, it reads ""Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented"" [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30/hypnosis.html].","The [[American Psychological Association]]'s Divison 30, the [[American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis|Division of Psychological Hypnosis]] [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30/], ""brings together psychologists and other professionals interested in scientific and applied hypnosis"".
In 1993, they defined hypnosis as ""a procedure during which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or experimental participant experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior."" (Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis [1993, Fall]. ''Psychological Hypnosis: A Bulletin of Division 30'', 2, p. 7.), citation culled from [http://www.hypnosis-research.org/hypnosis/serious.html].
This definition has been revised, and as of March, 2005, it reads ""Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented"" [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30/hypnosis.html].",[9]
Human cloning,The current status of cloned-embryo research,14066435,2005-05-22T14:02:37Z,Visviva,"In 1998, [[South Korean]] scientists claimed to have created the first cloned human embryo, but the results were never published and many doubt that they had done so.
In the [[November 25]], [[2001]], issue of the ''Journal of Regenerative Medicine'', a US company [[Advanced Cell Technology]] claimed that it had successfully created a clone of a human, in the form of an embryo. ACT vice president Dr. Robert Lanza said that the company's intention was to use this in therapeutic cloning, in order to harvest embryonic [[stem cell]]s from a patient.
Some scientists objected that the ACT cloning had not actually been successful because the cloned embryos had only divided a few times, meaning it was possible that the transplanted genetic material had not actually been used. Further criticisms were of the company's inability to collect much useful information from the experiment, and of their inability to harvest stem cells. The company stressed that it was against reproductive cloning and they hoped to develop purely therapeutic processes.
In 2004, a group of scientists led by [[Woo Suk Hwang]] of [[Seoul National University]] in [[Korea]] claimed to have grown 30 cloned human embryos to the one-week stage, and then successfully harvested stem cells from them. The results of their experiment were published in the peer-reviewed journal [[Science (journal)|Science]].","In 1998, [[South Korean]] scientists claimed to have created the first cloned human embryo, but the results were never published and many doubt that they had done so.
In the [[November 25]], [[2001]], issue of the ''Journal of Regenerative Medicine'', a US company [[Advanced Cell Technology]] claimed that it had successfully created a clone of a human, in the form of an embryo. ACT vice president Dr. Robert Lanza said that the company's intention was to use this in therapeutic cloning, in order to harvest embryonic [[stem cell]]s from a patient.
Some scientists objected that the ACT cloning had not actually been successful because the cloned embryos had only divided a few times, meaning it was possible that the transplanted genetic material had not actually been used. Further criticisms were of the company's inability to collect much useful information from the experiment, and of their inability to harvest stem cells. The company stressed that it was against reproductive cloning and they hoped to develop purely therapeutic processes.
In 2004, a group of scientists led by [[Woo Suk Hwang]] of [[Seoul National University]] in [[Korea]] claimed to have grown 30 cloned human embryos to the one-week stage, and then successfully harvested stem cells from them. The results of their experiment were published in the peer-reviewed journal [[Science (journal)|Science]]. This technique, however, was widely regarded as too time-consuming and difficult to be clinically useful [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=24835].
In May [[2005]], Hwang's team announced the creation of 11 lines of human stem cells, using a different technique (Hwang et al. 2005). Using this technique, the team was able to develop stem cells for use in treating specific patients. This appears to open the door to therapeutic cloning. This discovery added urgency to the global ethical debate on stem-cell research, and brought condemnation from conservative leaders including [[George W. Bush]] [http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200505/200505220006.html] and [[Vatican City|Vatican]] prelate [[Elio Sgreccia]] [http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=37270].","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Prion,Molecular Properties of Prions,14369688,2005-05-28T19:16:59Z,Purple,"A great deal of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of yeast prion proteins.
[[Image:Yeast-Prion.gif|left| Atomic force micrograph of Sup35p prion domain amyloids]]
A typical yeast prion proteins contain a region ([[protein domain]]) with many repeats of the amino acids [[glutamine]] (Q) and [[asparagine]] (N); these Q/N-rich domains form the core of the prion's structure. Ordinarily, prion domains are flexible and lack a defined structure. When they convert to the prion state, several molecules of a particular protein come together to form a highly structured [[amyloid]] fiber (see figure at left). The end of the fiber acts as a template for the free protein molecules, causing the fiber to grow. Small differences in the amino acid sequence of prion-forming regions lead to distinct structural features on the surface of prion fibers. As a result, only free protein molecules that are identical in amino acid sequence to the prion protein can be recruited into the growing fiber. This ""specificity"" phenomenon may explain why transmission of prion diseases from one species to another (such as from sheep to cows or from cows to humans) is a rare event.
[[Image:Prion.gif|right| Molecular Model of PrP Structure]]
The mammalian prion proteins do not resemble the prion proteins of yeast in their amino acid sequence. Nonetheless, the basic structural features (formation of amyloid fibers and a highly specific barrier to transmission between species) are shared between [[mammal]]ian and yeast prions. The prion variant responsible for mad cow disease has the remarkable ability to bypass the [[species]] barrier to transmission.
The figure at right shows a model of two conformations of PrP; on the left is the known, normal, [[alpha helix|alpha helical]] PrPC structure, while on the right is a proposed model of how the abnormal PrPSc form might look. Although the exact 3D structure of PrPSc is not known, there is increased [[beta sheet|β sheet]] content (green arrows) in the prion version of the molecule. These [[beta sheet|β sheets]] can lead to [[amyloid]] aggregation.","A great deal of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of yeast prion proteins.
[[Image:Yeast-Prion.gif|left| Atomic force micrograph of Sup35p prion domain amyloids]]
A typical yeast prion proteins contain a region ([[protein domain]]) with many repeats of the amino acids [[glutamine]] (Q) and [[asparagine]] (N); these Q/N-rich domains form the core of the prion's structure. Ordinarily, prion domains are flexible and lack a defined structure. When they convert to the prion state, several molecules of a particular protein come together to form a highly structured [[amyloid]] fiber (see figure at left). The end of the fiber acts as a template for the free protein molecules, causing the fiber to grow. Small differences in the amino acid sequence of prion-forming regions lead to distinct structural features on the surface of prion fibers. As a result, only free protein molecules that are identical in amino acid sequence to the prion protein can be recruited into the growing fiber. This ""specificity"" phenomenon may explain why transmission of prion diseases from one species to another (such as from sheep to cows or from cows to humans) is a rare event.
[[Image:Prion.gif|right| Molecular Model of PrP Structure]]
The mammalian prion proteins do not resemble the prion proteins of yeast in their amino acid sequence. Nonetheless, the basic structural features (formation of amyloid fibers and a highly specific barrier to transmission between species) are shared between [[mammal]]ian and yeast prions. The prion variant responsible for mad cow disease has the remarkable ability to bypass the [[species]] barrier to transmission.
The figure at right shows a model of two conformations of PrP; on the left is the known, normal, [[alpha helix|alpha helical]] PrPC structure (to explore/download see the [http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pid=257211117306887&page=0&pdbId=1AG2 RSCB Protein Databank]), while on the right is a proposed model of how the abnormal PrPSc form might look. Although the exact 3D structure of PrPSc is not known, there is increased [[beta sheet|β sheet]] content (green arrows) in the prion version of the molecule (Pan, 1993). These [[beta sheet|β sheets]] can lead to [[amyloid]] aggregation.","[1, 3, 5]"
Prion,The Prion Hypothesis,14369688,2005-05-28T19:16:59Z,Purple,"The theory that [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|TSEs]] are caused by an infectious agent made solely of [[protein]] has been around since the 1960s. However it was not until [[1982]] that the prion protein itself was discovered, by [[Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], who was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine]] in [[1997]] for this discovery (see references). Prusiner coined the word ""prion"" by combining the first two syllables of the words ""proteinaceous"" and ""infectious"".
Prior to Prusiner's insight, all known [[pathogen]]s ([[bacterium|bacteria]], [[virus (biology)|virus]]es, etc.) contained [[nucleic acid]]s that are necessary for reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain the discovery in 1967 by T. Alper (see references) that the mysterious infectious agent causing [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids), yet responded to agents that disrupt proteins. Initially, this hypothesis was highly controversial, because it seemed to contradict the ""[[central dogma of modern biology]]"", which asserts that all living organisms use nucleic acids to reproduce. The ""protein-only hypothesis"" — that a protein (which, unlike [[DNA]], has no obvious means of replication) could reproduce itself — was initially met with skepticism. However, evidence has steadily accumulated in support of this hypothesis, and it is now widely accepted. Rather than contradicting the central role of DNA, however, the prion hypothesis suggests a special case in which merely changing the ''shape'', or conformation, of a protein (without changing its [[amino acid]] sequence) can alter its biological properties. The actual creation of the prion protein is still carried out by the [[ribosome]], while the infectious form of the prion protein only transfers the pathological [[Chemical_conformation|conformation]] to the proteins synthesized by the cell.
A breakthrough occurred when researchers discovered that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a specific protein, which Prusiner called PrP (an abbreviation for ""prion protein""). This protein is found in the [[cell membrane|membranes]] of normal [[cell (biology)|cells]] (its precise function is not known), but an altered shape distinguished the infectious agent. The normal one is called PrPC, while the infectious one is called PrPSc (the 'C' refers to 'cellular' PrP, while the 'Sc' refers to '[[scrapie]]', a prion disease occurring in sheep). It is hypothesized that the distorted protein somehow induces normal [[PrP structure]] to also become distorted, producing a [[chain reaction]] that both propagates the disease and generates new infectious material. Since the original hypothesis was proposed, a [[gene]] for the PrP protein has been isolated (the ''Prnp'' gene), several [[mutation]]s that cause the variant shape have been identified and successfully cloned, and studies using genetically altered mice have bolstered the prion hypothesis.
Although the identity and general properties of prions are now well-understood, the mechanism of prion infection and replication remains mysterious. It is generally assumed that PrPSc directly interacts with PrPC to cause the normal form of the protein to rearrange its structure. One idea (the ""Protein X"" hypothesis) is that an as-yet unidentified cellular protein (Protein X) enables the conversion of PrPC to PrPSc by bringing a molecule of each of the two together into a complex. An alternative idea is that prion propagation does not require direct action of a prion protein on a normal protein, but rather results from a positive [[feedback loop]] during the biosynthesis of PrP. In this view, the presence of PrPSc somehow alters the way in which PrP is synthesized, shunting it down an alternative folding pathway that results in the formation of more PrPSc instead of the normal PrPC form.
The degenerative diseases caused by prions are known collectively as '''""transmissible spongiform encephalopathies""''' or '''[[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|TSEs]]'''.","The theory that [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|TSEs]] are caused by an infectious agent made solely of [[protein]] has been around since the 1960s (Alper, 1967; Griffith, 1967). However it was not until [[1982]] that the prion protein itself was discovered, by [[Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], who was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine]] in [[1997]] for this discovery (Prusiner, 1982). Prusiner coined the word ""prion"" by combining the first two syllables of the words ""proteinaceous"" and ""infectious"".
Prior to Prusiner's insight, all known [[pathogen]]s ([[bacterium|bacteria]], [[virus (biology)|virus]]es, etc.) contained [[nucleic acid]]s that are necessary for reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain the discovery that the mysterious infectious agent causing [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids), yet responded to agents that disrupt proteins (Alper, 1967). Initially, this hypothesis was highly controversial, because it seemed to contradict the ""[[central dogma of modern biology]]"", which asserts that all living organisms use nucleic acids to reproduce. The ""protein-only hypothesis"" — that a protein (which, unlike [[DNA]], has no obvious means of replication) could reproduce itself — was initially met with skepticism. However, evidence has steadily accumulated in support of this hypothesis, and it is now widely accepted. Rather than contradicting the central role of DNA, however, the prion hypothesis suggests a special case in which merely changing the ''shape'', or conformation, of a protein (without changing its [[amino acid]] sequence) can alter its biological properties. The actual creation of the prion protein is still carried out by the [[ribosome]], while the infectious form of the prion protein only transfers the pathological [[Chemical_conformation|conformation]] to the proteins synthesized by the cell.
A breakthrough occurred when researchers discovered that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a specific protein, which Prusiner called PrP (an abbreviation for ""prion protein""). This protein is found in the [[cell membrane|membranes]] of normal [[cell (biology)|cells]] (its precise function is not known), but an altered shape distinguished the infectious agent. The normal one is called PrPC, while the infectious one is called PrPSc (the 'C' refers to 'cellular' PrP, while the 'Sc' refers to '[[scrapie]]', a prion disease occurring in sheep) (Oesch, 1985). It is hypothesized that the distorted protein somehow induces normal [[PrP structure]] to also become distorted, producing a [[chain reaction]] that both propagates the disease and generates new infectious material. Since the original hypothesis was proposed, a [[gene]] for the PrP protein has been isolated (the ''Prnp'' gene) (Oesch, 1985), several [[mutation]]s that cause the variant shape have been identified and successfully cloned, and studies using genetically altered mice have bolstered the prion hypothesis.
Although the identity and general properties of prions are now well-understood, the mechanism of prion infection and replication remains mysterious. It is generally assumed that PrPSc directly interacts with PrPC to cause the normal form of the protein to rearrange its structure. One idea (the ""Protein X"" hypothesis) is that an as-yet unidentified cellular protein (Protein X) enables the conversion of PrPC to PrPSc by bringing a molecule of each of the two together into a complex (Telling, 1995).
The degenerative diseases caused by prions are known collectively as '''""transmissible spongiform encephalopathies""''' or '''[[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|TSEs]]''' (Collinge, 2001).","[2, 3, 5]"
Stem cell,Origins of debate,14538722,2005-06-01T18:04:27Z,Keetoowah,"In [[1995]], Congress passed the [[Dickey Amendment]], prohibiting federal [[research funding|funding]] of research that involves the use of a human embryo. Privately funded research led to the breakthrough that made embryonic stem cell research possible in [[1998]], however, prompting the Clinton Administration to develop federal regulations for its funding. Preparations for this funding were completed in [[2001]]. President [[George W. Bush]] announced, on [[August 11]], 2001] that federal funds would be used to support research on the newly developed field of human embryonic stem cells, but that funding would be limited to ""existing (embryonic) stem cell lines where the 'life-and-death decision' has already been made."" This limitation does not apply to research involving stem cells from other sources, such as umbilical cord blood, placentas, and adult and animal tissues. Conservative religious groups felt the restrictions should have been stronger, while scientists generally felt frustrated with the restrictions.
In [[2002]], President Bush appointed the [[Council on Bioethics]], an advisory group composed of 18 doctors, legal and ethical scholars, scientists and a journalist. In [[February]], [[2004]] Bush removed from the council two advocates of embryonic stem cell research, professor of ethics William May and biologist [[Elizabeth Blackburn]]. In their place, he appointed pediatric neurosurgeon Dr. [[Benjamin Carson]], political scientist Dr. [[Diana Schaub]], and professor of government Dr. [[Peter Lawler]], all of whom have opposed research. Some scientists are concerned that embryonic stem cell research has become a politicized issue instead of a scientific issue in the national mindset, and feel that the politicization distorts representation of the scientific issues.","In [[1995]], Congress passed the [[Dickey Amendment]], prohibiting federal [[research funding|funding]] of research that involves the use of a human embryo. Privately funded research led to the breakthrough that made embryonic stem cell research possible in [[1998]], however, prompting the Clinton Administration to develop federal regulations for its funding. Preparations for this funding were completed in [[2001]]. President [[George W. Bush]] announced, on [[August 11]], 2001] that federal funds would be used to support research on the newly developed field of human embryonic stem cells, but that funding would be limited to ""existing (embryonic) stem cell lines where the 'life-and-death decision' has already been made."" This limitation does not apply to research involving stem cells from other sources, such as umbilical cord blood, placentas, and adult and animal tissues. Conservative religious groups felt the restrictions should have been stronger, while scientists generally felt frustrated with the restrictions.
In [[2002]], President Bush appointed the [[Council on Bioethics]], an advisory group composed of 18 doctors, legal and ethical scholars, scientists and a journalist. In [[February]], [[2004]] Bush removed from the council two advocates of embryonic stem cell research, professor of ethics William May and biologist [[Elizabeth Blackburn]]. In their place, he appointed pediatric neurosurgeon Dr. [[Benjamin Carson]], political scientist Dr. [[Diana Schaub]], and professor of government Dr. [[Peter Lawler]], all of whom have a more cautious point of view toward embryonic stem cell research. All of the Council members support adult stem cell research. Some scientists are concerned that embryonic stem cell research has become a politicized issue instead of a scientific issue in the national mindset, and feel that the politicization distorts representation of the scientific issues.",[11]
Dream,Neurology of dreams,15087765,2005-06-12T22:39:41Z,Conti,"There are two competing stories as to the neurological cause of the dreaming experience. The state of REM sleep is known to be produced by a brain region known as the pons. The ''activation-synthesis theory'', (developed by Hobson and McCarley), states that the brain tries to interpret random impulses from the pons as sensory input, producing the vivid hallucinations we know as dreams. Sensory-based input interpretation is in turn based on past experience. Perhaps this is the reason why our dreams contain many characters and scenes from our regular lives. For some people, there are dreams that recur again and again over many years, sometimes with new additions derived from new experiences during waking life.
The brain is often trying to resolve issues that may be bothering one by dreaming. It turns the problem or the fantasy into some crazy scheme and what do you have now but a dream?","There are two competing stories as to the neurological cause of the dreaming experience. The state of REM sleep is known to be produced by a brain region known as the pons. The ''activation-synthesis theory'', (developed by Hobson and McCarley), states that the brain tries to interpret random impulses from the pons as sensory input, producing the vivid hallucinations we know as dreams. Sensory-based input interpretation is in turn based on past experience. Perhaps this is the reason why our dreams contain many characters and scenes from our regular lives. For some people, there are dreams that recur again and again over many years, sometimes with new additions derived from new experiences during waking life.
However, research by Mark Solms seems to suggest that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are two different brain systems. The debate between these two theories is ongoing.","[1, 2, 4, 5]"
Dream,Neurology of dreams,15275074,2005-06-12T23:00:07Z,Conti,"There are two competing stories as to the neurological cause of the dreaming experience. The state of REM sleep is known to be produced by a brain region known as the pons. The ''activation-synthesis theory'', (developed by Hobson and McCarley), states that the brain tries to interpret random impulses from the pons as sensory input, producing the vivid hallucinations we know as dreams. Sensory-based input interpretation is in turn based on past experience. Perhaps this is the reason why our dreams contain many characters and scenes from our regular lives. For some people, there are dreams that recur again and again over many years, sometimes with new additions derived from new experiences during waking life.
The brain is often trying to resolve issues that may be bothering one by dreaming. It turns the problem or the fantasy into some crazy scheme and what do you have now but a dream?","There are two competing stories as to the neurological cause of the dreaming experience. The state of REM sleep is known to be produced by a brain region known as the pons. The ''activation-synthesis theory'', (developed by Hobson and McCarley), states that the brain tries to interpret random impulses from the pons as sensory input, producing the vivid hallucinations we know as dreams. Sensory-based input interpretation is in turn based on past experience. Perhaps this is the reason why our dreams contain many characters and scenes from our regular lives. For some people, there are dreams that recur again and again over many years, sometimes with new additions derived from new experiences during waking life.
However, research by Mark Solms seems to suggest that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are two different brain systems. The debate between these two theories is ongoing.","[1, 5]"
K-d tree,Determining where to evaluate a surface,15297319,2005-06-11T02:05:42Z,4.64.8.220,,"In [[local regression]], it is common to evaluate the fitted surface directly only at the vertices of a ''k''d-tree and to interpolate elsewhere. This use, which is pictured in the image above, is to ensure that only as many direct evaluations are performed as are necessary. Since the ''k''d-tree ""adapts"" itself to the space of predictor variables, this method can provide an excellent approximation to the true [[local regression|loess]] surface. If the approximation is poor, it can be improved by further subdivision of the tree's cells.","[1, 4, 9]"
Genetic engineering,Naming,15327188,2005-05-29T03:30:20Z,Thunderbolt16,"''Genetic modification''' or '''genetic manipulation''' are claimed to be neutral and possibly more technically correct terms for what is claimed, controversially, to be genetic engineering. Opponents question whether the concept of 'modification', with its implications of progress, are applicable here.
Many opponents of the use of the term 'genetic engineering' argue that the operations of genes in combination with [[cell biochemistry]] are rather poorly understood and sometimes lead to unexpected side effects.
Reluctance to recognize this field as ""engineering"" has become popular in the [[anti-globalization movement]] and [[safe trade]] movement, and is also widely held by most [[Green parties]], and the major parties of [[France]] and [[Germany]], which have resisted any [[agricultural policy]] favoring [[genetically-modified food]]. These groups tend to resist the label 'engineering' as applied to such genetic modification most strongly.
Defenders of the term ''genetic engineering'' argue that [[animal husbandry]] and [[crop breeding]] are also forms of genetic engineering that use [[artificial selection]] instead of modern genetic modification techniques. It is politics, they argue, not economics or science, that causes their work to be closely investigated, and for different standards to apply to it than those applied to other fields of [[engineering]]. These scientists, however, do not object to the term 'genetic modification' being applied to what they do, although it is sometimes used to deny them the status of professionals serving society in an ethical manner, which is one implication of the term [[engineer]].
The term ""genetic engineering"" is sometimes informally abbreviated as ""genegineering.""
""[[Transgenic]] organism"" is now the preferred term for genetically modified organisms with extra-genome information, as opposed to ""genetically engineered"" organisms.","The term ""genetic engineering"" is sometimes informally abbreviated as ""genegineering.""
""[[Transgenic]] organism"" is now the preferred term for genetically modified organisms with extra-genome information, as opposed to ""genetically engineered"" organisms.",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Plant circadian rhythms,15950773,2005-05-23T09:39:40Z,216.228.20.154,"Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to anticipate daily changes in temperature and light period is of great advantage to plants. At the most basic level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs. For example, as the days grow shorter and cooler, plants are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter.
The study of circadian rhythms is of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance. A better understanding of these genes will allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, better able to survive in cold temperatures. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.
HI EVERYONE!!!! SHARLEEN WAS HERE!!!! on the 23-05-05 my friend alex.e birthday today******","Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to anticipate daily changes in temperature and light period is of great advantage to plants. At the most basic level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs. For example, as the days grow shorter and cooler, plants are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter.
The study of circadian rhythms is of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance. A better understanding of these genes will allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, better able to survive in cold temperatures. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),17742165,2005-06-28T07:18:37Z,220.224.46.214,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants.
The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.",[2]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),17795147,2005-06-28T23:07:16Z,Doucher,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants.
The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 3, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),17842872,2005-06-29T17:56:46Z,MrSandman,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is rigidly linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"").
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, with out external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a circadian sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to rapidly react to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" Liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Von Neumann architecture,Earliest stored-program computers,18303095,2005-07-07T03:10:05Z,Bubba73,"Before the advent of the stored-program computer, computers were contolled either by executing one instruction at a time from [[punched cards]] or a [[paper tape]] (e.g. the [[Harvard Mark I]]) or wired for the current problem to be solved (e.g. the [[ENIAC]]). When the ENIAC was being designed, it was clear that reading instructions from punched cards or paper tape would not be fast enough since the ENIAC was designed to execute instructions at a much higher rate. The ENIAC was designed to be rewired for each new problem, but before the ENIAC was finished, it was clear that a better system was needed. The initial report on the proposed [[EDVAC]] was written during the time the ENIAC was being built, and it contained the idea of the stored program, where instructions were stored in high-speed memory, so they could be quickly accessed for execution.
The [[EDVAC]] was the first computer designed using the idea of the stored program, but it took five years to complete. The [[EDSAC]] is considered to be the first practical stored-program computer. Below are some dates pertaining to the first few stored-program computers, but the date information is difficult to put into proper order because some dates are for first running a test program, some dates are the first time the computer was demonstrated or completed, and some dates are for the first delivery or installation.
* The Manchester [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine|SSEM]] (the ''Baby'') was the first computer to run a stored program. It ran a factoring program for 52 minutes on June 21, 1948, after running a simple division program and a program to show that two numbers were [[coprime|relatively prime]].
* The [[BINAC]] ran some test programs in February, March, and April 1949, although it wasn't completed until September 1949.
* The [[Manchester Mark I]] grew out of the SSEM project. An intermediate version of the Mark I was available to run programs in April 1949, but it wasn't completed until October 1949.
* The EDSAC ran its first program on May 6, 1949.
* The EDVAC was delivered in August 1949, but it had problems that kept it from being put into regular operation until 1951.
* The [[CSIRAC|CSIR Mk I]] ran its first program in November, 1949.
* The [[SEAC (computer)|SEAC]] was demonstrated in April 1950.
* The [[Pilot ACE]] ran its first program on May 10, 1950 and was demonstrated in December 1950.
* The [[SWAC (computer)|SWAC]] was completed in July 1950.
* The first [[UNIVAC 1101|ERA Atlas]] (later the commercial ERA 1101/UNIVAC 1101) was installed in December 1950.","Before the advent of the stored-program computer, computers were contolled either by executing one instruction at a time from [[punched cards]] or a [[paper tape]] (e.g. the [[Harvard Mark I]]) or wired for the current problem to be solved (e.g. the [[ENIAC]]). When the ENIAC was being designed, it was clear that reading instructions from punched cards or paper tape would not be fast enough since the ENIAC was designed to execute instructions at a much higher rate. The ENIAC was designed to be rewired for each new problem, but before the ENIAC was finished, it was clear that a better system was needed. The initial report on the proposed [[EDVAC]] was written during the time the ENIAC was being built, and it contained the idea of the stored program, where instructions were stored in high-speed memory, so they could be quickly accessed for execution.
The [[EDVAC]] was the first computer designed using the idea of the stored program, but it took five years to complete. The [[EDSAC]] is considered to be the first practical stored-program computer. Below are some dates pertaining to the first few stored-program computers, but the date information is difficult to put into proper order because some dates are for first running a test program, some dates are the first time the computer was demonstrated or completed, and some dates are for the first delivery or installation.
* The Manchester [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine|SSEM]] (the ''Baby'') was the first computer to run a stored program. It ran a factoring program for 52 minutes on June 21, 1948, after running a simple division program and a program to show that two numbers were [[coprime|relatively prime]].
* The [[BINAC]] ran some test programs in February, March, and April 1949, although it wasn't completed until September 1949.
* The [[Manchester Mark I]] grew out of the SSEM project. An intermediate version of the Mark I was available to run programs in April 1949, but it wasn't completed until October 1949.
* The EDSAC ran its first program on May 6, 1949.
* The EDVAC was delivered in August 1949, but it had problems that kept it from being put into regular operation until 1951.
* The [[CSIRAC|CSIR Mk I]] ran its first program in November 1949.
* The [[SEAC (computer)|SEAC]] was demonstrated in April 1950.
* The [[Pilot ACE]] ran its first program on May 10, 1950 and was demonstrated in December 1950.
* The [[SWAC (computer)|SWAC]] was completed in July 1950.
* The first [[UNIVAC 1101|ERA Atlas]] (later the commercial ERA 1101/UNIVAC 1101) was installed in December 1950.",[11]
Stem cell,Success of adult stem cells,19407500,2005-07-22T23:31:38Z,Nectarflowed,"Adult stem cells have successfully treated over 100 medical conditions including [[blindness]] [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=P8&targetRule=10&xml=/health/2005/04/29/hstem29.xml], [[Krabbe's disease]] [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=24897], [[diabetes]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4459523.stm], [[Parkinson's disease]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4459523.stm], acute [[renal failure]] [http://www.jasn.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/7/1794], and [[sickle cell anemia]] [http://www.newsweekly.com.au/articles/2001dec15_stem.html]. Opponents of embryonic stem cell research have thus argued that embryonic stem cell funding restrictions in the U.S. are not significantly impeding the overall advancement of stem cell research, and that even without the ethical concerns regarding embryonic stem cells, public health funds should focus on extending adult stem cell research successes. This conclusion is not upheld by mainstream medical opinion on the matter, which views embryonic stem cell research as having ""much greater"" developmental potential.[http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/faqs.asp#bestresearch] (NIH)","Adult stem cells have successfully treated over 100 medical conditions including [[blindness]] [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=P8&targetRule=10&xml=/health/2005/04/29/hstem29.xml], [[Krabbe's disease]] [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=24897], [[diabetes]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4459523.stm], [[Parkinson's disease]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4459523.stm], acute [[renal failure]] [http://www.jasn.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/7/1794], and [[sickle cell anemia]] [http://www.newsweekly.com.au/articles/2001dec15_stem.html]. Opponents of embryonic stem cell research have thus argued that embryonic stem cell funding restrictions in the U.S. are not significantly impeding the overall advancement of stem cell research, and that even without the ethical concerns regarding embryonic stem cells, public health funds should focus on extending adult stem cell research successes. This conclusion is not upheld by government reports meant to represent mainstream medical opinion on the matter, which view embryonic stem cell research as having ""much greater"" developmental potential.[http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/faqs.asp#bestresearch] (NIH)",[3]
Methamphetamine,Street names,20439966,2005-08-06T23:56:52Z,67.150.121.150,"[[Image:MethamphetaminePills.jpg|thumb|A handful of methamphetamine pills]]
Methamphetamine has many street names; it was known as ''rain'' in the [[1960s]], and terms in popular use today include ''shit'', ''glass'', ''ice'', ''crystal'', or ''tina'' for purer forms, or as less pure crystalline powder termed ''crank'' or ''speed'', and in rock form as '''tweak''', '''dope''', or '''raw''' (in [[Hawaii]], the slang term ''batu'' is often used). In [[New Zealand]], the term ""[[P]]"" is used. ""Crystal meth"" is the crystalline form of methamphetamine. In its purest form, it is commonly referred to as ""glass"" or ""ice"". This is because it appears to be broken shards of glass or crushed ice. The term ''ice'' has also been used for a less common illicit stimulant, [[4-methylaminorex]], which often causes confusion.
As methamphetamine was quite popular in Japan after World War II, the nickname [[shabu]] has persisted. While some street folk may now call it just ""shabs"", the origins of this nickname come from the Japanese word for ""swish"". Either the Japanese commonly smoked it, or the name swish came from the behavior of the people under the influence. [[Chorea_(disease)|Chorea]] (or St. Vitus Dance) is quite commonly seen as a symptom of prolonged use. In Japan, meth usage also now seems to be quite [[taboo]] (people say that the person who shakes their leg makes the other people around them 'lose their fortune', and sometimes older Japanese folk will hold your leg completely still until you have stopped shaking). A rather large percentage of Japanese had become dependent on the drug for profit, motivation, or entertainment soon after World War II. The Japanese banned the drug soon after World War II, adding to growing [[yakuza]] businesses. The leaders of large yakuza began to control supplies which had once been produced for military purposes. A rather large underworld is still associated with the drug in Japan, with some people being associated with a society separate from most of the law abiding citizens of Japan based purely on this chemical.
''Nazi Dope'' generally refers to methamphetamine made with [[anhydrous ammonia]], since it is rumored that this was the way the [[Nazi]]s synthesized it in World War II. This same method is sometimes called ''annie's dope'' or just ''annie''.
''[[Yaba]]'' are methamphetamine tablets, often colored and flavored as candy. Yaba means ""crazy drug"" in the [[Thai language]] and is popular in [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], where the drug is produced.
''Tik'' is the street name of methamphetamine used by a sharply increased number of addicts in the [[Western Cape]] province of [[South Africa]].","[[Image:MethamphetaminePills.jpg|thumb|A handful of methamphetamine pills]]
Methamphetamine has many street names; it was known as ''rain'' in the [[1960s]], and terms in popular use today include ''shit'', ''glass'', ''ice'', ''crystal'', or ''tina'' for purer forms, or as less pure crystalline powder termed ''crank'' or ''speed'', and in rock form as '''tweak''', '''dope''', or '''raw''' (in [[Hawaii]], the slang term ''batu'' is often used). In [[New Zealand]], the term ""[[P]]"" is used. ""Crystal meth"" is the crystalline form of methamphetamine. In its purest form, it is commonly referred to as ""glass"" or ""ice"". This is because it appears to be broken shards of glass or crushed ice. The term ''ice'' has also been used for a less common illicit stimulant, [[4-methylaminorex]], which often causes confusion.
As methamphetamine was quite popular in Japan after World War II, the nickname [[shabu]] has persisted. While some street folk may now call it just ""shabs"", the origins of this nickname come from the Japanese word for ""swish"". Either the Japanese commonly smoked it, or the name swish came from the behavior of the people under the influence. [[Chorea_(disease)|Chorea]] (or St. Vitus Dance) is quite commonly seen as a symptom of prolonged use. In Japan, meth usage also now seems to be quite [[taboo]] (people say that the person who shakes their leg makes the other people around them 'lose their fortune', and sometimes older Japanese folk will hold your leg completely still until you have stopped shaking). A rather large percentage of Japanese had become dependent on the drug for profit, motivation, or entertainment soon after World War II. The Japanese banned the drug soon after World War II, adding to growing [[yakuza]] businesses. The leaders of large yakuza began to control supplies which had once been produced for military purposes. A rather large underworld is still associated with the drug in Japan, with some people being associated with a society separate from most of the law abiding citizens of Japan based purely on this chemical.
''Nazi Dope'' generally refers to methamphetamine made with [[anhydrous ammonia]], since it is rumored that this was the way the [[Nazi]]s synthesized it in World War II. This same method is sometimes called ''annie's dope'' or just ''annie''.
''[[Yaba]]'' are methamphetamine tablets, often colored and flavored as candy. Yaba means ""crazy drug"" in the [[Thai language]] and is popular in [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], where the drug is produced.
''Tik'' is the street name of methamphetamine used by a sharply increased number of addicts in the [[Western Cape]] province of [[South Africa]].
Police call crytal meth 'The crack of the future', because of its growing use.",[11]
Alzheimer's disease,(Top),21466270,2005-08-21T00:31:44Z,Mitchellanderson,"{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Alzheimer's disease |
ICD10 = |
ICD9 = 331.9 |
}}
'''Alzheimer's disease''' ('''AD''') or ''primary dementia of Alzheimer's type'' is an incurable, neurodegenerative disease which results in a pervasive loss of mental and physical functioning due to the deterioration of the brain. Progressive [[dementia]] not due to any external or psychological cause is its primary and most pervasive symptom. Its exact [[etiology]] (cause) is still unknown, but is considered to be [[physiological]]. [[genetic|Genetic]] factors are thought to contribute. Certainty of diagnosis still requires [[autopsy]] of the brain, to determine the existence of characteristic [[senile plaques]] and [[neurofibrillary tangle]]s (which, while indicators, are not necessarily causal factors of the memory loss) within the brain.","{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Alzheimer's disease |
ICD10 = |
ICD9 = 331.9 |
}}
'''Alzheimer's disease''' ('''AD'''), a neurodegenerative disorder, is the most common cause of dementia and characterised clinically by progressive intellectual deterioration together with declining activities of daily living and neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes. The most striking early symptom is memory loss (amnesia) that is usually manifest initially as minor forgetfulness and becomes steadily more dense with illness progression, with relative preservation of older memories. As the disorder progresses, cognitive (intellectual) impairment extends to the domains of language (aphasia), coordinated movement (apraxia), recognition (agnosia) and those functions (such as decision-making and planning) closely related to the frontal lobe of the brain, reflecting extension of the underlying pathological process. This consists principally of neuronal (cell) loss (or atrophy), together with deposition of amyolid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Genetic factors are known to be important, and polymorphisms (variations) in three different autosomal dominant genes A-Beta - have been identified that account for a small number of cases of familial, early-onset AD. For late onset AD (LOAD), only one susceptibility gene has so far been identitified - the epsilon 4 allele of the APOE gene.","[1, 2, 3, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),22182386,2005-08-30T16:01:37Z,65.78.20.125,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".)
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle (Determined by the light input from [[Photosensitive Ganglion Cell]][s]) of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".)
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Medical cannabis,External links,22733278,2005-09-06T23:34:11Z,84.65.59.51,"* [http://www.prescriptionpot.com Prescription Pot: details the secretive marijuana program administered by the U.S. Government]
*[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/home.htm National (Australian) Drug and Alcohol Research Centre Prepared for the National Task Force on Cannabis]
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/marinol1.htm pharmacological information on Marinol]
* [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_medical_info3.shtml History of medical marijuana]
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/olsen/MEDICAL/YOUNG/young.html United States Drug Enforcement Agency Judge Francis Young's conclusions]
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/olsen/MEDICAL/apha.html American Public Health Administration] report on medical marijuana
* [http://www.healthdiaries.com/medicating-with-marijuana.htm Medical Marijuana Blog] an HIV-positive man writes about the pros and cons of using medical marijuana in conjunction with AIDS medication
* [http://www.nih.gov/news/medmarijuana/MedicalMarijuana.htm National (US) Institute of Health report on medical marijuana]
* [http://www.marijuanainfo.org/ the text of Hitzig v. Canada] is available here; this court declared Canada's Medical Marijuana Access Regulations unconstitutional ""in not allowing seriously ill Canadians to use marijuana because there is no legal source of supply of the drug.""
* [http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=4393 Overview of human studies on medical marijuana] (note: this report was prepared for the [[National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws]], an advocacy group)
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/hollis1.htm Overview of medical, physical and psychological effects] by the Veterans Administration Medical Center and Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
* [http://www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=9257 THC shrinks tumors, says 2000 Madrid study]
* [http://www.letfreedomgrow.org American Alliance for Medical Cannabis]
* [http://www.safeaccessnow.org Americans for Safe Access]
* [http://www.compassionatecoalition.org Compassionate Coalition] Medical Marijuana Information and Discussions
* [http://remedyfind.com/rm-1141-Marijuana.asp Medical Marijuana Information for people with Multiple Sclerosis]
* [http://www.thc4ms.org.uk/index2.php?mu=whtml&lw=&lf=jpg Cannabis for Multiple Sclerosis Website]
* [http://www.mapinc.org/media/516 Synthetic marijuana analogue slows Alzheimer sufferer's decline]
* [http://www.waronjunk.com War on Junk]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Cannabis]]
[[Category:Antiemetics]]
[[de:Cannabis als Medizin]]","[http://www.talkweed.com TalkWeed - Cannabis Growing Forum]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Cannabis]]
[[Category:Antiemetics]]
[[de:Cannabis als Medizin]]",[2]
Stem cell,Adult stem cells,23548361,2005-09-19T21:17:43Z,GraemeL,"Stem cells can be found in all adult and young adult beings. ''Adult stem cells'' are undifferentiated cells that reproduce daily to provide certain specialized cells—for example 200 billion [[red blood cell]]s are created each day in the body from [[pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell|hemopoietic stem cells]]. Until recently it was thought that each of these cells could produce just one particular type of cell—this is called ''differentiation'' (see [[Morphogenesis]]). However in the past few years, evidence has been gathered of stem cells that can transform into several different forms. [[Bone marrow]] stromal stem cells are thought to be able to transform into [[liver]], [[nerve]], [[muscle]], hair follicle and [[kidney]] cells. Although there is some evidence that this type of transdifferentiation can occur, many scientists are skeptical of these claims and we are still learning about such transdifferentiated cells.
Adult stem cells may be even more versatile than this. Researchers at the [[New York University]] School of Medicine have extracted stem cells from the bone-marrow of [[mouse|mice]] which they say are pluripotent. Turning one type of stem cell into another is called ''[[transdifferentiation]]''.
In fact, useful sources of adult stem cells are being found in [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s all over the body. Researchers at [[McGill University]] in [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]] have extracted stem cells from [[skin]] that are able to differentiate into many types of tissue, including [[neuron]]s, smooth muscle cells and fat-cells. These were found in the [[dermis]], the inner layer of the skin. These stem cells play a pivotal role in healing small cuts. [[Blood vessels]], the dental pulp, the digestive [[epithelium]], the [[retina]], [[liver]] and even the [[brain]] are all said to contain stem cells.","Stem cells can be found in all adult and young adult beings. ''Adult stem cells'' are undifferentiated cells that reproduce daily to provide certain specialized cells—for example 200 billion [[red blood cell]]s are created each day in the body from [[pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell|hemopoietic stem cells]]. Until recently it was thought that each of these cells could produce just one particular type of cell—this is called ''differentiation'' (see [[Morphogenesis]]). However in the past few years, evidence has been gathered of stem cells that can transform into several different forms. [[Bone marrow]] stromal stem cells are thought to be able to transform into [[liver]], [[nerve]], [[muscle]], hair follicle and [[kidney]] cells. Although there is some evidence that this type of transdifferentiation can occur, many scientists are skeptical of these claims and we are still learning about such transdifferentiated cells.
Adult stem cells may be even more versatile than this. Researchers at the [[New York University]] School of Medicine have extracted stem cells from the bone-marrow of [[mouse|mice]] which they say are pluripotent. Turning one type of stem cell into another is called ''[[transdifferentiation]]''.
In fact, useful sources of adult stem cells are being found in [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s all over the body. Researchers at [[McGill University]] in [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]] have extracted stem cells from [[skin]] that are able to differentiate into many types of tissue, including [[neuron]]s, smooth muscle cells and fat-cells. These were found in the [[dermis]], the inner layer of the skin. These stem cells play a pivotal role in healing small cuts. [[Blood vessels]], the dental pulp, the digestive [[epithelium]], the [[retina]], [[liver]] and even the [[brain]] are all said to contain stem cells.
The [http://www.som.tulane.edu/gene_therapy/ Tulane University Center for Gene Therapy] is the first U.S. government-funded center to produce and distribute well-characterized adult stem cells to researchers around the globe. These standardized cells are critical to ensuring comparability and reproducibility of world-wide research.
Adipose derived adult stem (ADAS) cells have also been isolated from fat, e.g. from liposuction. This source of cells seems to be similar in many ways to [[Mesenchymal cell|Mesenchymal stem cells]] (MSCs) derived from bone marrow, except that it is possible to isolate many more cells from fat. These cells have been shown to differentiate into bone, fat, muscle, cartilage, and neurons. These cells have been recently used to successfully repair a large cranial defect in a human patient [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6727466/].
Olfactory adult stem cells have been successfully grown by Prof. Alan Mackay-Sim,[http://www.gu.edu.au/school/bbs/content_mackay.html] deputy director of [[Griffith University]]’s new Institute for Cellular and Molecular Therapies in [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]. He was awarded Queenslander of the Year in [[2003]] for his work. His team successfully grew adult stem cells harvested from the human nose, and was published in the journal ''Developmental Dynamics''. [[The Courier-Mail]] cited him as follows ([[22 March]] [[2005]], p. 4):
:Adult stem cells isolated from the olfactory mucosa (cells lining the inside of the nose involved in the sense of smell) have the ability to develop into many different cell types if they are given the right chemical environment.
:These adult olfactory stem cells appear to have the same ability as embryonic stem cells in giving rise to many different cell types but have the advantage that they can be obtained from all individuals, even older people who might be most in need to stem cell therapies. ...
:Adult olfactory stem cells are readily obtained from the nose and relatively easy to grow and multiply in the lab. In a few weeks we can make plenty of cells for transplantation.
An advantage of adult stem cells is that, since they can be harvested from the patient, potential ethical issues and [[immune system|immunogenic]] rejection are averted. There are, however, at least presently, limitations to using adult stem cells. Although many different kinds of multipotent stem cells have been identified, adult stem cells that could give rise to all cell and tissue types have not yet been found. Adult stem cells are often present in only minute quantities and can therefore be difficult to isolate and purify. There is also limited evidence that they may not have the same capacity to multiply as embryonic stem cells do. Finally, adult stem cells may contain more DNA abnormalities—caused by sunlight, toxins, and errors in making more DNA copies during the course of a lifetime. However, there are a number of clinically proven adult stem cell successes.
Adult stem cells do appear in ""minute quantities"" however, these minute in-vivo quantities can be multiplied in-vitro to therapeutic numbers. For example, many patients have received treatment for heart disease using adult stem cells originating in bone marrow. In 2005, technology has become available[http://www.theravitae.com] whereby stem cells can be harvested, differentiated and multiplied from about ½ pint of one’s own blood.”
Several types of heart diseases have been treated in clinical trials and also is available commercially. Patients such as Jeannine Lewis[http://www.timesleader.com/mld/timesleader/living/health/12111058.htm], have traveled to Thailand to receive stem cell therapy for their heart disease. Dr. Amit Patel of the University of Pittsburgh McGowen Institute for Regenerative Medicine[http://www.mirm.pitt.edu/people/bios/Patel1.htm] has been one of the leaders in stem cell therapy for heart disease.","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Meditation,Meditation and Drugs,23719750,2005-09-22T02:06:53Z,200.64.207.216,"Most modern methods of meditation do not include the use of drugs due to the known health problems associated with drug use. However, historically many traditions of meditation included drug use. Buddhist and Taoist traditions pre-westernization often included the use of opiates in meditiation. Many Native American traditions emphasized the smoking of a pipe containing tobacco or other drugs as part of the meditative journey to find one's [[Spirit Guide]]. Ancient Greek traditions often involved the use of hallucinogens during meditation in order to bring about supernatural visions.","Modern methods of meditation do not include the use of drugs due to the known health problems associated with drug use. However, the use of stimulants have been proposed by some as a means to provide insigt, but no one has yet claimed to, nor accepted to be, enlightened by the use of drugs. Some Native American traditions emphasized the smoking of a pipe containing tobacco or other plants as part of their rituals to find one's [[Spirit Guide]]. Trance-states induced by the consumption of drugs is not considered to be meditation, but intoxication.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 6]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),24063995,2005-09-26T09:01:52Z,69.92.141.242,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle (Determined by the light input from [[Photosensitive Ganglion Cell]][s]) of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".)
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle (Determined by the light input from [[Photosensitive Ganglion Cell]][s]) of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".)
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]]. For reasons not completely understood, the human circadian rhythm is much closer to 25 hours than 24 as one might intuitively believe - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 10]"
Hypnosis,External links,24315622,2005-09-29T12:43:23Z,Sam Spade,"* T Egner, G Jamieson, J Gruzelier, (2005) Hypnosis decouples cognitive control from conflict monitoring processes of the frontal lobe, NeuroImage, June 17. (Article in press [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WNP-4GDSF00-2&_coverDate=06%2F17%2F2005&_alid=297941145&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6968&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=032d8d46d9f8850d74da797081a3528a], see [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040906/pf/040906-18_pf.html] for news coverage).
* S. M. Kosslyn, W. L. Thompson, M. F. Costantini-Ferrando, N. M. Alpert, D. Spiegel, (2000) [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/157/8/1279 Hypnotic Visual Illusion Alters Color Processing in the Brain], Am J Psychiatry 157:1279-1284, August.
* [http://www.hypnosis.edu/articles/hypnosis-works.asp Hypnosis Works, an article from Discover magazine]
* [http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/002344.html Hypnosis Studied With fMRI and PET brain scans] (digest of several scientific articles)
* [http://www.nlpschedule.com NLP, a method derived from Eriksonian Hypnosis]
* [http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary], [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] review of the veracity of hypnosis.
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/hypnosis.htm Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com]
* [http://www.royhunter.com/hypnofaq.htm#HF Hypnosis FAQ of alt.hypnosis, by C. Roy Hunter, M.S., FAPHP]
* [http://www.bcx.net/hypnosis/faq.htm Hypnosis and self hypnosis FAQ, by Charles E. Henderson, Ph.D.]
* [http://www.dentalfearcentral.com/dental_hypnosis.html Hypnosis, Relaxation and NLP in Dentistry]
[[Category:Hypnosis|*]]
[[Category:Mind control]]
[[da:Hypnose]]
[[de:Hypnose]]
[[es:Hipnosis]]
[[fr:Hypnose]]
[[he:היפנוזה]]
[[lt:Hipnozė]]
[[nl:Hypnose]]
[[ja:催眠]]
[[no:Hypnose]]
[[pt:Hipnose]]
[[ru:Гипноз]]
[[sk:Hypnóza]]
[[fi:Hypnoosi]]
[[sv:Hypnos]]","* T Egner, G Jamieson, J Gruzelier, (2005) Hypnosis decouples cognitive control from conflict monitoring processes of the frontal lobe, NeuroImage, June 17. (Article in press [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WNP-4GDSF00-2&_coverDate=06%2F17%2F2005&_alid=297941145&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6968&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=032d8d46d9f8850d74da797081a3528a], see [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040906/pf/040906-18_pf.html] for news coverage).
* S. M. Kosslyn, W. L. Thompson, M. F. Costantini-Ferrando, N. M. Alpert, D. Spiegel, (2000) [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/157/8/1279 Hypnotic Visual Illusion Alters Color Processing in the Brain], Am J Psychiatry 157:1279-1284, August.
* [http://www.hypnosis.edu/articles/hypnosis-works.asp Hypnosis Works, an article from Discover magazine]
* [http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/002344.html Hypnosis Studied With fMRI and PET brain scans] (digest of several scientific articles)
* [http://www.nlpschedule.com NLP, a method derived from Eriksonian Hypnosis]
* [http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary], [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] review of the veracity of hypnosis.
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/hypnosis.htm Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com]
* [http://www.royhunter.com/hypnofaq.htm#HF Hypnosis FAQ of alt.hypnosis, by C. Roy Hunter, M.S., FAPHP]
* [http://www.bcx.net/hypnosis/faq.htm Hypnosis and self hypnosis FAQ, by Charles E. Henderson, Ph.D.]
* [http://www.dentalfearcentral.com/dental_hypnosis.html Hypnosis, Relaxation and NLP in Dentistry]
[[Category:Hypnosis|*]]
[[Category:Mind control]]
[[da:Hypnose]]
[[de:Hypnose]]
[[es:Hipnosis]]
[[fr:Hypnose]]
[[he:היפנוזה]]
[[lt:Hipnozė]]
[[nl:Hypnose]]
[[no:Hypnose]]
[[ja:催眠]]
[[pt:Hipnose]]
[[ru:Гипноз]]
[[sk:Hypnóza]]
[[fi:Hypnoosi]]
[[sv:Hypnos]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),24508483,2005-10-01T21:12:42Z,Jclerman,"The '''circadian rhythm''' is a name given to the ""internal '''body clock'''"" that regulates the (roughly) 24 hour cycle (Determined by the light input from [[Photosensitive Ganglion Cell]][s]) of [[biology|biological]] processes in animals and plants. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".)
Humans have been aware of these cycles since pre-history, as an understanding of these rhythms was essential to early hunters. The formal study of this daily rhythm and other biological rhythms (such as seasonal ones) is called [[chronobiology]]. For reasons not completely understood, the human circadian rhythm is much closer to 25 hours than 24 as one might intuitively believe - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".) It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves.
The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weakly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
For reasons not completely understood, the human circadian rhythm is much closer to 25 hours than 24 as one might intuitively believe - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 2, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),24523110,2005-10-02T01:05:38Z,Jclerman,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".) It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves.
The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weakly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
For reasons not completely understood, the human circadian rhythm is much closer to 25 hours than 24 as one might intuitively believe - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
It has also been clearly established that the circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually demonstrate a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".) It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]].
The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weakly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]]. For reasons not completely understood, the human circadian rhythm is much closer to 25 hours than 24 as one might intuitively believe - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).","[1, 2, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,24523110,2005-10-02T01:05:38Z,Jclerman,,"The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or foreward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. This is called a ""phase delay"". While they still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle, without external cues, the cycle is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),24524148,2005-10-02T01:23:34Z,Jclerman,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".) It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]].
The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weakly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]]. For reasons not completely understood, the human circadian rhythm is much closer to 25 hours than 24 as one might intuitively believe - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day"".) It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weakly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).","[2, 5]"
Human cloning,Techniques,24825425,2005-10-05T17:26:29Z,Stephenb,"Currently the most successful cloning technique is the same process which allowed [[Dolly the sheep]] to be cloned - [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]. It is also the technique used by ACT, the first company to successfully clone a human embryo (see research section below). An [[egg cell]] taken from a donor has its [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original cell.
Another way of cloning is by [[parthenogenesis]], where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized. This technique only works on females.
In '''reproductive cloning''', the cloned embryo is implanted in a woman's uterus. This should develop into a normal baby, its only distinction being that it would be almost genetically identical to the DNA donor.
'''Therapeutic cloning''' could be used to provide replacement organs or tissue for people who have had theirs damaged. The cloned embryo would contain DNA taken from the transplant patient. After nuclear transfer, the cell would divide to form an embryo and [[stem cell]]s would be removed. Stem cells could develop into any tissue or organ. These cloned organs would be compatible with the person's immune system, so no [[immunosuppressant]] drugs would have to be taken after the operation. However, no therapies have been developed yet from this procedure.","Currently the most successful cloning technique is the same process which allowed [[Dolly the sheep]] to be cloned - [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]. It is also the technique used by ACT, the first company to successfully clone a human embryo (see research section below). An [[egg cell]] taken from a donor has its [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original cell.
Another way of cloning is by [[parthenogenesis]], where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized. This technique only works on females.
In '''reproductive cloning''', the cloned embryo is implanted in a woman's uterus. This should develop into a normal baby, its only distinction being that it would be almost genetically identical to the DNA donor.
'''Therapeutic cloning''' could be used to provide replacement organs or tissue for people who have had theirs damaged. The cloned embryo would contain DNA taken from the transplant patient. After nuclear transfer, the cell would divide to form an embryo and [[stem cell]]s would be removed. Stem cells could develop into any tissue or organ. These cloned organs would be compatible with the person's immune system, so no [[immunosuppressant]] drugs would have to be taken after the operation. However, no therapies have been developed yet from this procedure.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),25565097,2005-10-15T05:36:28Z,203.197.150.66,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
[['''Animal circadian rhythms''']] :
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is close to 25 hours - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
'''Plant circadian rhythms''':-
Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to anticipate daily changes in temperature and light period is of great advantage to plants. At the most basic level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs. For example, as the days grow shorter and cooler, [[plants]] are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter.
The study of circadian rhythms is of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance. A better understanding of these genes will allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, better able to survive in cold temperatures. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.","[1, 9, 10, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),25566103,2005-10-15T06:00:35Z,Jclerman,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).
[['''Animal circadian rhythms''']] :
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is close to 25 hours - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is primarily located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
'''Plant circadian rhythms''':-
Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to anticipate daily changes in temperature and light period is of great advantage to plants. At the most basic level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs. For example, as the days grow shorter and cooler, [[plants]] are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter.
The study of circadian rhythms is of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance. A better understanding of these genes will allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, better able to survive in cold temperatures. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the roughly 24 hour cycles shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).","[1, 4, 9]"
Hypnosis,(Top),26382516,2005-10-24T21:30:35Z,DrMattGomes,"{{twoversions|25167249}}
'''Hypnosis''' is a procedure during which a hypnotist can make suggestions to a client, patient, or experimental participant to experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior. It typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented{{ref|APAdefinitions}}.
Applications of hypnosis vary widely, as it is used in entertainment as well as in health applications. There are many different styles of hypnosis that can create very different experiences in the subject. As such, there is no single characterisation possible of all the methods and effects employed. Often the subject appears to be in a [[trance]], similar in appearance to [[somnambulism]], making the subject very relaxed and focused, though this can vary widely.
In appearance, the subject becomes very receptive to suggestions by the hypnotist, who can command behavior that the subject would not choose to perform in a conscious state, and induce an increased ability to recall [[memories]], often even those not remembered [[conscious]]ly.
Behaviour can even be suggested to be performed after the subject has left the hypnotic state, through ''post-hypnotic suggestion'', or even behavior the subject would be incapable of in a conscious state, such as not feeling [[pain]], or [[manifesting]] skin blisters spontaneously as if the subject had been burned. The ability to recollect memories is used by hypnotherapists to treat patients, claiming that it can bring painful [[repressed memory|repressed memories]] to the forefront and help in resolving psychological trauma.
The exact psychological state of the subject is unclear, and its very existence and effects are strongly debated. Some believe that the hypnotist, the one who induces the state, can establish communication with the [[subconscious]] mind of the subject. This would allow him to make suggestions and to access memories more easily. Others believe that the state does not actually exist, and that all effects of 'hypnotism' that have been observed are in actuality a combination of subjects' expectations (based on their ''beliefs'' of hypnotism's effects) and their desire to please the hypnotist (see [[Hawthorne Effect]]). They point to the fact, that subjects under hypnosis can develop and come to wholly believe in memories that are implausible, and sometimes even proven [[false memory|false memories]].
Due to these disagreements, there is a strong discusion whether [[hypnosis]] has merit for use in fields such as mental health, medicine and law enforcement.","{{twoversions|25167249}}
'''Hypnosis''' has been practiced for thousands of years and continues to be controversial. There is evidence that healing trances were used in the healing temples of India. Ancient Egyptian scrolls tell of the use of sleeping temples and the use of hypnotic inductions for healing. Throughout history, hypnosis has been in favor with the healing professions and has fallen out of favor as many times. A more detailed history can be found in this article.
One of the problems that creates controversy is the wide variety of theories on hypnosis. The definitions of hypnosis are as varied as the definers. Dr. William Kroger states ""Like the nature of human behavior, there will be different theories about hypnosis since all hypnotic phenomena have their counterpart in the various aspects of human behavior."" (1977, p. 26) A number of the theories are presented below.
The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in entertainment and in health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is asleep or, popularly termed, in trance. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to do behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.
On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields can often be experienced differently since the outcome of these two applications is different. Clinical hypnosis has been used to increase the ability to recall [[memories]], weight management, smoking cessassion, pain reduction or ellimination as well as resolving psychological issues.","[1, 2, 5, 9, 4]"
Medical cannabis,New York,26802255,2005-10-29T16:54:32Z,209.142.167.138,"New York ran a large scale study using 199 patients who had not found success with other antiemetic therapies. Each patient received 6,044 marijuana cigarettes, which were provided to the patient during 514 treatment episodes
*Conclusions: North Shore Hospital reported marijuana was effective at reducing emesis 92.9 percent of the time; Columbia Memorial Hospital reported efficacy of 89.7 percent; Upstate Medical Center, St. Joseph's Hospital and Jamestown General Hospital reported 100 percent of the patients smoking marijuana gained significant benefit. ""Patient evaluations have indicated that approximately ninety-three (93) percent of marijuana inhalation treatment episodes are reported to be effective or highly effective when compared to other antiemetics.""; no serious adverse side effects were reported.","New York ran a large scale study using 199 patients who had not found success with other antiemetic therapies. Each patient received 6,indicated that approximately ninety-three (93) percent of marijuana inhalation treatment episodes are reported to be effective or highly effective when compared to other antiemetics.""; no serious adverse side effects were reported.","[2, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,27687544,2005-11-08T04:05:01Z,Domaniac,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is close to 25 hours - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are light receptors found in the [[retina]] which have a pathway, (called the ''retinohypothalamic tract''), leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is close to 25 hours - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),27699405,2005-11-08T07:02:48Z,165.91.50.120,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants and animals. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular).","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants, animals and cyanobacteria. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria: 1) the rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) wih a period of ~24 hrs. 2)the rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse and 3) the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning they proceed at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[1, 4, 10]"
Trie,(Top),27823015,2005-11-09T14:37:42Z,Neurodivergent,"[[Image: trie_example.png|thumb|right|A '''trie''' for keys 'to', 'tea', 'ten', 'in', 'inn'.]]
In [[computer science]], a '''trie''' is an [[ordered tree data structure|ordered tree]] [[data structure]] that is used to store an [[associative array]] where the keys are [[string (computer science)|string]]s. Unlike a [[binary search tree]], no node in the tree stores the key associated with that node; instead, its position in the tree shows what key it is associated with. All the descendants of any one node have a common prefix of the string associated with that node, and the root is associated with the [[string (computer science)|empty string]]. Values are normally not associated with every node, only with leaves and some inner nodes that happen to correspond to keys of interest.
The term trie comes from ""re'''trie'''val"". Due to its [[etymology]] some sources say it should be pronounced as ""tree"", while others encourage the use of ""try"" in order to distinguish it from the more general [[tree data structure|tree]].
In the shown example, keys are listed in the nodes and values below them. Each complete English word has an integer value associated with it. A trie can be seen as a [[deterministic finite automaton]], although the symbol on each edge is often implicit in the order of the branches.
Note that it is not necessary for keys to be listed in nodes. Leaf nodes could point to a table of keys. Additionally, a trie does not need to have nodes with a single child. The '''i''' node in the figure, for example, could point directly to the word '''inn''' without having the trie lose any of its capabilities.","[[Image: trie_example.png|thumb|right|A '''trie''' for keys 'to', 'tea', 'ten', 'in', 'inn'.]]
In [[computer science]], a '''trie''' is an [[ordered tree data structure|ordered tree]] [[data structure]] that is used to store an [[associative array]] where the keys are [[string (computer science)|string]]s. Unlike a [[binary search tree]], no node in the tree stores the key associated with that node; instead, its position in the tree shows what key it is associated with. All the descendants of any one node have a common prefix of the string associated with that node, and the root is associated with the [[string (computer science)|empty string]]. Values are normally not associated with every node, only with leaves and some inner nodes that happen to correspond to keys of interest.
The term trie comes from ""re'''trie'''val"". Due to its [[etymology]] some sources say it should be pronounced as ""tree"", while others encourage the use of ""try"" in order to distinguish it from the more general [[tree data structure|tree]].
In the shown example, keys are listed in the nodes and values below them. Each complete English word has an integer value associated with it. A trie can be seen as a [[deterministic finite automaton]], although the symbol on each edge is often implicit in the order of the branches.
Note that it is not necessary for keys to be explicitly stored in nodes. (In the figure, words are shown only to illustrate how the trie works). Additionally, a trie does not need to have nodes with a single child. The '''i''' node in the figure, for example, could point directly to the word '''inn''' in a table of keys without having the trie lose any of its capabilities. Trimming trie branches this way results in considerable space savings.","[1, 3]"
Stem cell,Types,28622556,2005-11-17T22:07:44Z,TenOfAllTrades,"Stem cells are categorized by ''potency'' which describes the specificity of that cell.
*'''[[Totipotent]]''' stem cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg cell are also totipotent. These cells can grow into any type of cell without exception.
*[[pluripotency|'''Pluripotent''']] stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can grow into any cell type except for totipotent stem cells.
*[[multipotency|'''Multipotent''']] stem cells can produce only cells of a closely related family of cells (e.g. blood cells such as red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets).
*'''Progenitor''' (sometimes called unipotent) cells can produce only one cell type; but, have the property of self-renewal which distinguishes them from non-stem cells.
Stem cells are also categorized according to their source, as either [[adult]] or [[Mammalian_embryogenesis|embryo]]nic.
:'''Adult stem cells''' are undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells of a specific tissue and are mostly multipotent cells. They are already being used in treatments for over one hundred diseases and conditions. They are more accurately called ''somatic'' (Greek σωμα sōma = body) stem cells, because they need not come from adults but can also come from children or umbilical cords. Particularly interesting are adult stem cells termed ""[[spore-like cells]]"". They are present in all tissues (Vacanti, M. P., A. Roy, J. Cortiella, L. Bonassar, and C. A. Vacanti. 2001. Identification and initial characterization of spore-like cells in adult mammals. J Cell Biochem 80:455-60.)and seem to survive long time periods and harsh conditions.
:'''Embryonic stem cells''' are cultured cells obtained from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a [[blastocyst]], an early stage [[Mammalian_embryogenesis|embryo]] that is 50 to 150 cells. Embryonic stem cell research is ""thought to have much greater developmental potential than adult stem cells,"" according to the [[National Institutes of Health]].{{ref|NIH}} However, embryonic stem cell research is still in the basic research phase, as these stem cells were first isolated in 1998 (at least for humans), whereas adult stem cells have been studied since the 1960s.{{ref|isolated}} Research with embryonic stem cells derived from [[human]]s is controversial because, in order to start a [[stem cell line|stem cell 'line']] or lineage, it requires the destruction of a [[blastocyst]], which kills the [[human being]] growing inside the mother. (See below: [[Stem cell#Embryonic stem cell ethical debate|embryonic stem cell ethical debate]])","Stem cells are categorized by ''potency'' which describes the specificity of that cell.
*'''[[Totipotent]]''' stem cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg cell are also totipotent. These cells can grow into any type of cell without exception.
*[[pluripotency|'''Pluripotent''']] stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can grow into any cell type except for totipotent stem cells.
*[[multipotency|'''Multipotent''']] stem cells can produce only cells of a closely related family of cells (e.g. blood cells such as red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets).
*'''Progenitor''' (sometimes called unipotent) cells can produce only one cell type; but, have the property of self-renewal which distinguishes them from non-stem cells.
Stem cells are also categorized according to their source, as either [[adult]] or [[Mammalian_embryogenesis|embryo]]nic.
:'''Adult stem cells''' are undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells of a specific tissue and are mostly multipotent cells. They are already being used in treatments for over one hundred diseases and conditions. They are more accurately called ''somatic'' (Greek σωμα sōma = body) stem cells, because they need not come from adults but can also come from children or umbilical cords. Particularly interesting are adult stem cells termed ""[[spore-like cells]]"". They are present in all tissues (Vacanti, M. P., A. Roy, J. Cortiella, L. Bonassar, and C. A. Vacanti. 2001. Identification and initial characterization of spore-like cells in adult mammals. J Cell Biochem 80:455-60.)and seem to survive long time periods and harsh conditions.
:'''Embryonic stem cells''' are cultured cells obtained from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a [[blastocyst]], an early stage [[Mammalian_embryogenesis|embryo]] that is 50 to 150 cells. Embryonic stem cell research is ""thought to have much greater developmental potential than adult stem cells,"" according to the [[National Institutes of Health]].{{ref|NIH}} However, embryonic stem cell research is still in the basic research phase, as these stem cells were first isolated in 1998 (at least for humans), whereas adult stem cells have been studied since the 1960s.{{ref|isolated}} Research with embryonic stem cells derived from [[human]]s is controversial because, in order to start a [[stem cell line|stem cell 'line']] or lineage, it requires the destruction of a [[blastocyst]], which many believe is tantamount to the destruction of a [[human being]]. (See below: [[Stem cell#Embryonic stem cell ethical debate|embryonic stem cell ethical debate]])",[6]
Bubble sort,Performance,28640827,2005-11-18T02:59:47Z,Dcoetzee,,"For implementations in real programming languages, see [[wikisource:bubble sort|Wikisource]].
Bubble sort needs [[big O notation|O]](n2) comparisons to sort items and can sort [[in-place algorithm|in-place]]. Although the algorithm is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, it is too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple O(n2) sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are considerably more efficient.
Due to its simplicity, the bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm to introductory programming students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf] The Jargon file, which famously calls [[bogosort]] ""[t]he archetypical perversely awful algorithm"", also calls bubble sort ""the generic ''bad'' algorithm"".[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html]
Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]], but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Naïve implementations of bubble sort (like those below) usually perform badly on already-sorted lists (), while insertion sort needs only operations in this case. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.
There is a variation of bubble sort which reduces the best case complexity to . if a flag is used to denote whether any swaps were necessary during the first run of the inner loop. In this case, no swaps would indicate an already sorted list. Also, reversing the order in which the list is traversed for each pass improves the efficiency somewhat. This is sometimes called [[shuttle sort]] since the algorithm shuttles from one end of the list to the other.
[[Category:Sort algorithms]]
[[de:Bubblesort]]
[[es:Ordenamiento de burbuja]]
[[fr:Tri à bulles]]
[[is:Bóluröðun]]
[[it:Bubble sort]]
[[he:מיון בועות]]
[[lt:Burbulo rūšiavimo algoritmas]]
[[nl:Bubblesort]]
[[ja:バブルソート]]
[[pl:Sortowanie bąbelkowe]]
[[pt:Bubble sort]]
[[ru:Сортировка пузырьком]]
[[fi:Kuplalajittelu]]
[[sv:Bubble sort]]
[[zh:冒泡排序]]","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),28741811,2005-11-19T10:11:17Z,203.101.110.2,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants, animals and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[2]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),28748274,2005-11-19T12:53:27Z,Jclerman,"The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants, animals and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', meaning ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[1, 5, 9, 4]"
Context-free grammar,Undecidable problems,28785973,2005-11-19T23:24:57Z,Dcoetzee,"Although some operations on context-free grammars are decidable due to their limited power, unlike finite automata CFGs do have interesting undecidable problems. One of the simplest and most cited is the problem of deciding whether a CFG accepts the language of all strings. A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a [[Turing machine]] halts on a particular input. The reduction uses the concept of a ''[[computation history]]'', a string describing an entire computation of a [[Turing machine]]. We can construct a CFG that generates all such strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input.
As a consequence of this, it is also undecidable whether two CFGs describe the same language, since we can't even decide whether a CFG is equivalent to the trivial CFG decidable the language of all strings.
On the other hand, the problem of determining whether a CFG accepts at least one string is decidable.","Although some operations on context-free grammars are decidable due to their limited power, unlike finite automata CFGs do have interesting undecidable problems. One of the simplest and most cited is the problem of deciding whether a CFG accepts the language of all strings. A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a [[Turing machine]] accepts a particular input. The reduction uses the concept of a ''[[computation history]]'', a string describing an entire computation of a [[Turing machine]]. We can construct a CFG that generates all such strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input.
As a consequence of this, it is also undecidable whether two CFGs describe the same language, since we can't even decide whether a CFG is equivalent to the trivial CFG decidable the language of all strings.
On the other hand, the problem of determining whether a CFG accepts at least one string is decidable.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),28822951,2005-11-20T11:00:49Z,84.202.87.198,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants, animals and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"" and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants, animals and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally, ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# the rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[11]
Hypnosis,"Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) and ""Animal Magnetism""",28840183,2005-11-20T17:18:55Z,66.7.227.140,,"Western scientists first became involved in hypnosis around [[1770]], when [[Franz Mesmer|Dr. Franz Mesmer]], a physician from Austria, started investigating an effect he called ""[[animal magnetism]]"" or ""[[mesmerism]]"" (the latter name still remaining popular today). Unfortunately, Mesmer had little scientific insight and reportedly plagiarized the writings of English physician Richard Mead.
Mesmer found that, after opening a patient's vein and letting the patient bleed for a while, by passing magnets over the wound would make the bleeding stop. Mesmer also discovered that using a stick instead would also make the bleeding stop.
After moving to Paris and becoming popular with the French aristocracy for his magnetic cures, the medical community challenged him. The French king put together a Board of Inquiry that included chemist [[Lavoisier]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], and a medical doctor who was an expert in main control named [[Guillotin]].
In the early 19th century, [[Abbé Faria]] continued the scientific study of hypnosis. Faria came from India and gave exhibitions in 1814 and 1815 without manipulations or Mesmer's baquet. Unlike Mesmer, who claimed that hypnosis was mediated by ""animal magnetism"", Faria claimed that it worked by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient, now known as [[suggestion]].
In the [[1840s]] and [[1850s]], [[Carl Reichenbach]] began experiments to find any scientific validity to ""mesmeric"" energy, which he termed [[Odic force]]. Although his conclusions were quickly rejected in the scientific community, they did undermine Mesmer's claims of [[mind control]].","[1, 5, 9, 4]"
Parkinson's disease,Causes,29526273,2005-11-28T22:13:48Z,24.11.111.63,"The cause of Parkinson's disease is not known. [[Geneticist]]s have since [[1997]] found nine different specific genetic defects, each of which causes the disease in one or a few families with extraordinarily high [[incidence]]s of the disease, but such families are rare. While a strong inheritance pattern occurs in only a very small percentage of cases, an affected individual is three to four times more likely than an unaffected individual to have a close relative with Parkinson's. Having a parent with Parkinson's raises one's lifetime risk of developing the disorder threefold, from the general population's figure of 2% to about 6%. Genes that have been identified include ''SNCA'' ([[protein]] [[alpha-synuclein]]), ''UCHL1'' (protein [[ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1]]), ''PARK2'' (protein [[parkin]]), and ''PARK7'' (protein [[DJ-1]]). Indeed, recent linkage studies excluded most of the above gene defects from consideration in the causation of sporadic (i.e. non-familial) Parkinson's disease, which constitutes more than 95% of cases. Most recently, a new gene was identified, ND5, mutation in which is thought to account for a vast majority of sporadic PD cases (see below).
A prevalent theory holds that the disease might result in most cases from the combination of a subtle genetically-determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with even limited exposure to those toxins. This is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population, rather incidence varies geographically. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and industrial metals. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in patients/animals of any age. Other toxin-based models employ [[paraquat]] (an herbicide), [[rotenone]] (an insecticide), [(maneb)] (a fungicide), or [(2-4D)] (a pesticide). Studies have consistently found an increase in PD in persons exposed to these agricultural chemicals; the risk apparently rises with exposure. Although family history of the disease and (especially) multiple episodes of head-trauma-induce unconsciousness increase risk more as isolated factors than does pesticide exposure, the ubiquity and insidious nature of agricultural chemical exposures makes it difficult to gauge the true extent of the problem.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids_(medical)|cybrids]] found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than the nuclear DNA is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may represent the true cause of the vast majority of PD cases.
Minor past episodes of head trauma are also more commonly reported by sufferers than by others in the population. While emotional or a psychological [[Psychological trauma|trauma]] can precipitate the initial symptoms or aggravate existing symptoms, this is not the actual cause of the disorder.
The symptoms of Parkinson's disease result from the loss of [[dopamine]]-secreting (dopaminergic) cells and subsequent loss of [[melanin]], secreted by the same cells, in the [[substantia nigra|pars compacta]] region of the [[substantia nigra]] (literally ""black substance""). These neurons project to the [[striatum]] and their loss leads to inhibition of the [[direct pathway of movement]] and activation of the [[indirect pathway of movement]]. Since the direct pathway facilitates movement and the indirect pathway inhibits movement, the loss of these cells leads to a hypokinetic movement disorder. The lack of [[dopamine]] results in an excessive inhibition of the thalamus, leading to [[hypokinesia]].
Brain cells producing other brain chemicals such as [[GABA]], [[norepinephrine]], [[serotonin]] and [[acetylcholine]] exhibit minor damage in Parkinson's disease, accounting for some of the wide array of symptoms.
The mechanism by which the brain cells in Parkinson's are lost appears to center on an abnormal accumulation of the protein [[alpha-synuclein]] in the damaged cells. This protein forms proteinaceous cytoplasmic inclusions called [[Lewy bodies]]. The precise mechanism whereby aggregates of alpha-synuclein damage the cells is not known. The aggregates may be merely a normal reaction by the cells as part of their effort to correct a different, as-yet unknown, insult. It does appear that alpha-synuclein aggregation is enhanced by the presence of dopamine and the byproducts of dopamine production. Based on this mechanistic hypothesis, a [[Transgenic animal|transgenic mouse model]] of Parkinson's has been generated by introduction of human wild-type α-synuclein into the mouse genome under control of the [[Platelet-derived growth factor|platelet-derived-growth factor]]-β promoter.{{ref|PDmousemodel}}","Having a really large penis can make mex much more pleasureable.
The cause of Parkinson's disease is not known. [[Geneticist]]s have since [[1997]] found nine different specific genetic defects, each of which causes the disease in one or a few families with extraordinarily high [[incidence]]s of the disease, but such families are rare. While a strong inheritance pattern occurs in only a very small percentage of cases, an affected individual is three to four times more likely than an unaffected individual to have a close relative with Parkinson's. Having a parent with Parkinson's raises one's lifetime risk of developing the disorder threefold, from the general population's figure of 2% to about 6%. Genes that have been identified include ''SNCA'' ([[protein]] [[alpha-synuclein]]), ''UCHL1'' (protein [[ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1]]), ''PARK2'' (protein [[parkin]]), and ''PARK7'' (protein [[DJ-1]]). Indeed, recent linkage studies excluded most of the above gene defects from consideration in the causation of sporadic (i.e. non-familial) Parkinson's disease, which constitutes more than 95% of cases. Most recently, a new gene was identified, ND5, mutation in which is thought to account for a vast majority of sporadic PD cases (see below).
A prevalent theory holds that the disease might result in most cases from the combination of a subtle genetically-determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with even limited exposure to those toxins. This is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population, rather incidence varies geographically. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and industrial metals. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in patients/animals of any age. Other toxin-based models employ [[paraquat]] (an herbicide), [[rotenone]] (an insecticide), [(maneb)] (a fungicide), or [(2-4D)] (a pesticide). Studies have consistently found an increase in PD in persons exposed to these agricultural chemicals; the risk apparently rises with exposure. Although family history of the disease and (especially) multiple episodes of head-trauma-induce unconsciousness increase risk more as isolated factors than does pesticide exposure, the ubiquity and insidious nature of agricultural chemical exposures makes it difficult to gauge the true extent of the problem.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids_(medical)|cybrids]] found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than the nuclear DNA is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may represent the true cause of the vast majority of PD cases.
Minor past episodes of head trauma are also more commonly reported by sufferers than by others in the population. While emotional or a psychological [[Psychological trauma|trauma]] can precipitate the initial symptoms or aggravate existing symptoms, this is not the actual cause of the disorder.
The symptoms of Parkinson's disease result from the loss of [[dopamine]]-secreting (dopaminergic) cells and subsequent loss of [[melanin]], secreted by the same cells, in the [[substantia nigra|pars compacta]] region of the [[substantia nigra]] (literally ""black substance""). These neurons project to the [[striatum]] and their loss leads to inhibition of the [[direct pathway of movement]] and activation of the [[indirect pathway of movement]]. Since the direct pathway facilitates movement and the indirect pathway inhibits movement, the loss of these cells leads to a hypokinetic movement disorder. The lack of [[dopamine]] results in an excessive inhibition of the thalamus, leading to [[hypokinesia]].
Brain cells producing other brain chemicals such as [[GABA]], [[norepinephrine]], [[serotonin]] and [[acetylcholine]] exhibit minor damage in Parkinson's disease, accounting for some of the wide array of symptoms.
The mechanism by which the brain cells in Parkinson's are lost appears to center on an abnormal accumulation of the protein [[alpha-synuclein]] in the damaged cells. This protein forms proteinaceous cytoplasmic inclusions called [[Lewy bodies]]. The precise mechanism whereby aggregates of alpha-synuclein damage the cells is not known. The aggregates may be merely a normal reaction by the cells as part of their effort to correct a different, as-yet unknown, insult. It does appear that alpha-synuclein aggregation is enhanced by the presence of dopamine and the byproducts of dopamine production. Based on this mechanistic hypothesis, a [[Transgenic animal|transgenic mouse model]] of Parkinson's has been generated by introduction of human wild-type α-synuclein into the mouse genome under control of the [[Platelet-derived growth factor|platelet-derived-growth factor]]-β promoter.{{ref|PDmousemodel}}",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Cardinal symptoms,30018484,2005-12-03T15:06:09Z,Arcadian,,"Symptoms may vary among patients, and additionally may vary greatly over time in a single patient.
However, the [[cardinal symptom]]s are:
*'''[[tremor]]''' (while this is the best known symptom, it is not displayed by an estimated 30% of patients. The classical Parkinsonian tremor is 4-7[[Hertz|Hz]], often unilateral, decreased by [[supination]] and [[pronation]], and responds to dopaminergics and anticholinergics. In addition, tremors of the [[chin]] and [[lip]]s tend to be Parkinsonian where tremors of the whole [[head]] suggest [[essential tremor]].),
*'''[[rigidity]]''' (increased tone or stiffness in the muscles),
*'''[[bradykinesia]]''' (slowness of movement) and [[akinesia]] (lack of spontaneous movement),
*'''[[postural instability]]''' (failing balance, walking problems)
(The [[mnemonic]] '''''TRAP''''' ('''T'''remor; '''R'''igidity; '''A'''kinesia/bradykinesia; '''P'''ostural instability) can be used to remember these symptoms.)
Additionally, the following signs and symptoms are commonly associated with Parkinson's Disease:","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,30237675,2005-12-05T17:24:30Z,131.111.85.79,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is close to 25 hours - cues from our environment help keep us on a 24 hour track.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is just over 24 hours (not 25 hours as many text books assert) - cues from our environment ensure that the rhythm resets each day to exactly 24 hours.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","[3, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,30271901,2005-12-05T23:00:55Z,Jclerman,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. The human free-running circadian rhythm is just over 24 hours (not 25 hours as many text books assert) - cues from our environment ensure that the rhythm resets each day to exactly 24 hours.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''zeitgebers'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","[1, 2, 3, 4, 10]"
Hypnosis,James Esdaile (1805-1859),30291770,2005-12-06T02:02:01Z,81.131.154.109,"Dr. [[James Esdaile]] performed over 300 operations using hypnosis as pain control. The development of chemical anesthetics soon saw the replacement of hypnotism in this role.
The deaths of Braid and Esdaile curbed the interest in hypnotism. Experimentation was revived into the [[1880s]], mainly in continental Europe where new translations of Braid's work were circulated.","Dr. [[James Esdaile]] claimed to have performed over 300 operations using hypnosis-like ""magentism"" as pain control. The development of chemical anesthetics soon saw the replacement of hypnotism in this role. In fact, a committee of inquiry appointed to examine his practice found that patients exhibit ""...a grotesque writhing and hideous distortion of the features as of suppressed agony ..."" )
The deaths of Braid and Esdaile curbed the interest in hypnotism. Experimentation was revived into the [[1880s]], mainly in continental Europe where new translations of Braid's work were circulated.","[3, 6, 1]"
Dream,(Top),30533115,2005-12-08T00:14:17Z,RxS,"'''Dreaming''' is the [[subjective]] [[experience]] of [[remembered and imaginary]] images, sounds/voices, [[word]]s, [[thought]]s or [[sensation]]s during [[sleep]], with the dreamer usually not being able to influence the experience. The scientific discipline of dream research is [[oneirology]]. Dreaming has been associated with [[rapid eye movement]] (REM) sleep, a lighter form of sleep that occurs during the latter portion of the sleep cycle, characterized by rapid horizontal eye movements, stimulation of the [[pons]], increased respiratory and heart rate, and temporary paralysis of the body. However, this association has been questioned since it may be that dream recall after REM sleep is common and because dreams are more easily recalled after waking from light REM sleep.
Most scientists believe that dreams occur in all humans with about equal frequency per amount of sleep. Therefore, if individuals feel that they did not dream or that they only had one dream in any given night, it is because their memory of the dream has faded. This ""memory erasure"" aspect of the dream state is mostly found when a person naturally awakes via a smooth transition from REM sleep through delta sleep to the awake state.
If an individual proceeds through the delta state after REM sleep, forgetting the dream that accompanied REM sleep is more likely. On the other hand, if a person is awoken directly from REM sleep (e.g. by an [[alarm clock]]), they are much more likely to remember the dream from that REM cycle. Still, it is most likely that not all dreams will be remembered because they occur in REM cycles, which are interrupted by periods of delta sleep which in turn have a tendency to cause the memory of previous dreams to fade.
For a long time true dreaming had only been positively confirmed in humans, but recently there have been research reports supporting a view that dreaming occurs in other animals as well. Animals certainly undergo REM sleep, but their subjective experience is difficult to determine. The animal with the longest average periods of REM sleep is the [[armadillo]]. It would appear that [[mammal]]s and [[birds]] are the only, or at least most frequent, dreamers in nature, which is perhaps related to their sleep patterns. Many animals such as [[frog]]s probably do not sleep at all (except when in hibernaculum, which is a different kind of state). Some researchers have managed to deter the function of brain mechanism that locks body and limb movements during dreams. With this method it has been discovered that a [[cat]] seems to dream mostly about chasing prey and playing with it. On a more basic level, many [[dog]] owners have also noted that their pets sometimes move their legs as if running or even make weak barking noises while asleep, or that their pets suddenly wake up and appear to think that a character from a nightmare is actually real.","{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Pierre-Cécile Puvis de Chavannes 003.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Pierre-Cécile Puvis de Chavannes: ''The Dream'', 1883]]
'''Dreaming''' is the [[subjective]] [[experience]] of [[remembered and imaginary]] images, sounds/voices, [[word]]s, [[thought]]s or [[sensation]]s during [[sleep]], with the dreamer usually not being able to influence the experience. The scientific discipline of dream research is [[oneirology]]. Dreaming has been associated with [[rapid eye movement]] (REM) sleep, a lighter form of sleep that occurs during the latter portion of the sleep cycle, characterized by rapid horizontal eye movements, stimulation of the [[pons]], increased respiratory and heart rate, and temporary paralysis of the body. However, this association has been questioned since it may be that dream recall after REM sleep is common and because dreams are more easily recalled after waking from light REM sleep.
It also occurs in other phases of sleep, though dream recall is more difficult. [[Hypnogogia]], which occurs spontaneously during the approach to sleep, is thought to be related to dreaming. Dreams are also associated with male [[erection]] about as frequently as with REM sleep.
Dreams are full of [[imagery]]. This imagery ranges from the banal to the surreal; in fact, dreams often provoke artistic and other forms of inspiration. Forms of dreams include the frightening or upsetting [[nightmare]], and erotic dreams with [[sex]]ual [[image]]s and [[nocturnal emission]].
Most scientists believe that dreams occur in all humans with about equal frequency per amount of sleep. Therefore, if individuals feel that they did not dream or that they only had one dream in any given night, it is because their memory of the dream has faded. This ""memory erasure"" aspect of the dream state is mostly found when a person naturally awakes via a smooth transition from REM sleep through delta sleep to the awake state.
If an individual proceeds through the delta state after REM sleep, forgetting the dream that accompanied REM sleep is more likely. On the other hand, if a person is awoken directly from REM sleep (e.g. by an [[alarm clock]]), they are much more likely to remember the dream from that REM cycle. Still, it is most likely that not all dreams will be remembered because they occur in REM cycles, which are interrupted by periods of delta sleep which in turn have a tendency to cause the memory of previous dreams to fade.
For a long time true dreaming had only been positively confirmed in humans, but recently there have been research reports supporting a view that dreaming occurs in other animals as well. Animals certainly undergo REM sleep, but their subjective experience is difficult to determine. The animal with the longest average periods of REM sleep is the [[armadillo]]. It would appear that [[mammal]]s and [[birds]] are the only, or at least most frequent, dreamers in nature, which is perhaps related to their sleep patterns. Many animals such as [[frog]]s probably do not sleep at all (except when in hibernaculum, which is a different kind of state). Some researchers have managed to deter the function of brain mechanism that locks body and limb movements during dreams. With this method it has been discovered that a [[cat]] seems to dream mostly about chasing prey and playing with it. On a more basic level, many [[dog]] owners have also noted that their pets sometimes move their legs as if running or even make weak barking noises while asleep, or that their pets suddenly wake up and appear to think that a character from a nightmare is actually real.","[1, 4, 9]"
Methamphetamine,Methods of use,30634754,2005-12-08T21:23:07Z,Psy guy,"Methamphetamine can be swallowed, snorted, smoked, dissolved in water and injected, or inserted anally (with or without dissolution in water). As with all addictive drugs, the potential for addiction is greater when it is delivered by methods that cause the concentration in the blood to rise quickly, principally because the effects desired by the user are felt more quickly and with a higher intensity than through a moderated delivery mechanism. In fact, studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate that the blood level of the drug increases. In general, smoking is the ""fastest"" mechanism (i.e., it causes the blood concentration to rise the most quickly in the shortest period of time as it allows the substance to travel to brain through a more direct route than intravenous injection), followed by injecting, then snorting, then swallowing. It is not entirely certain where anal insertion would fall on this list, but some scant anecdotal evidence puts the effects somewhere between those of smoking and snorting.
Methamphetamine is a powerful [[decongestant]], so methamphetamine users who snort it often have very clear nasal cavities. However, there have been rare cases of people snorting so much meth that their [[nose]] [[cartilage]] deteriorates, though snorting cocaine is far more likely to cause nasal degeneration, due to its [[vasoconstrictive]] properties. Snorting methamphetamine may also cause tooth decay, since the nasal passages are directly connected to the [[mouth]] region, and it is theorized that damaging crystalline particles can still attach to the teeth. Another theory is that the drug directly affects calcium balance in the body.
Crystal Meth has also been shown to decrease the production of saliva, the lack of which causes tooth decay.
Methamphetamine is commonly smoked in glass pipes, or in aluminum foil heated by a flame underneath. This method is also known as ""chasing the dragon"". Methamphetamine must be heated (not burned) to cause the desired smoke. Smoking methamphetamine is probably the most impure form of ingestion. In addition to the possible effects on teeth, it is very damaging to the [[lung]]s. Methamphetamine users who smoke it sometimes experience mild [[asthma]], which can be countered by inhaling [[salbutamol]] [[aerosol spray]], or [[epinephrine]] aerosol. Another problem with smoking meth is the potential presence of [[oxidation]] byproducts created when the heated drug comes in contact with air. Even if the initial drug is pure methamphetamine, the act of smoking it produces other chemicals, some of which may be toxic.
Injection is a popular method for use, but potentially carries quite serious risks. The [[hydrochloride]] salt of methamphetamine is soluble in water; injection users may use any dose from 200mg to over a gram in one I.V. dose using a small needle. In methamphetamine research, injection users often do not experience severe tooth decay, presumably because there is no residue left as there is through smoking it. But injection users experience greater jaw-clenching than users who snort or smoke it, since injecting methamphetamine has a much more powerful effect. This can cause loose teeth, so injection users still do lose their teeth. Also, this method of ingestion brings the risk of [[infection]]; injection users often experience skin [[rash]]es (sometimes called ""speed bumps"") and all kinds of infections due to the methamphetamine damage to the skin. As with any injected drug, if a group of users [[needle sharing|shares a common needle]] without sterilization procedures, very grave blood-borne diseases such as [[HIV]] or [[hepatitis]] can be transmitted as well.
Very little research has focused on anal insertion as a method, and anecdotal evidence of its effects is infrequently discussed, possibly due to social [[taboo]]s in many cultures regarding the [[anus]]. This is often known within communities that use meth for sexual stimulation as a ""booty bump,"" and is anecdotally reported to increase sexual pleasure[http://www.citypages.com/databank/24/1171/article11254.asp] while the effects of the drug last. The [[rectum]] is where the majority of the drug would likely be taken up, through the [[mucous membrane]]s lining its walls. Lack of direct exposure to teeth probably insulates users from the majority of damaging dental effects, but damage to sensitive anal and rectal tissues is a risk. Weakness in these tissues may increase the risk of transmission of [[sexually-transmitted infection]]s during sex. If enough methamphetamine is taken so that not all of it is completely dissolved, abrasion of any [[prophylactic]] devices (such as [[condom]]s) used during sex can occur due to [[friction]] with undissolved meth crystals. This can contribute to breakage of the prophylactic, and increased risk of disease transmission. (See [[Crystal and sex]] for further information on other risk factors.)
The least-detrimental method of taking methamphetamine may be oral administration. The effects are moderated over time to a greater degree, and neither teeth, skin, nor nasal passages are directly exposed to potentially harmful chemicals (assuming the user is careful not to allow pure crystal meth to come in contact with these parts of the body during ingestion). The less-intense ""hit"" may make this a less popular current choice for administration.","Methamphetamine can be swallowed, snorted, smoked, dissolved in water and injected, or inserted anally (with or without dissolution in water). As with all addictive drugs, the potential for addiction is greater when it is delivered by methods that cause the concentration in the blood to rise quickly, principally because the effects desired by the user are felt more quickly and with a higher intensity than through a moderated delivery mechanism. In fact, studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate that the blood level of the drug increases. In general, smoking is the ""fastest"" mechanism (i.e., it causes the blood concentration to rise the most quickly in the shortest period of time as it allows the substance to travel to brain through a more direct route than intravenous injection), followed by injecting, then snorting, then swallowing. It is not entirely certain where anal insertion would fall on this list, but some scant anecdotal evidence puts the effects somewhere between those of smoking and snorting.
Methamphetamine is a powerful [[decongestant]], so methamphetamine users who snort it often have very clear nasal cavities. However, there have been rare cases of people snorting so much meth that their [[nose]] [[cartilage]] deteriorates, though snorting cocaine is far more likely to cause nasal degeneration, due to its [[vasoconstrictive]] properties. Snorting methamphetamine may also cause tooth decay, since the nasal passages are directly connected to the [[mouth]] region, and it is theorized that damaging crystalline particles can still attach to the teeth. Another theory is that the drug directly affects calcium balance in the body.
Crystal Meth has also been shown to decrease the production of saliva, the lack of which causes tooth decay.
Methamphetamine is commonly smoked in glass pipes, or in aluminum foil heated by a flame underneath. This method is also known as ""chasing the dragon"". Methamphetamine must be heated (not burned) to cause the desired smoke. Smoking methamphetamine is probably the most impure form of ingestion. In addition to the possible effects on teeth, it is very damaging to the [[lung]]s. Methamphetamine users who smoke it sometimes experience mild [[asthma]], which can be countered by inhaling [[salbutamol]] [[aerosol spray]], or [[epinephrine]] aerosol. Another problem with smoking meth is the potential presence of [[oxidation]] byproducts created when the heated drug comes in contact with air. Even if the initial drug is pure methamphetamine, the act of smoking it produces other chemicals, some of which may be toxic.
Injection is a popular method for use, but potentially carries quite serious risks. The [[hydrochloride]] salt of methamphetamine is soluble in water; injection users may use any dose from 200mg to over a gram in one I.V. dose using a small needle. In methamphetamine research, injection users often do not experience severe tooth decay, presumably because there is no residue left as there is through smoking it. But injection users experience greater jaw-clenching than users who snort or smoke it, since injecting methamphetamine has a much more powerful effect. This can cause loose teeth, so injection users still do lose their teeth. Also, this method of ingestion brings the risk of [[infection]]; injection users often experience skin [[rash]]es (sometimes called ""speed bumps"") and all kinds of infections due to the methamphetamine damage to the skin. As with any injected drug, if a group of users [[needle sharing|shares a common needle]] without sterilization procedures, very grave blood-borne diseases such as [[HIV]] or [[hepatitis]] can be transmitted as well.
Very little research has focused on anal insertion as a method, and anecdotal evidence of its effects is infrequently discussed, possibly due to social [[taboo]]s in many cultures regarding the [[anus]]. This is often known within communities that use meth for sexual stimulation as a ""booty bump,"" and is anecdotally reported to increase sexual pleasure[http://www.citypages.com/databank/24/1171/article11254.asp] while the effects of the drug last. The [[rectum]] is where the majority of the drug would likely be taken up, through the [[mucous membrane]]s lining its walls. Lack of direct exposure to teeth probably insulates users from the majority of damaging dental effects, but damage to sensitive anal and rectal tissues is a risk. Weakness in these tissues may increase the risk of transmission of [[sexually-transmitted infection]]s during sex. If enough methamphetamine is taken so that not all of it is completely dissolved, abrasion of any [[prophylactic]] devices (such as [[condom]]s) used during sex can occur due to [[friction]] with undissolved meth crystals. This can contribute to breakage of the prophylactic, and increased risk of disease transmission. (See [[Crystal and sex]] for further information on other risk factors.)
The least-detrimental method of taking methamphetamine may be oral administration. The effects are moderated over time to a greater degree, and neither teeth, skin, nor nasal passages are directly exposed to potentially harmful chemicals (assuming the user is careful not to allow pure crystal meth to come in contact with these parts of the body during ingestion). The less-intense ""hit"" may make this a less popular current choice for administration.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,31227023,2005-12-13T19:39:18Z,71.106.166.3,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''zeitgebers'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]].
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated ---- ----symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorie-------ion and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''zeitgebers'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","[1, 9, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Plant circadian rhythms,31450725,2005-12-15T09:57:58Z,131.111.8.97,"Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to synchronize with daily changes in temperature and light is of great advantage to plants. At the most basic level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs. For example, as the days grow shorter and cooler, [[plants]] are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter.
The study of circadian rhythms is of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance. A better understanding of these genes will allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, better able to survive in cold temperatures. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.
","Plants are [[sessile]] organisms and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to synchronize with daily changes in temperature and light is of great advantage to plants. For example, the circadian clock makes an essential contribution to [[photosynthesis]], with the outcome that the clock is believed to increase plant growth and survival. As days grow shorter and cooler, [[plants]] are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and to prepare for winter. At the most fundamental level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s in individual cells. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light as well as temperature inputs.
The study of circadian rhythms is therefore of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance, and photosynthesis. A better understanding of these genes could allow the creation of stress tolerant plants, that are better able to survive in cold temperatures and grow with increased vigour. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.
","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,31458243,2005-12-15T11:59:20Z,131.111.8.103,"Believed to have originated from the earliest cells as a result of protection of replicating DNA from high UV radiation of day time. As a result, replication was strictly limited during a dark cycle. The fungus, ''Neurospora'', displays this clock mechanism.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated from the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was strictly limited during a dark cycle. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
Circadian rhythms are thought to have evolved completely independently in cyanobacteria, animals, plants and fungi.","[1, 3, 9]"
Code injection,Shell Injection,31511740,2005-12-15T20:19:31Z,Blaufish,,"Shell Injection is named after [[Unix shell|Unix shells], but applies to most systems which allows software to programmatically execute [[Command line]]. Typical sources of Shell Injection is calls system(), StartProcess(), java.lang.Runtime.exec() and similar APIs.
Consider the following short PHP
","[1, 4, 9]"
Code injection,Validate,31521885,2005-12-15T21:34:54Z,Blaufish,"Validate (or sanitizing) user input is to ensure that input is safe prior to use.
One strategy is to '''terminate on suspicious input'''. This is the safest strategy. If expecting input to be limited to [[charset]] ''A-Z'' or ''a-z'' but '''; ls -l /''' is received - the program is terminated.
Another strategy which is also viewed as secure is '''filter in known goods'''. If expecting input to be limited to [[charset]] ''A-Z'' or ''a-z'' but '''; ls -l /''' is received, the original input is replaced with '''lsl''' (and '''; - /''' is thrown away).
A really, really '''bad''' strategy is to '''filter out known bads'''. If [[charset]] [:;.-/] is known to be bad, but '''; ls -l /''' is received, the original input is replaced with ''' ls l''' (and ''';-/''' is thrown away). The use '''filter out known bads''' is generally views as a sign of incompetence. Why?
* This strategy does not protect against '''unknown''' threats. A typical developer or even a [[Security engineering|Security engineer]] are not likely to be aware of all possible exploitation techniques. Only defending against what you know, is to be defenceless against everything you do not know.
* This strategy does not protect against '''future''' threats. Even if a filter-out design is secure when it is created, other parts of the system may be changed in the future. For example, a UNIX command line security filter designed to stop attacks against [[C shell]] will be insecure if the software is moved to an environemt using [[bash]].","Validate (or sanitizing) user input is to ensure that input is safe prior to use. The best way to do this is to ''Terminate on suspicious input'' and use a ''Filter in known goods'' strategy to determine if execution should be terminated or not.
'''Terminate on suspicious input'''.
This is a very safe strategy. If unexpected characters occur in input, abort execution.
'''Throw away bad characters'''.
This is an alternative to ''Terminate on suspicious input''. Bad characters are thrown away from input, creating a shorter input string without bad characters. In many applications, this is the only practical solution. It could however be considered a bit more prone to security problems.
'''Filter in known goods'''.
If expecting input to be limited to [[charset]] ''A-Z'' or ''a-z'' but '''; ls -l /''' is received, the original input is replaced with '''lsl''' (and '''; - /''' is thrown away).
'''filter out known bads'''.
A really, really '''bad''' strategy is to ''filter out known bads''. If [[charset]] [:;.-/] is known to be bad, but '''; ls -l /''' is received, the original input is replaced with ''' ls l''' (and ''';-/''' is thrown away). The use ''filter out known bads'' is generally views as a sign of incompetence. Why?
* This strategy does not protect against '''unknown''' threats. A typical developer or even a [[Security engineering|Security engineer]] are not likely to be aware of all possible exploitation techniques. Only defending against what you know, is to be defenceless against everything you do not know.
* This strategy does not protect against '''future''' threats. Even if a filter-out design is secure when it is created, other parts of the system may be changed in the future. For example, a UNIX command line security filter designed to stop attacks against [[C shell]] will be insecure if the software is moved to an environemt using [[bash]].","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,31732502,2005-12-17T14:29:34Z,84.122.82.4,"*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
Also have a look at the [[Reticular activating system]] in the [[Reticular formation]].
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]","*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
Also have a look at the [[Reticular activating system]] in the [[Reticular formation]].
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]",[9]
Parkinson's disease,Genetic predispositions,32735594,2005-12-26T04:13:13Z,GoldRingChip,,"While a strong inheritance pattern occurs in only a very small percentage of cases, an affected individual is three to four times more likely than an unaffected individual to have a close relative with Parkinson's. Having a parent with Parkinson's raises one's lifetime risk of developing the disorder threefold, from the general population's figure of 2% to about 6%. Genes that have been identified include ''SNCA'' ([[protein]] [[alpha-synuclein]]), ''UCHL1'' (protein [[ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1]]), ''PARK2'' (protein [[Parkin (ligase)|parkin]]), and ''PARK7'' (protein [[DJ-1]]). Indeed, recent linkage studies excluded most of the above gene defects from consideration in the causation of sporadic (i.e. non-familial) Parkinson's disease, which constitutes more than 95% of cases. Most recently, a new gene was identified, ND5, mutation in which is thought to account for a vast majority of sporadic PD cases (see below).","[1, 9, 10, 4]"
Hypnosis,Dissociation and neodissociation theories,33651696,2006-01-02T23:00:53Z,208.12.24.35,"
This theory of hypnosis, postulated by [[Pierre Janet]], states that while in hypnosis, areas of an individual's behavioral control is split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexual behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as ""[[dissociation]] of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place.""{{ref|Weitzenhoffer}}
Ernest Hilgard took this theory and went further with a neodissociation theory. This theory postulates that although there exists a normal ego function that controls socially acceptable behaviors, there are other processes that occur outside of these controls, and could also function simultaneously with the normal controls.","
The Dissociative Theory of hypnosis, postulated by [[Pierre Janet]], states that while in hypnosis, areas of an individual's awareness are split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis can systematically remove such awareness from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with automatic, nonvolitional behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as ""[[dissociation]] of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place.""{{ref|Weitzenhoffer}}
Ernest Hilgard took this theory created the Neodissociation Theory, which postulates that although there exists a normal executive function that controls awareness and behavior, there are other processes that occur outside of such awareness.","[3, 4]"
Hypnosis,Forensic Application,33660737,2006-01-03T00:18:50Z,PeregrineAY,"Scientific knowledge of hypnosis applied to Legal problems is called forensic hypnosis. Because the experience of hypnosis can lead to the creation of fantasy and honestly held but false memory, most U.S. Courts apply stringent criteria before admitting testimony that was elicited through hypnotic suggestion. In the U.S., the states of [[Oregon]], [[Texas]], [[Indiana]],[[ Nevada]], and [[California]] have separate hypnotic investigation acts. Nevada courts accept hypnotically refreshed statements as evidence for judgment. [[Russia]] generally uses hypnosis in criminal investigations.","Scientific knowledge of hypnosis applied to Legal problems is called forensic hypnosis.Courts prior to 1968 consistently excluded post-hypnotic testimony on the grounds that it was unreliable and apt to influence a jury unduly. Now hypnosis practice is growing stronger and still admissible in courtroom testimonies as long as the stringent criteria and guidelines are met. American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code specifies Crime done by hypnotic Suggestion & Witness evidence in court after Hypnotic suggestion are not valued. In the U.S., [[Oregon]], [[Texas]], [[Indiana]],[[ Nevada]], and [[California]] states have separate hypnotic investigation acts. Nevada courts accepts hypnotically refreshed statements as evidence for judgment. [[Russia]] generally uses hypnosis in criminal investigations.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),35270623,2006-01-15T14:06:24Z,La goutte de pluie,"''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in plants, animals, fungi and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. For a description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin see http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as sunlight and temperature. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light/dark pulse, and
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24 hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e. constant light) with a period of ~24 hrs.,
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse, and
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[2, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,35270623,2006-01-15T14:06:24Z,La goutte de pluie,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light/dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''zeitgebers'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''zeitgebers'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in [[reticular formation]].","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,35270623,2006-01-15T14:06:24Z,La goutte de pluie,* The [[University of Virginia]] offers an excellent [http://template.bio.warwick.ac.uk/staff/amillar/andrewM/CBT%20tutorial/TUTORIALMAIN.html online tutorial] on this subject.,"[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]","[1, 2, 5]"
Hypnosis,(Top),35881940,2006-01-20T00:09:34Z,87.80.16.44,"'''Hypnosis''' is popularly understood to be a psychological condition in which an individual may be induced to exhibit apparent changes in behaviour, thought or affect. Although some individuals experience an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of relaxation, this is not true for everyone. In fact, hypnotic indicators and subjective changes can be achieved without relaxation or lengthy inductions which increases the controversy around hypnosis.
Intense debate surrounds the topic of hypnosis. Many scientists dispute its very existence, while many therapists insist upon its value. One of the problems that creates controversy is the wide variety of theories of hypnosis. The definitions of hypnosis are as varied as the definers. Dr. [[William S. Kroger]] states:
:""''Like the nature of human behavior, there will be different theories about hypnosis since all hypnotic phenomena have their counterpart in the various aspects of human behavior.''"" (1977)
The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in [[entertainment]] and in health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is [[sleep|asleep]] or, popularly termed, in [[trance]]. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.
On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Clinical hypnosis is used in attempts to increase the ability to recall [[memories]], assist with [[dieting]], [[smoking cessation]], [[pain]] reduction or elimination, eliminating [[irritable bowel syndrome]] (IBS) as well as resolving [[mental disorder]]s such as [[post traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), [[anxiety]] and [[clinical depression|depression]].","'''Hypnosis''' is popularly understood to be a psychological condition in which an individual may be induced to exhibit apparent changes in behaviour, thought or affect. Although some individuals experience an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of an '[[altered state of consciousness]]', this is not true for everyone. In fact, supposed hypnotic indicators and subjective changes can be achieved without relaxation or lengthy inductions which increases the controversy around hypnosis.
Intense debate surrounds the topic of hypnosis. Some scientists dispute its very existence (despite [[William James]]'s erudite discussion of the topic in the 19th-century), while many therapists insist upon its value. One potential source of controversy is the wide variety of theories of hypnosis. The definitions of hypnosis are as varied as the definers. Dr. [[William S. Kroger]] states:
:""''Like the nature of human behavior, there will be different theories about hypnosis since all hypnotic phenomena have their counterpart in the various aspects of human behavior.''"" (1977)
The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in [[entertainment]] and in health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is [[sleep|asleep]] or, popularly termed, in [[trance]]. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.
On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Evidence supports the clinical use of hypnosis for [[pain]] control, for weight control, in the treatment of [[irritable bowel syndrome]], and as an adjunct to cognitive behavioural and other therapies. Hypnosis is not a therapy in-and-of-itself but is effectively used as an adjunct to other therapies, hence ""hypnotherapy"" is less preferable than the use of hypnosis-related techniques as part of an psychological package.","[1, 2, 6, 3, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,36151046,2006-01-22T00:29:54Z,24.147.98.162,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''[[Zeitgeber]]s'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''[[Zeitgeber]]s'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in [[reticular formation]]. Not only that, they make people do things that they can't control. Just like breathing and making their heart beat, circadian rhythms make people do thing they can't control, such as jet lag, sleepiness, and bed hair.",[1]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,36151315,2006-01-22T00:32:51Z,Kuru,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''[[Zeitgeber]]s'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in [[reticular formation]]. Not only that, they make people do things that they can't control. Just like breathing and making their heart beat, circadian rhythms make people do thing they can't control, such as jet lag, sleepiness, and bed hair.","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep|sleeping]] and feeding patterns of all animals, including humans. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this 24 hour cycle.
The circadian rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""free running"" rhythm. Each ""day"" their sleep cycle is pushed back- or forward (depending whether they are nocturnal or diurnal animals) by approximately one hour. Free-running rhythms of diurnal animals are close to 25 hours. Cues from the environment (''[[Zeitgeber]]s'') ensure that the rhythms reset each day to the external rhythms.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep/wake cycle when in environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms (e.g. temperature and digestion). This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal|mammals]] is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of cells located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. Contributing to this clock are photo receptors found in the [[retina]], known as [[melanopsin ganglia]]. These cells, which contain a newly discovered photo pigment known as [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. Interestingly, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they will maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day. The SCN does not appear to be able to react rapidly to changes in the light/dark cues.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body--outside of the SCN ""master clock."" [[Liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually have a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of the circadian rhythms.
Recent research suggest that circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as cocaine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in [[reticular formation]].",[2]
Circadian rhythm,See also,36540223,2006-01-24T20:20:22Z,Severecci,"*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]","*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]",[9]
Gene therapy,Vectors in gene therapy,36838729,2006-01-26T20:42:02Z,144.92.47.79,"Some viruses attack their hosts to insert their genetic material into the genetic material of the host. This genetic material contains instructions to produce these viruses. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce the viruses. This is how viruses spread, in general.
In addition to the instructions producing the components of the virus itself, viruses can carry additional [[gene]]s containing instructions for creating other kinds of [[protein]]s. In theory, if we insert a gene that is missing from a patient in a virus, and infect that patient with the virus, the virus will spread the missing gene in all the cells of the patient. The missing gene is now replaced and the disease is cured. This technique is called [[gene therapy]].
Three types of viruses are currently used as vectors in gene therapy: [[retrovirus]]es, [[adenovirus]]es and [[adeno-associated virus]]es. They differ in their mechanisms of action and results.","All viruses attack their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hijacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Certain types of viruses actually physically insert their genes into the host's genome. This would incorporate the genes of that virus into the genes of the host cell for the life span of that cell. Most viruses do not do this, but some do (in fact, it is the defining feature of [retroviruses], the family of viruses that includes HIV, the virus that causes AIDS).
Doctors and molecular biologists realized that viruses like this could potentially be used as vehicles to carry 'good' genes into a human cell. First, a scientist would remove the genes in the virus that cause disease. Then, he or she would replace those genes with genes encoding the desired effect (for instance, insulin production in the case of diabetics). This procedure must be done in such a way as the genes which allow the virus to insert its genome into its host's genome are left intact. This can be confusing, and requires significant research and understanding of the virus's genes in order to know which one has what function. An example:
''A virus is found which replicates by inserting its genes into the host cell's genome. This virus has three genes - A, B, and C. Gene A encodes a protein which allows this virus to insert itself into the host's genome. Genes B and C actually cause the disease this virus is associated with. Thus, by re-engineering the virus so that genes B and C are removed and replaced by a beneficial gene, and leaving gene A alone, this virus could introduce your 'good gene' into the host cell's genome without causing any disease.
''
All this is clearly an oversimplification, and numerous problems exist that prevent [gene therapy] using viral vectors exist, such as trouble preventing undesired effects, ensuring the virus will infect the correct target cell in the body, and ensuring that the inserted gene doesn't disrupt an vital genes already in the genome. However, this basic mode of gene introduction currently shows much promise and doctors and scientists are working hard to fixing any potential problems that could exist.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 6]"
Prion,Classification,37222200,2006-01-29T15:53:04Z,Pinktulip,"
[[Mammal]]ian prions, agents of spongiform encephalopathies
",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,37383751,2006-01-30T17:53:03Z,142.150.139.230,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
Circadian rhythms are thought to have evolved completely independently in cyanobacteria, animals, plants and fungi.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.",[2]
Dream,Psychodynamic interpretation of dreams,38042101,2006-02-03T20:07:17Z,67.129.121.254,":''Main article: [[Dream interpretation]]''
Both [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]] identify dreams as an interaction between the [[unconscious]] and the [[conscious]]. They also assert together that unconscious is the dominant force of the dream, and in dreams it conveys its own mental activity to the perceptive faculty.
Freud, however, felt that there was an active censorship against the unconscious even during sleep; in his seminal work ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'', he explains and argues for his theory in detail.
The critical difference between Freudian and Jungian theories is in the relationship between what Freud distinguished as the ''manifest'' and ''latent'' content of the dreams. Freud believed that the bizarre quality of the dream as experienced by the dreamer is designed to ''conceal'' subconscious wishes, thoughts, and feelings, while Jung argued that the dream's bizarre quality is an efficient language, comparable to poetry and uniquely capable of ''revealing'' the underlying meaning.
Freud approached dreams as secondary to waking life, putting waking reality at the center of the person's life. In contrast, Jung argued that dreams are glimpses into an ongoing, independent inner life — and, more importantly, that this inner life is the hidden infrastructure and foundation of conscious awareness and perceptual functions. According to Jung, the experience of the dream is capable of transforming and teaching us in much the same way waking events do, such that upon wakening, the dreamer is primed to interpret, organize, and evaluate elements of his world a little differently than the day before. In this way, Jung believed that the effect of a dream is not contingent on insight or even recall.",":''More detail: [[Dream interpretation]]''
Both [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]] identify dreams as an interaction between the [[unconscious]] and the [[conscious]]. They also assert together that unconscious is the dominant force of the dream, and in dreams it conveys its own mental activity to the perceptive faculty.
Freud, however, felt that there was an active censorship against the unconscious even during sleep; in his seminal work ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'', he explains and argues for his theory in detail.
The critical difference between Freudian and Jungian theories is in the relationship between what Freud distinguished as the ''manifest'' and ''latent'' content of the dreams. Freud believed that the bizarre quality of the dream as experienced by the dreamer (i.e. manifest content) is designed to ''conceal'' subconscious wishes, thoughts, and feelings, while Jung argued that the dream's bizarre quality is an efficient language comparable to poetry that is uniquely capable of ''revealing'' the underlying meaning (in much the same manner the facade of a home is an outward expression of the interior design).
Freud approached dreams as secondary to waking life, putting waking reality at the center of the person's life. In contrast, Jung argued that dreams are glimpses into an ongoing stand-alone inner life and, more importantly, that this inner life is the hidden infrastructure and foundation of conscious awareness and perceptual functions. Freud treated dream images as encryptions of underlying verbal propositions, while Jung addressed the imagery of the dream in its own right and the whole of a dream as an experience. According to Jung, the experience of the dream is capable of transforming and teaching us in much the same way waking events do (i.e. the same learning principles apply), such that upon wakening in the morning, the dreamer is predisposed or primed to interpret, organize, and value-accentuate elements of his world a little differently than the day before, all in accordance with harmonic principles that govern the personality as a system. In this way, Jung believed that the effect of a dream is not contingent on insight, and for that matter, even recall. Jung put the unconscious (dream) life more at the center of personality than even Freud.","[1, 3, 4]"
Methadone,(Top),38809292,2006-02-08T20:17:46Z,Euanpw,"{| border=""1"" cellpadding=""3"" cellspacing=""0"" width=""250px"" align=""right"" style=""border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em""
|-
| bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""center"" colspan=""2"" |
[[Image:Methadone.png|Methadone chemical structure]]
''Methadone''
|-
| align=""center"" colspan=""2"" | ''6-(dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenyl- 3-heptanone'', a [[racemic]] mixture
|- align=""center"" style=""border-bottom: 3px solid gray""
| '''[[CAS number]]''' 76-99-3
| '''[[ATC code]]''' [[ATC code N07|N07]]BC02
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | C21H27NO
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 309.45
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 40-80(-92)
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | Metabolism
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | ?
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | (13-)24-36h
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | Urine, Test by spesific gravity and bilirubin
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | [[Schedule II]] ([[USA]])
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | Routes of administration
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | oral, intravenous
|-
|}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]] [[analgesic]] synthesized in [[1937]] by German scientists Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart at [[IG Farben]] (Hoechst-Am-Main) who were searching for an [[analgesic]] that would be easier to use during surgery and also have low addiction potential. Methadone is a Schedule II drug under the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]][http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf].
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects. Chemically, methadone is the simplest of the [[opioid]]s.
Methadone was introduced into the [[United States]] in [[1947]] by [[Eli Lilly and Company]] as an [[analgesic]] (They gave it the trade name [[Dolophine]]® which is now registered to Roxane Laboratories). Since then, it has been best known for its use in treating [[narcotic]] addiction, though it is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late [[2004]], the cost of a one month supply of methadone is 20 [[USD]], as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of [[Demerol]] at 120 USD. The old name ''Dolophine'' comes from the German ''Dolphium''. The name derives from the [[Latin]] ""dolor"" (pain).
Methadone (as Dolophine) was first manufactured in the USA by [[Mallinckrodt]] pharmaceuticals, a [[St. Louis]]-based subsidiary of the [[Tyco International]] corporation. Mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early 1990s. Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. However, the major producer remains Mallinckrodt. Mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersable tablets and oral concentrate under the name ""Methadose"" in the United States. Generally, one will only hear ""dolophine"" used by older addicts who used the product in the 1960's and 1970's. Medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone, when actually it is the reverse, may also use the old brand name. Myths abound about methadone and this is just another one.
Methadone has a slow metabolism and very high lipid solubility making it longer lasting than [[morphine]]-based drugs. Methadone has a typical half life of 24-48 hours, permitting the administration only once a day in [[heroin]] detoxification and maintenance programs. The most common mode of delivery at a Methadone clinic is in an oral solution. Methadone is almost as effective when administered orally as by injection. Just like heroin, tolerance and dependence frequently develop. Current research in this area shows methadone has a unique affinity for the NMDA brain receptor. Some researchers propose that NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid) may regulate psychic dependence and tolerance by exhibiting opioid antagonist-like activity. Withdrawal symptoms are generally less acutely severe than those of morphine and heroin at equivalent doses, but are significantly more prolonged. Considered generally effective in management of heroin addiction and harm reduction (reduction of HIV rates, etc...). At proper dosing, it reduces the appetite for heroin. However, some heroin addicts feel that it is actually harder to quit methadone than heroin itself. Treatment at a methadone maintenance clinic is intended to be for an indefinite duration, as the treatment is not curative.
In recent years, Methadone has gained popularity among physicians for the treatment of chronic pain. The increased usage comes as doctors search for an opioid drug that can be dosed less frequently than short-acting drugs such as morphine or hydrocodone. Methadone, with its long half-life, oral bioavailability, and long duration of effect is a common second-choice drug for pain that doesn't respond to weaker agonists.
Although not common, Methadone is encountered on the illicit market and has been associated with a number of overdose deaths. ""Street Meth"" demand comes primarily from opioid addicts unable to get into a legal methadone program; addicts seeking a high strongly prefer shorter-acting opioids. Studies have shown that the vast majority of methadone diverted to the illicit market comes from pain management prescriptions or theft from factories/shippers, not from maintenance patients.
Closely related to methadone, the synthetic compound levo-alphacetylmethadol or LAAM (ORLAAM) has an even longer duration of action (from 48 to 72 hours), permitting a reduction in frequency of use. In 1994 it was approved as a treatment of [[narcotic]] [[addiction]]. Like methadone, LAAM is in Schedule II of the [[United States]] [[Controlled Substances Act]]. LAAM has since been removed from the US and European markets due to reports of rare cardiac side effects.
[[Buprenorphine]] has also been used in the treatment of narcotic addiction. In October, 2002, the [[FDA]] approved two compounds containing buprenorphine (Subutex and Suboxone) for the treatment of [[narcotic]] [[addiction]]. It is interesting to note that Subutex and Suboxone are in Schedule III of the United States Controlled Substances Act, which allow for their use on an outpatient basis, unlike methadone and LAAM. In the [[UK]] and many other countries however not only buprenorphine and methadone but also diamorphine (heroin) and other opioids are regularly used for outpatient treatment of opiate addiction, and treatment is generally provided in much less heavily regulated environments than in the United States. A recent study from Austria indicated that oral morphine provides better results than oral methadone, and studies of heroin maintenance have indicated that a low background dose of methadone combined with heroin maintenance may significantly improve outcomes for less-responsive patients.
Another close relative of methadone is [[dextropropoxyphene]], first marketed in [[1957]] under the trade name of Darvon®. Oral analgesic potency is one-half to one-third that of [[codeine]], with 65 [[Milligram|mg]] approximately equivalent to about 600 mg of aspirin. [[Dextropropoxyphene]] is prescribed for relief of mild to moderate pain. Bulk [[dextropropoxyphene]] is in Schedule II of the [[United States]] [[Controlled Substances Act]], while preparations containing it are in Schedule IV. More than 100 tons of [[dextropropoxyphene]] are produced in the [[United States]] annually, and more than 25 million prescriptions are written for the products. This narcotic is associated with a number of toxic side effects and is among the top 10 drugs reported by medical examiners in recreational drug use deaths.","{| border=""1"" cellpadding=""3"" cellspacing=""0"" width=""250px"" align=""right"" style=""border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em""
|-
| bgcolor=""#ffffff"" align=""center"" colspan=""2"" |
[[Image:Methadone.png|Methadone chemical structure]]
''Methadone''
|-
| align=""center"" colspan=""2"" | ''6-(dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenyl- 3-heptanone'', a [[racemic]] mixture
|- align=""center"" style=""border-bottom: 3px solid gray""
| '''[[CAS number]]''' 76-99-3
| '''[[ATC code]]''' [[ATC code N07|N07]]BC02
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | C21H27NO
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 309.45
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 40-80(-92)
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | Metabolism
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | ?
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | (13-)24-36h
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | Urine, Test by spesific gravity and bilirubin
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | [[Schedule II]] ([[USA]])
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | Routes of administration
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | oral, intravenous
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | Cost (Tablet Form)
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | £2.97(GBP) 50x5mgDose
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" | Cost (Intravenous Form)
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 1-mL amp = 86p(GBP)
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" |
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 2-mL amp = £1.45(GBP)
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" |
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 3.5-mL amp = £1.78(GBP)
|-
| bgcolor=""#eeeeee"" |
| bgcolor=""#ddeeff"" | 5-mL amp = £1.92(GBP)
|-
|}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]] [[analgesic]] synthesized in [[1937]] by German scientists Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart at [[IG Farben]] (Hoechst-Am-Main) who were searching for an [[analgesic]] that would be easier to use during surgery and also have low addiction potential. Methadone is a Schedule II drug under the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]][http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf].
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects. Chemically, methadone is the simplest of the [[opioid]]s.
Methadone was introduced into the [[United States]] in [[1947]] by [[Eli Lilly and Company]] as an [[analgesic]] (They gave it the trade name [[Dolophine]]® which is now registered to Roxane Laboratories). Since then, it has been best known for its use in treating [[narcotic]] addiction, though it is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late [[2004]], the cost of a one month supply of methadone is 20 [[USD]], as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of [[Demerol]] at 120 USD. The old name ''Dolophine'' comes from the German ''Dolphium''. The name derives from the [[Latin]] ""dolor"" (pain).
Methadone (as Dolophine) was first manufactured in the USA by [[Mallinckrodt]] pharmaceuticals, a [[St. Louis]]-based subsidiary of the [[Tyco International]] corporation. Mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early 1990s. Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. However, the major producer remains Mallinckrodt. Mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersable tablets and oral concentrate under the name ""Methadose"" in the United States. Generally, one will only hear ""dolophine"" used by older addicts who used the product in the 1960's and 1970's. Medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone, when actually it is the reverse, may also use the old brand name. Myths abound about methadone and this is just another one.
Methadone has a slow metabolism and very high lipid solubility making it longer lasting than [[morphine]]-based drugs. Methadone has a typical half life of 24-48 hours, permitting the administration only once a day in [[heroin]] detoxification and maintenance programs. The most common mode of delivery at a Methadone clinic is in an oral solution. Methadone is almost as effective when administered orally as by injection. Just like heroin, tolerance and dependence frequently develop. Current research in this area shows methadone has a unique affinity for the NMDA brain receptor. Some researchers propose that NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid) may regulate psychic dependence and tolerance by exhibiting opioid antagonist-like activity. Withdrawal symptoms are generally less acutely severe than those of morphine and heroin at equivalent doses, but are significantly more prolonged. Considered generally effective in management of heroin addiction and harm reduction (reduction of HIV rates, etc...). At proper dosing, it reduces the appetite for heroin. However, some heroin addicts feel that it is actually harder to quit methadone than heroin itself. Treatment at a methadone maintenance clinic is intended to be for an indefinite duration, as the treatment is not curative.
In recent years, Methadone has gained popularity among physicians for the treatment of chronic pain. The increased usage comes as doctors search for an opioid drug that can be dosed less frequently than short-acting drugs such as morphine or hydrocodone. Methadone, with its long half-life, oral bioavailability, and long duration of effect is a common second-choice drug for pain that doesn't respond to weaker agonists.
Although not common, Methadone is encountered on the illicit market and has been associated with a number of overdose deaths. ""Street Meth"" demand comes primarily from opioid addicts unable to get into a legal methadone program; addicts seeking a high strongly prefer shorter-acting opioids. Studies have shown that the vast majority of methadone diverted to the illicit market comes from pain management prescriptions or theft from factories/shippers, not from maintenance patients.
Closely related to methadone, the synthetic compound levo-alphacetylmethadol or LAAM (ORLAAM) has an even longer duration of action (from 48 to 72 hours), permitting a reduction in frequency of use. In 1994 it was approved as a treatment of [[narcotic]] [[addiction]]. Like methadone, LAAM is in Schedule II of the [[United States]] [[Controlled Substances Act]]. LAAM has since been removed from the US and European markets due to reports of rare cardiac side effects.
[[Buprenorphine]] has also been used in the treatment of narcotic addiction. In October, 2002, the [[FDA]] approved two compounds containing buprenorphine (Subutex and Suboxone) for the treatment of [[narcotic]] [[addiction]]. It is interesting to note that Subutex and Suboxone are in Schedule III of the United States Controlled Substances Act, which allow for their use on an outpatient basis, unlike methadone and LAAM. In the [[UK]] and many other countries however not only buprenorphine and methadone but also diamorphine (heroin) and other opioids are regularly used for outpatient treatment of opiate addiction, and treatment is generally provided in much less heavily regulated environments than in the United States. A recent study from Austria indicated that oral morphine provides better results than oral methadone, and studies of heroin maintenance have indicated that a low background dose of methadone combined with heroin maintenance may significantly improve outcomes for less-responsive patients.
Another close relative of methadone is [[dextropropoxyphene]], first marketed in [[1957]] under the trade name of Darvon®. Oral analgesic potency is one-half to one-third that of [[codeine]], with 65 [[Milligram|mg]] approximately equivalent to about 600 mg of aspirin. [[Dextropropoxyphene]] is prescribed for relief of mild to moderate pain. Bulk [[dextropropoxyphene]] is in Schedule II of the [[United States]] [[Controlled Substances Act]], while preparations containing it are in Schedule IV. More than 100 tons of [[dextropropoxyphene]] are produced in the [[United States]] annually, and more than 25 million prescriptions are written for the products. This narcotic is associated with a number of toxic side effects and is among the top 10 drugs reported by medical examiners in recreational drug use deaths.",[11]
Gene therapy,(Top),38880902,2006-02-09T05:47:55Z,Richardevan,"In the 650s, advances in [[tubular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for a method of easily producing [[protein]]s, such as the protein deficient in diabetics — insulin, investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria|bacterial]] DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
Villiage Idiots took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into funny cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene frowns, such as [[sister hick fiber Oh SIS!]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the stuff involved in carrying large sections of stuff and delivering it to the right site of the stuff.","In the 1980s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for a method of easily producing [[protein]]s, such as the protein deficient in diabetics — insulin, investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria|bacterial]] DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the genome.",[12]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),38887810,2006-02-09T07:11:56Z,Pgan002,"'''Circadian rhythm''' is the name given to the ''roughly 24-hour cycles'' shown by physiological processes in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term circadian comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm is neither fully dependent on nor fully independent of external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. Early researchers identified that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals will eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (i.e., constant light) with a period of ~24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","'''Circadian rhythm''' are ''roughly-24-hour cycles'' in the physiological processes of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""around a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms (such as daily, weekly, seasonal, etc.) is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm partly depends on external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. Early researchers observed that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the Biological Clock,40409016,2006-02-20T09:26:49Z,Jclerman,,[[Illuminance]] must be greater than 1000 [[lux]] to reset the circadian clock.,"[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Literature,41394303,2006-02-27T01:12:11Z,Antedon~enwiki,"Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111","Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Aschoff J (eds.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam",[7]
Circadian rhythm,Literature,42412754,2006-03-06T02:02:35Z,65.25.107.195,"Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Aschoff J (eds.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam","Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
Aschoff J (eds.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam","[1, 4, 5, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,42412938,2006-03-06T02:04:03Z,65.25.107.195,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Remarkably, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, their do not share any homology. This may implicate in probable","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Remarkably, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, their do not share any homology. This may implicate in their probable independent origin.","[1, 3]"
Stem cell,Embryonic stem cells,43444686,2006-03-12T15:53:36Z,Nectarflowed,"Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are stem cells derived from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a [[blastocyst]], an early stage [[Mammalian embryogenesis|embryo]] (approximately 1 week old in humans) consisting of 50-150 cells. Moreover, they are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e. differentiate) into all derivatives of the three primary [[germ layer]]s: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body as long as they are specified to do so. This characteristic property distinguishes embryonic stem cells from adult stem cells or progenitor cells, the latter two of which only have the capacity to form a limited number of different cell types. Because of their unique combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells potentially are the ultimate source for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease. To date there is no evidence that any medical treatments have been successfully derived from embryonic stem cell research.
Embryonic stem cells were first derived from mouse embryos in 1981 by two independent research groups (Evans & Kaufman and Martin). The breakthrough in embryonic stem cell research came in November 1998 when a group led by [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] at the [[University of Wisconsin|University of Wisconsin-Madison]] first developed a technique to isolate and grow the cells derived from human blastocysts. Normally, blastocyst-stage embryos that are left over after successful in vitro fertilization would not be used but be destroyed. Scientists are only allowed to use these discarded blastocysts after assessment by specialized committees that thoroughly check the research goals of these scientists. Of course, scientific research using those blastocysts may be conducted when it contributes to a better understanding of how to generate cells and tissues that can cure a patient's disease or be used to treat severe injuries. Embryonic stem cell researchers are currently attempting to grow the cells in the laboratory (i.e. in culture flasks: ""in vitro"") beyond the first stages of cell development. It is important to make sure the embryonic stem cells are fully differentiated into the desired cell type (i.e. tissue) before they are transplanted into the patient, as undifferentiated embryonic stem cells may develop into a [[tumor]] after transplantation. Further more, scientists are trying to develop techniques to prevent rejection of implanted cells by the patient (i.e. host-versus-graft response).
One of the possibilities to prevent rejection is by creating embryonic stem cell clones that are genetically identical to the patient. This can be achieved by fusing an [[egg cell]], the nucleus (containing the genetic material: [[DNA]]) of which is removed, with a patient's cell. The fused cell produced (containing only the [[DNA]] of the patient) is allowed to grow to the size of a few tens of cells, and stem cells are then extracted. Because they are genetically compatible with the patient, the patient's immune system will not reject differentiated cells derived from these embryonic stem cells. More commonly, they are obtained for research purposes from uncloned blastocysts, such as those discarded from in vitro fertilization clinics. Such cells might be rejected if transplanted into a patient, as they do not contain identical genetic information. A possible solution for this is to derive as many well-characterized embryonic stem cell lines from different genetic and ethnic backgrounds and use the cell line that is most similar to the patient; treatment can then be tailored to the patient, minimizing the risk of rejection.
A major development in research came in May 2003, when researchers announced that they had successfully used embryonic stem cells to produce human egg cells. These egg cells could potentially be used in turn to produce new stem cells. If research and testing proves that artificially created egg cells could be a viable source for embryonic stem cells, they noted, then this would remove the necessity of starting a new embryonic stem cell line with the destruction of a blastocyst. Thus, the controversy over donating human egg cells and blastocysts could potentially be resolved, though a blastocyst would still be required to start each cycle.
The online edition of ''Nature Medicine'' published a study on [[January 23]], [[2005]] which stated that the human embryonic stem cells available for federally funded research are contaminated with nonhuman molecules from the culture medium used to grow the cells, for example, mouse cells and other animal cells. The nonhuman cell-surface sialic acid can compromise the potential uses of the embryonic stem cells in humans, according to scientists at the [[University of California, San Diego]][http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/vaop/ncurrent/pdf/nm1181.pdf].
A study was published in the online edition of ''Lancet Medical Journal'' on [[March 8]], [[2005]] that detailed information about a new stem-cell line which was derived from human embryos under completely cell- and serum-free conditions. This event is significant because exposure of existing human embryonic stem-cell lines to live animal cells and serum risks contamination with pathogens that could lead to human health risks. After more than 6 months of undifferentiated proliferation, these cells retained the potential to form derivatives of all three embryonic germ layers both in vitro and in teratomas. These properties were also successfully maintained (for more than 30 passages) with the established stem-cell lines. [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605664732/fulltext (''Lancet Medical Journal'')]
Recently, in California, researchers have injected embryonic stem cells into mice as they developed in the womb. Upon maturing, it was found that some of the human ESCs had survived and two months after injection, the researchers found that the ESCs had undertaken ""the characteristics of mouse cells"" [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1214_051214_stem_cell.html].","[[Embryonic stem cells]] are cultured cells obtained from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of an early stage [[embryo|human embryo]] (sometimes called a [[blastocyst]], which is an embryo that is between 50 to 150 cells). Embryonic stem cell research is ""thought to have much greater developmental potential than adult stem cells,"" according to the [[National Institutes of Health]].{{ref|NIH}} However, embryonic stem cell research is still in the basic research phase, as these stem cells were first isolated in 1998 (at least for humans), whereas adult stem cells have been studied since the 1960s.{{ref|isolated}}
Research with embryonic stem cells derived from [[human]]s is controversial because, in order to start a [[stem cell line|stem cell 'line']] or lineage, it requires the destruction of a human embryo and/or [[therapeutic cloning]], which some believe is a [[slippery slope]] to [[reproductive cloning]] and tantamount to the [[objectification]] of a potential [[human being]]. In an attempt to overcome these moral, political and ethical hurdles, medical researchers have been experimenting with alternative techniques of obtaining embryonic stem cells by extraction, which does not involve cloning and/or the destruction of a human embryo.","[1, 2, 4, 9]"
Alzheimer's disease,Clinical features,44653103,2006-03-20T12:33:18Z,Matthausia,"The usual first symptom noticed is memory loss which progresses from seemingly simple and often fluctuating [[forgetfulness]] (with which the disease should not be confused) to a more pervasive loss of [[recent memory]], then of familiar and well-known skills or objects or persons. [[Aphasia]], [[disorientation]] and [[disinhibition]] usually accompany the loss of memory. Alzheimer's disease may also include behavioral changes, such as outbursts of violence or excessive passivity in people who have no previous history of such behavior. In the later stages, deterioration of musculature and mobility, leading to bedfastness, inability to feed oneself, and incontinence, will be seen if death from some external cause (e.g. heart attack or pneumonia) does not intervene. Average duration of the disease is approximately 7-10 years, although cases are known where reaching the final stage occurs within 4-5 years, or up to 25 years.","The usual first symptom noticed is memory loss which progresses from seemingly simple and often fluctuating [[forgetfulness]] (with which the disease should not be confused) to a more pervasive loss of [[recent memory]], then of familiar and well-known skills or objects or persons. [[Aphasia]], [[disorientation]] and [[disinhibition]] usually accompany the loss of memory. Alzheimer's disease may also include behavioral changes, such as outbursts of violence or excessive passivity in people who have no previous history of such behavior. In the later stages, deterioration of musculature and mobility, leading to bedfastness, inability to feed oneself, and incontinence, will be seen if death from some external cause (e.g. heart attack or pneumonia) does not intervene. Average duration of the disease is approximately 7-10 years, although cases are known where reaching the final stage occurs within 4-5 years, or up to 15 years.",[10]
Context-free grammar,Example 1,44790749,2006-03-21T09:00:41Z,130.226.31.30,"Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct infix algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
:S → x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S)
This grammar can, for example, generate the string ""( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )"".","A simple context-free grammar is
:S → aSb | ε
where | is used to separate multiple options for the same non-terminal, and ε stands for an empty string. This grammar generates the language
which is not [[regular language|regular]].","[1, 2, 4, 9, 10]"
Context-free grammar,Example 2,44999229,2006-03-22T21:19:17Z,137.122.200.192,"A simple context-free grammar is
:S → aSb | ε
where | is used to separate multiple options for the same non-terminal, and ε stands for an empty string. This grammar generates the language
which is not [[regular language|regular]].","Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct infix algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
:S → x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S)
This grammar can, for example, generate the string ""( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )"".
----","[1, 2, 4]"
Down syndrome,World Down dyndrome day,45067665,2006-03-23T06:19:30Z,Gregorydavid,,The first World Down syndrome day was held on 21 March 2006. The day and month were chosen to correspond with [[Chromosome 21|21]] and [[Trisomy|trisomy]] respectively.,"[1, 9, 4]"
Human cloning,Understanding cloning,45239382,2006-03-24T08:54:37Z,86.130.63.201,"Although genes are recognized as influencing [[behavior]] and [[cognition]], ""genetically identical"" does ''not'' mean altogether identical; almost no one would deny that identical [[twin]]s, despite being natural human clones with identical [[DNA]], are separate people, with separate experiences and not altogether overlapping personalities. However undramatic it may sound, the relationship between an ""original"" and a clone is rather like that between identical twins raised apart; they share all the same [[DNA]], but little of the same environment.
Ultimately, the question of how similar an original and a clone would be boils down to how much of personality is determined by genetics, an area still under active scientific investigation. (See [[nature versus nurture]] and [[cloning]].)","Although genes are recognized as influencing [[behavior]] and [[cognition]], ""genetically identical"" does ''not'' mean altogether identical; almost no one would deny that identical [[twin]]s, despite being natural human clones with identical [[DNA]], are separate people, with separate experiences and not altogether overlapping personalities. However undramatic it may sound, the relationship between an ""original"" and a clone is rather like that between identical twins raised apart; they share all the same [[DNA]], but little of the same environment. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9144274&dopt=Citation A lively scientific debate on this exact topic occurred in the journal Nature in 1997.]
Ultimately, the question of how similar an original and a clone would be boils down to how much of personality is determined by genetics, an area still under active scientific investigation. (See [[nature versus nurture]] and [[cloning]].)",[1]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,45317827,2006-03-24T21:24:55Z,198.202.68.44,[[Illuminance]] must be greater than 1000 [[lux]] to reset the circadian clock in humans.,"[[Illuminance]] must be greater than 1000 [[lux]] to reset the circadian clock in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.''. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Code injection,External links,45869871,2006-03-28T16:17:30Z,195.176.20.45,"*Article ""[http://www.codeproject.com/threads/winspy.asp Three Ways to Inject Your Code into Another Process]"" by [[Robert Kuster]]
*Article ""[http://codebreakers-journal.com/viewarticle.php?id=36 Unpacking by Code Injection]"" by [[Eduardo Labir]]
*Article ""[http://www.codeproject.com/system/inject2exe.asp Inject your code to a Portable Executable file]"" by [[Ashkbiz Danehkar]]
*Article ""[http://www.technicalinfo.net/papers/CSS.html HTML Code Injection and Cross-site scripting - Understanding the cause and effect of CSS (XSS) Vulnerabilities]"" by [[Gunter Ollmann]]
*News article ""[http://www.emsisoft.com/en/kb/articles/news041104/ Flux spreads wider]"" - First [[Trojan horse (computing)]] to make use of code injection to prevent detection from a [[firewall (networking)]]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=code+injection Citations from CiteSeer]
*[http://www.acunetix.com/ Scan for code injection vulnerabilities]
{{malware-stub}}
[[Category:Malware]]
[[Category:Security exploits]]
[[Category:Machine code]]
[[he:הזרקת קוד]]","*Article ""[http://www.codeproject.com/threads/winspy.asp Three Ways to Inject Your Code into Another Process]"" by [[Robert Kuster]]
*Article ""[http://codebreakers-journal.com/viewarticle.php?id=36 Unpacking by Code Injection]"" by [[Eduardo Labir]]
*Article ""[http://www.codeproject.com/system/inject2exe.asp Inject your code to a Portable Executable file]"" by [[Ashkbiz Danehkar]]
*Article ""[http://www.technicalinfo.net/papers/CSS.html HTML Code Injection and Cross-site scripting - Understanding the cause and effect of CSS (XSS) Vulnerabilities]"" by [[Gunter Ollmann]]
*Article ""[http://chris.vandenberghe.org/publications/csse_raid2005.pdf Defending against Injection Attacks through Context-Sensitive String Evaluation (CSSE)]"" by [[Tadeusz Pietraszek]] and [[Chris Vanden Berghe]]
*News article ""[http://www.emsisoft.com/en/kb/articles/news041104/ Flux spreads wider]"" - First [[Trojan horse (computing)]] to make use of code injection to prevent detection from a [[firewall (networking)]]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=code+injection Citations from CiteSeer]
*[http://www.acunetix.com/ Scan for code injection vulnerabilities]
{{malware-stub}}
[[Category:Malware]]
[[Category:Security exploits]]
[[Category:Machine code]]
[[he:הזרקת קוד]]","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
K-d tree,Constructing a ''k''d-tree,46910709,2006-04-04T11:40:36Z,Borax~enwiki,"Since there are many possible ways to choose axis-aligned splitting planes, there are many different ways to construct ''k''d-trees. The canonical method of ''k''d-tree construction has the following constraints:
* As one moves down the tree, one cycles through the axes used to select the splitting planes. (For example, the root would have an ''x''-aligned plane, the root's children would both have ''y''-aligned planes, the root's grandchildren would all have ''z''-aligned planes, and so on.)
* At each step, the point selected to create the splitting plane is the [[median]] of the points being put into the ''k''d-tree, with respect to their coordinates in the axis being used.
This method leads to a [[balanced tree|balanced]] ''k''d-tree, in which each leaf node is about the same distance from the root. However, balanced trees are not necessarily optimal for all applications.
Given a list of ''n'' points, the following [[algorithm]] will construct a balanced ''k''d-tree containing those points.
'''function''' kdtree (''list of points'' pointList, ''int'' depth)
{
'''if''' pointList '''is empty'''
'''return''' '''nil''';
'''else'''
{
''// Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values''
'''var''' ''int'' axis := depth '''mod''' k;
''// Sort point list and choose median as pivot element''
'''sort''' pointList '''using predicate:''' point1[axis] < point2[axis];
'''choose''' median '''from''' pointList;
''// Create node and construct subtrees''
'''var''' ''tree_node'' node;
node.location := median;
node.leftChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''before''' median, depth+1);
node.rightChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''after''' median, depth+1);
'''return''' node;
}
}
This algorithm implemented in the [[Python programming language]] is as follows:
class Node:pass
def kdtree(pointList, depth=0):
if not pointList:
return
# Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values
k = len(pointList[0]) # assumes all points have the same dimension
axis = depth % k
# Sort point list and choose median as pivot element
pointList.sort(cmp=lambda x,y:cmp(x[axis],y[axis]))
median = len(pointList)/2 # choose median
# Create node and construct subtrees
node = Node()
node.location = pointList[median]
node.leftChild = kdtree(pointList[0:median], depth+1)
node.rightChild = kdtree(pointList[median+1:], depth+1)
return node
Example usage would be:
pointList = [(2,3),(5,4),(9,1),(4,7),(8,1)]
tree = kdtree(pointList)
This algorithm creates the [[invariant (computer science)|invariant]] that for any node, all the nodes in the left [[subtree]] are on one side of a splitting [[plane (mathematics)|plane]], and all the nodes in the right subtree are on the other side. The splitting plane of a node goes through the point associated with that node (referred to in the code as ''node.location'').","Since there are many possible ways to choose axis-aligned splitting planes, there are many different ways to construct ''k''d-trees. The canonical method of ''k''d-tree construction has the following constraints:
* As one moves down the tree, one cycles through the axes used to select the splitting planes. (For example, the root would have an ''x''-aligned plane, the root's children would both have ''y''-aligned planes, the root's grandchildren would all have ''z''-aligned planes, and so on.)
* At each step, the point selected to create the splitting plane is the [[median]] of the points being put into the ''k''d-tree, with respect to their coordinates in the axis being used.
This method leads to a [[balanced tree|balanced]] ''k''d-tree, in which each leaf node is about the same distance from the root. However, balanced trees are not necessarily optimal for all applications.
Given a list of ''n'' points, the following [[algorithm]] will construct a balanced ''k''d-tree containing those points.
'''function''' kdtree (''list of points'' pointList, ''int'' depth)
{
'''if''' pointList '''is empty'''
'''return''' '''nil''';
'''else'''
{
''// Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values''
'''var''' ''int'' axis := depth '''mod''' k;
''// Sort point list and choose median as pivot element''
'''sort''' pointList '''using predicate:''' point1[axis] < point2[axis];
'''choose''' median '''from''' pointList;
''// Create node and construct subtrees''
'''var''' ''tree_node'' node;
node.location := median;
node.leftChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''before''' median, depth+1);
node.rightChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''after''' median, depth+1);
'''return''' node;
}
}
This algorithm implemented in the [[Python programming language]] is as follows:
class Node:pass
def kdtree(pointList, depth=0):
if not pointList:
return
# Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values
k = len(pointList[0]) # assumes all points have the same dimension
axis = depth % k
# Sort point list and choose median as pivot element
pointList.sort(cmp=lambda x,y:cmp(x[axis],y[axis]))
median = len(pointList)/2 # choose median
# Create node and construct subtrees
node = Node()
node.location = pointList[median]
node.leftChild = kdtree(pointList[0:median-1], depth+1)
node.rightChild = kdtree(pointList[median+1:], depth+1)
return node
Example usage would be:
pointList = [(2,3),(5,4),(9,1),(4,7),(8,1)]
tree = kdtree(pointList)
This algorithm creates the [[invariant (computer science)|invariant]] that for any node, all the nodes in the left [[subtree]] are on one side of a splitting [[plane (mathematics)|plane]], and all the nodes in the right subtree are on the other side. The splitting plane of a node goes through the point associated with that node (referred to in the code as ''node.location'').",[3]
Asperger syndrome,Definitions and diagnostic criteria,47255389,2006-04-06T14:38:08Z,49TL,"Asperger syndrome is defined in section 299.80 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) as:
#Qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
##Marked impairments in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body [[posture]], and gestures to regulate social interaction.
##Failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level.
##A lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest or achievements with other people (e.g.,boring by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest to other people).
##A lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
#Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
##Encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal in either intensity or focus.
##Apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals.
##Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole-body movements).
##Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
#The disturbance causes clinically significant impairments in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
#There is no clinically significant general delay in language (e.g., single words used by age two years, communicative phrases used by age three years).
#There is no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills or adaptive behavior (other than in social interaction) and curiosity about the [[social environment|environment]] in childhood.
#Criteria are not met for another specific [[Pervasive Developmental Disorder]] or [[Schizophrenia]].","Asperger syndrome is defined in section 299.80 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) as:
#Qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
##Marked impairments in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body [[posture]], and gestures to regulate social interaction.
##Failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level.
##A lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest or achievements with other people (e.g.,boring by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest to other people).
##A lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
#Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
##Encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal in either intensity or focus.
##Apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals.
##Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole-body movements).
##Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
#The disturbance causes clinically significant impairments in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
#There is no clinically significant general delay in language (e.g., single words used by age two years, communicative phrases used by age three years).
#There is no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills or adaptive behavior (other than in social interaction) and curiosity about the [[social environment|environment]] in childhood.
#Criteria are not met for another specific [[Pervasive Developmental Disorder]] or [[Schizophrenia]].
The diagnostic criteria of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual'' are criticized for being vague and subjective; a condition that one psychologist might define as a significant impairment might be defined by another psychologist as merely insignificant.
In ''A Guide to Asperger Syndrome'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), Christopher Gillberg also criticizes
the ""no significant delay"" clauses of the DSM, and to a lesser extent some of the others, and argues that the clauses represent a misunderstanding or oversimplification of the syndrome. He states that although there may well be significant delay in some areas of language development, it is often combined with exceptionally high functioning in other language-related areas, and he argues that this combination superficially resembles but is in reality very different from normal development in language and adaptive behavior.
Partly because of Asperger syndrome's recent appearance in the DSM and partly because of differences of opinion such as Gillberg's, at least three other, slightly different sets of diagnostic criteria are used in the field besides the DSM-IV definition. One is due to Gillberg himself and his wife and is also endorsed by Attwood; among other differences, this definition emphasizes the linguistic peculiarities, which go unmentioned in the DSM-IV criteria. Another definition is due to a team of Canadian researchers and is often called the Szatmari definition, after the first listed author of the paper in which these criteria first appeared. Both of these definitions were first published in 1989. The third is the [[ICD-10]] definition; this one is similar to the DSM-IV version, and Gillberg criticizes it in much the same manner as he does the DSM-IV version.
Gillberg's criteria are as follows (All six criteria must be met for confirmation of diagnosis; however, self-diagnosis is not recommended):
#Severe impairment in reciprocal social interaction (at least two of the following)
##inability to interact with peers
##lack of desire to interact with peers
##lack of appreciation of social cues
##socially and emotionally inappropriate behavior
#All-absorbing narrow interest (at least one of the following)
##exclusion of other activities
##repetitive adherence
##more rote than meaning
#Imposition of routines and interests (at least one of the following)
##on self, in aspects of life
##on others
#Speech and language problems (at least three of the following)
##delayed development
##superficially perfect expressive language
##formal, pedantic language
##odd prosody, peculiar voice characteristics
##impairment of comprehension including misinterpretations of literal/implied meanings
#Non-verbal communication problems (at least one of the following)
##limited use of gestures
##clumsy/gauche body language
##limited facial expression
##inappropriate expression
##peculiar, stiff gaze
#Motor clumsiness: poor performance on neurodevelopmental examination
For ICD-10, the phrase ''Asperger's syndrome'' is synonymous with ''Autistic psychopathy'' and ''[[Schizoid personality disorder|Schizoid disorder]] of childhood''.","[1, 5, 9, 4]"
Bubble sort,Performance,49159551,2006-04-19T18:08:19Z,Olaolaola~enwiki,"Bubble sort needs [[big O notation|O]](n2) comparisons to sort items and can sort [[in-place algorithm|in-place]]. Although the algorithm is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, it is too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple O(n2) sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are considerably more efficient.
Due to its simplicity, the bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm to introductory programming students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf] The Jargon file, which famously calls [[bogosort]] ""[t]he archetypical perversely awful algorithm"", also calls bubble sort ""the generic ''bad'' algorithm"".[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html] Don Knuth, in his famous ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that ""the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems"", some of which he discusses therein.
Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Insertion sort needs only operations if the list is already sorted, whereas naïve implementations of bubble sort (like the pseudocode above) require operations. (This can be reduced to if code is added to stop the outer loop when the inner loop performs no swaps.) Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.
Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction|branch mispredictions]] (O(''n''log ''n'') rather than insertion sort's O(''n'')). Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than insertion sort and 40% slower than [[selection sort]].
Reversing the order in which the list is traversed for each pass improves the efficiency somewhat. This is sometimes called [[shuttle sort]] since the algorithm shuttles from one end of the list to the other.","Bubble sort needs [[big O notation|O]](n2) comparisons to sort items and can sort [[in-place algorithm|in-place]]. Although the algorithm is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, it is too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple O(n2) sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are considerably more efficient.
Due to its simplicity, the bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm to introductory programming students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to praise bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it be taught everywhere.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf] The Jargon file, which famously calls [[bogosort]] ""[t]he archetypical perversely awful algorithm"", also calls bubble sort ""the generic ''bad'' algorithm"".[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html] Don Knuth, in his famous ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that ""the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems"", some of which he discusses therein.
Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Insertion sort needs only operations if the list is already sorted, whereas naïve implementations of bubble sort (like the pseudocode above) require operations. (This can be reduced to if code is added to stop the outer loop when the inner loop performs no swaps.) Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.
Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction|branch mispredictions]] (O(''n''log ''n'') rather than insertion sort's O(''n'')). Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than insertion sort and 40% slower than [[selection sort]].
Reversing the order in which the list is traversed for each pass improves the efficiency somewhat. This is sometimes called [[shuttle sort]] since the algorithm shuttles from one end of the list to the other.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,50737043,2006-04-29T13:55:37Z,Jclerman,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Remarkably, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This may implicate their probable independent origin.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Remarkably, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This may imply their probable independent origin.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,50886135,2006-04-30T13:25:57Z,130.88.217.29,"[[Illuminance]] must be greater than 1000 [[lux]] to reset the circadian clock in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.","[[Illuminance]] must be greater than 1000 [[lux]] to reset the circadian clock in humans, though much lower light levels have been shown to effectively reset the clocks of nocturnal rodents.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.","[1, 3]"
Port (computer networking),(Top),51080692,2006-05-01T18:41:18Z,Helvetica,,"{{Expand}}
In [[computer networking]], '''TCP and UDP ports''' are special numbers, ranging from 0-65535, recognized by the [[TCP]] and [[UDP]] protocols. These protocols use the ports to map incoming data to a particular process running on a computer.
One might describe the idea using the following analogy. Imagine computers having thousands of numbered hardware ports, each with wires sticking out of them. In this virtual scenario, applications could communicate as follows: Application A listens for network traffic arriving on port 90 (for example.) Application B knows that Application A is always listening on port 90, so it sends some data down the corresponding wire. The number of concurrent listening applications is limited by the number of wires there are sticking out of the computer.
This analogy is only for explanation, in reality, however, there may only be one hardware port (the network socket).
By including the desired port number in the transmission of data it is possible to target specific applications on the receiving end and as long as they are listening to the correct port number they will receive the correct data, even though all data is sent through the same physical port. In this way we can create the illusion that there are many thousands of available ports.
Whether or not network ports are used depends on the [[Transport_layer|transport layer]]. Both [[User_Datagram_Protocol|UDP]] and [[Transmission_control_protocol|TCP]] use ports.
A port may send/receive data one direction at a time (Half Duplex) or simultaneously in both directions (Full duplex). Software network ports may also connect internal programs on a single computer system.
In TCP and UDP the combination of a port and a network address ([[Internet Protocol|IP]]-number) is called a ''[[socket]]'': e.g. the [[List of TCP and UDP port numbers|TCP and UDP port numbers]].","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Asperger syndrome,Prevalence,51128691,2006-05-02T00:04:42Z,Natche24,"A 1993 total population study carried out in [[Sweden]] found that, at a minimum, 3.6 per 1000 school-aged children definitely meet the criteria for Asperger syndrome. If merely suspected cases are included, the prevalence becomes approximately 7.1 per 1000 (Ehlers & [[Christopher Gillberg|Gillberg]]). Gillberg estimates 30-50% of all Aspergers' go undiagnosed (Gillberg 2002). A high percent (95%) are either unemployed or underemployed. Just 12% of Asperger Adults are in full time employment, with 6% Part time employment, and only 3% live independently (Barnard et.al. 2001). Adults with AS appear to be at greater risk of [[depression]] than the general population. In addition, many believe that people with AS have an increased risk of a [[psychotic]] episodes in adolescence or adult life(Frey 2004). Other data for the adult population is not available.
Like other conditions classified as [[autism spectrum disorder]]s, Asperger syndrome appears to be more prevalent among males than females, with males making up approximately 75–80 percent of diagnoses. Many [[clinician]]s believe that this may not reflect the actual incidence among females; well-known Asperger syndrome expert [[Tony Attwood]] suggests that females learn to better compensate for their impairments because of differences in [[socialization]] (Attwood, pp 151–2). Some preliminary evidence for this is found in the Ehlers & Gillberg study, which found a 4:1 male to female ratio in the people they thought definitely had Asperger's but a much less lopsided 2.3 to 1 ratio when merely suspected or otherwise borderline cases were included.
The overwhelming majority of available information on Asperger syndrome relates to children; there is currently more conjecture than hard evidence on how it affects adults. It is thought that most people with Asperger syndrome learn to cope with their [[Social skills|social]] impairments later in life. However, there is no ""cure"" as such, and some people, including prominent clinicians such as Attwood and some of those diagnosed with Asperger's, would strenuously argue that a cure is neither possible nor desirable (see ""[[#A gift and a curse|A gift and a curse]]"" and ""[[#Culture|Culture]]"" below), mainly pointing out that the syndrome is a [[Heredity|hereditary trait]] and attempts to ""cure"" or eliminate it would be an example of [[eugenics]]. Organizations such as [[Cure Autism Now]] disagree; this remains a highly controversial area.","A 1993 total population study carried out in [[Sweden]] found that, at a minimum, 3.6 per 1000 school-aged children definitely meet the criteria for Asperger syndrome. If merely suspected cases are included, the prevalence becomes approximately 7.1 per 1000 (Ehlers & [[Christopher Gillberg|Gillberg]]). Gillberg estimates 30-50% of all Aspergers' go undiagnosed (Gillberg 2002). A high percent (95%) are either unemployed or underemployed. Just 12% of Asperger Adults are in full time employment, with 6% Part time employment, and only 3% live independently (Barnard et.al. 2001). Adults with AS appear to be at greater risk of [[depression]] than the general population. In addition, many believe that people with AS have an increased risk of a [[psychotic]] episodes in adolescence or adult life (Frey 2006). Other data for the adult population is not available.
Like other conditions classified as [[autism spectrum disorder]]s, Asperger syndrome appears to be more prevalent among males than females, with males making up approximately 75–80 percent of diagnoses. Many [[clinician]]s believe that this may not reflect the actual incidence among females; well-known Asperger syndrome expert [[Tony Attwood]] suggests that females learn to better compensate for their impairments because of differences in [[socialization]] (Attwood, pp 151–2). Some preliminary evidence for this is found in the Ehlers & Gillberg study, which found a 4:1 male to female ratio in the people they thought definitely had Asperger's but a much less lopsided 2.3 to 1 ratio when merely suspected or otherwise borderline cases were included.
The overwhelming majority of available information on Asperger syndrome relates to children; there is currently more conjecture than hard evidence on how it affects adults. It is thought that most people with Asperger syndrome learn to cope with their [[Social skills|social]] impairments later in life. However, there is no ""cure"" as such, and some people, including prominent clinicians such as Attwood and some of those diagnosed with Asperger's, would strenuously argue that a cure is neither possible nor desirable (see ""[[#A gift and a curse|A gift and a curse]]"" and ""[[#Culture|Culture]]"" below), mainly pointing out that the syndrome is a [[Heredity|hereditary trait]] and attempts to ""cure"" or eliminate it would be an example of [[eugenics]]. Organizations such as [[Cure Autism Now]] disagree; this remains a highly controversial area.",[11]
Asperger syndrome,See also,51216425,2006-05-02T15:38:59Z,Ryan Norton,"* '''General'''
:* [[Autistic community]]
:* [[Autistic Pride Day]]
:* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]]
:* [[Picture thinking]]
* '''Groups'''
:* [[Aspies For Freedom]]
:* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]]
* '''Lists'''
:* [[List of autistic people#People with Asperger syndrome|List of people with Asperger syndrome]]
:* [[List of autism-related topics]]
:* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]]
* '''TV shows and films which have dealt with Asperger syndrome'''
:* ''[[Boston Legal]]''
::(in the arc of season 2 episodes dealing with the character Jerry ""Hands"" Espenson (actor Christian Clemenson), so nicknamed because he always stood and sat with his palms touching his thighs)
:* ''[[Grange Hill]]''
:* ''[[Magnificent 7]]''
:* ''[[Mozart and the Whale]]''
:* ''[[Law & Order: Criminal Intent]]''
:* ''[[Dr. Phil]]''
:* ''[[The Shield]]''
:* ''[[CSI]]''
:* ''[[Daria]]''
::(The main character, Daria, consistently exhibits behavior associated with Asperger syndrome)
:* ''[[ReGenesis]]''
::(One of the main characters, Bob Melnikov (actor Dmitry Chepovetsky) a brilliant biochemist, is revealed to have Asperger syndrome)","* '''General'''
:* [[Autistic community]]
:* [[Autistic Pride Day]]
:* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]]
:* [[Picture thinking]]
* '''Groups'''
:* [[Aspies For Freedom]]
:* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]]
* '''Lists'''
:* [[List of autistic people#People with Asperger syndrome|List of people with Asperger syndrome]]
:* [[List of autism-related topics]]
:* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]]
* '''TV shows and films which have dealt with Asperger syndrome'''
:* ''[[Grange Hill]]''
:* ''[[Magnificent 7]]''
:* ''[[Mozart and the Whale]]''
:* ''[[Law & Order: Criminal Intent]]''
:* ''[[Dr. Phil]]''
:* ''[[The Shield]]''
:* ''[[CSI]]''
:* ''[[ReGenesis]]''
::(One of the main characters, Bob Melnikov (actor Dmitry Chepovetsky) a brilliant biochemist, is revealed to have Asperger syndrome)",[11]
Gene therapy,Background,51373624,2006-05-03T15:20:09Z,Etacar11,"In the 1910s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for a method of easily producing [[protein]]s, such as the protein deficient in diabetics — insulin, investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria|bacterial]] DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the genome.","In the 1980s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for a method of easily producing [[protein]]s, such as the protein deficient in diabetics — insulin, investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria|bacterial]] DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the genome.",[3]
Code injection,Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities,51387835,2006-05-03T17:09:23Z,Blaufish,,Steven M. Christey of [http://www.mitre.org mitre.org] suggests this name for a class of code injection vulnerabilities.,"[1, 5]"
Code injection,Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities - Eval Injection,51387835,2006-05-03T17:09:23Z,Blaufish,,"As defined in [http://seclists.org/lists/fulldisclosure/2006/May/0035.html ""Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities in PHP applications""]:
* An eval injection vulnerability occurs when an attacker can control
all or part of an input string that is fed into an eval() function
call. Eval will execute the argument as code. The security
implications for this are obvious. This issue has been known for
years, but it is still under-researched.
Example:
What happens if arg is set to ""10 ; system(\""/bin/echo uh-oh\"");"" ?","[1, 4]"
Code injection,ASP Injection,51403755,2006-05-03T19:13:24Z,Blaufish,"""PHP Injection"", ""ASP Injection"" etc is a term coined which referes to various types of code injection attacks which allows an attacker supply code to the server side scritping engine. In the case of ""PHP Injection"", the server side scripting engine is [http://www.php.net/ PHP].
In practice, PHP Injection is either the exploitation of '''Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities''', '''Include File Injection''' or similar code injection vulnerabilties.","""ASP Injection"", ""PHP Injection"" etc is a term coined which referes to various types of code injection attacks which allows an attacker supply code to the server side scritping engine. In the case of ""ASP Injection"", the server side scripting engine is Microsoft [[Active Server Pages]], an add-on to Microsoft IIS.
In practice, ASP Injection is either the exploitation of '''Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities''', '''Include File Injection''' or similar code injection vulnerabilties.
Example:
<%
If not isEmpty(Request( ""username"" ) ) Then
Const ForReading = 1, ForWriting = 2, ForAppending = 8
Dim fso, f
Set fso = CreateObject(""Scripting.FileSystemObject"")
Set f = fso.OpenTextFile(Server.MapPath( ""userlog.txt"" ), ForAppending, True)
f.Write Request(""username"") & vbCrLf
f.close
Set f = nothing
Set fso = Nothing
%>
List of logged users:
<%
Server.Execute( ""userlog.txt"" )
%>
<%
Else
%>
<%
End If
%>
The user is able to insert any malicious command instead of a username","[1, 4, 9]"
Code injection,HTML,51403755,2006-05-03T19:13:24Z,Blaufish,HTML/Script Injection is generally known as [[Cross site scripting| Cross Site Scripting (XSS)]].,"HTML/Script Injection is a popular subject, commonly termed ""Cross Site Scripting"". XSS referes to e.g. server applications which generates HTML including user-input.
For more information, refere to the [[XSS|Cross Site Scripting (XSS)]] article.","[1, 4]"
Parkinson's disease,Levodopa,51969719,2006-05-07T11:57:48Z,General Tojo,"The most widely used form of treatment is L-dopa in various forms, although due to feedback inhibition, L-dopa causes a reduction in the endogenous formation of L-dopa. Levodopa was discovered as a Parkinson's treatment by [[Arvid Carlsson]]. L-DOPA is a dopamine precursor that is transfomed into dopamine by dopa-decarboxylase, present in the pre-synaptic terminals of dopaminergic neurons present in the basal ganglia. However, only 1-5% of L-DOPA makes it's way to this target site. The remaining 95% of the remaining L-DOPA is converted to dopamine in the periphery by enzymes and is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream where it causes side effects including nausea and dizzyiness.
[[Therapy]] for Parkinson disease typically requires an evolving regimen of multiple medications. Medicating to control the side effects of other medications contributes to polypharmacy. To treat the side effects caused by the L-DOPA in the plasma, a drug needed to be developed to successfully inhibit the dopa decarboxylase outside of the central nervous system. Such drugs need to be large molecules that are hydrophillic. The drug, [[carbidopa]], does this and reduces the effective dose of L-DOPA by 75%. Together, L-DOPA is marketed with carbidopa in one pill as Sinemet.
To complement Sinemet, Talcopone (Tasmar), was developed. Talcopone inhibits the COMT enzyme, thereby prolonging the effects of L-Dopa. This too has side effects. Tolcapone has been linked to possibile of liver failure and has been pulled from the market in Canada. It is still available in the United States.
A similar drug, entacapone was released in 2000 and has similar efficacy but has not been shown to cause significant alterations of liver function.
Foods rich in proteins can reduce the uptake of levodopa, because some [[amino acid]]s compete with levodopa for cellular receptor sites. This can usually be dealt with by offsetting medication and meal times: consuming the majority of required proteins towards the evening allows patients to use dopamine medication more effectively during the morning and mid-day when mobility is more critical.","The most widely used form of treatment is L-dopa in various forms. Levodopa was discovered as a Parkinson's treatment by [[Arvid Carlsson]]. L-DOPA is a dopamine precursor that is transfomed into dopamine in the dopaminergic neurons by L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (often known by its former name dopa-decarboxylase). However, only 1-5% of L-DOPA makes it's way to this target site. The remaining 95% of the remaining L-DOPA is converted to dopamine in the periphery by enzymes and is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream where it causes side effects including nausea and dizzyiness. Due to feedback inhibition, L-dopa causes a reduction in the endogenous formation of L-dopa, and so eventually becomes counterproductive.
[[Therapy]] for Parkinson disease typically requires an evolving regimen of multiple medications. Medicating to control the side effects of other medications contributes to polypharmacy. To treat the side effects caused by the L-DOPA in the plasma, a drug needed to be developed to successfully inhibit the dopa decarboxylase outside of the central nervous system. Such drugs need to be large molecules that are hydrophillic. The drug, [[carbidopa]], does this and reduces the effective dose of L-DOPA by 75%. Together, L-DOPA is marketed with carbidopa in one pill as Sinemet.
To complement Sinemet, Talcopone (Tasmar), was developed. Talcopone inhibits the COMT enzyme, thereby prolonging the effects of L-Dopa. This too has side effects. Tolcapone has been linked to possibile of liver failure and has been pulled from the market in Canada. It is still available in the United States.A similar drug, entacapone was released in 2000 and has similar efficacy but has not been shown to cause significant alterations of liver function.","[1, 2, 3, 4]"
Prion,Molecular properties of prions,52281922,2006-05-09T08:45:16Z,Mr Stephen,"A great deal of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of [[fungal prions|yeast prion]] proteins. A typical yeast prion protein contains a region ([[protein domain]]) with many repeats of the [[amino acid]]s [[glutamine]] (Q) and [[asparagine]] (N); these Q/N-rich domains form the core of the prion's structure. Ordinarily, yeast prion domains are flexible and lack a defined structure. When they convert to the prion state, several molecules of a particular protein come together to form a highly structured [[amyloid]] fiber. The end of the fiber acts as a template for the free protein molecules, causing the fiber to grow. Small differences in the amino acid sequence of prion-forming regions lead to distinct structural features on the surface of prion fibers. As a result, only free protein molecules that are identical in amino acid sequence to the prion protein can be recruited into the growing fiber. This ""specificity"" phenomenon may explain why transmission of prion diseases from one [[species]] to another (such as from [[sheep]] to [[cows]] or from cows to [[humans]]) is a rare event.
[[Image:Prion.gif|right|thumb|400px|Molecular models of the structure of PrPC (left) and PrPSc (right)]]
The mammalian prion proteins do not resemble the prion proteins of yeast in their amino acid sequence. Nonetheless, the basic structural features (formation of amyloid fibers and a highly specific barrier to transmission between species) are shared between [[mammal]]ian and yeast prions. The prion variant responsible for mad cow disease has the remarkable ability to bypass the [[species]] barrier to transmission.
The figure at right shows a model of two conformations of PrP; on the left is the known, normal conformation of the structured (C-terminal) region of PrPC (to explore/download see the [http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pid=257211117306887&page=0&pdbId=1AG2 RCSB Protein Databank]). Some of the protein (the N-terminal region) is not shown here as it does not have a fixed structure in aqueous solution. The structured domain shown is mainly made of three spirals called [[alpha helix|alpha helices]] (pink), with two short 'flat' regions of [[beta sheet]] structure (green). On the right is a proposed model of how the abnormal PrPSc form might look. Although the exact 3D structure of PrPSc is not known, there is increased [[beta sheet|β sheet]] content (green arrows) in the prion version of the molecule.{{cite journal|title=Conversion of alpha-helices into beta-sheets features in the formation of scrapie prion protein|journal=PNAS USA|date=1993 Dec 1|volume=90|issue=23|pages=10962-6|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7902575|id=PMID 7902575}} These [[beta sheet|β sheets]] are thought to lead to [[amyloid]] aggregation.","A great deal of our knowledge of how prions work at a molecular level comes from detailed biochemical analysis of [[fungal prions|yeast prion]] proteins. A typical yeast prion protein contains a region ([[protein domain]]) with many repeats of the [[amino acid]]s [[glutamine]] (Q) and [[asparagine]] (N); these Q/N-rich domains form the core of the prion's structure. Ordinarily, yeast prion domains are flexible and lack a defined structure. When they convert to the prion state, several molecules of a particular protein come together to form a highly structured [[amyloid]] fiber. The end of the fiber acts as a template for the free protein molecules, causing the fiber to grow. Small differences in the amino acid sequence of prion-forming regions lead to distinct structural features on the surface of prion fibers. As a result, only free protein molecules that are identical in amino acid sequence to the prion protein can be recruited into the growing fiber. This ""specificity"" phenomenon may explain why transmission of prion diseases from one [[species]] to another (such as from [[sheep]] to [[cows]] or from cows to [[humans]]) is a rare event.
[[Image:Prion.gif|right|thumb|400px|Molecular models of the structure of PrPC (left) and PrPSc (right)]]
The mammalian prion proteins do not resemble the prion proteins of yeast in their amino acid sequence. Nonetheless, the basic structural features (formation of amyloid fibers and a highly specific barrier to transmission between species) are shared between [[mammal]]ian and yeast prions. The prion variant responsible for mad cow disease has the remarkable ability to bypass the [[species]] barrier to transmission.
The figure at right shows a model of two conformations of PrP; on the left is the known, normal conformation of the structured (C-terminal) region of PrPC (to explore/download see the [http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/cgi/explore.cgi?pid=257211117306887&page=0&pdbId=1AG2 RCSB Protein Databank]). Some of the protein (the N-terminal region) is not shown here as it does not have a fixed structure in aqueous solution. The structured domain shown is mainly made of three spirals called [[alpha helix|alpha helices]] (pink), with two short 'flat' regions of [[beta sheet]] structure (green). On the right is a proposed model of how the abnormal PrPSc form might look. Although the exact 3D structure of PrPSc is not known, there is increased [[beta sheet|β sheet]] content (green arrows) in the prion version of the molecule.{{cite journal|title=Conversion of alpha-helices into beta-sheets features in the formation of scrapie prion protein|journal=PNAS USA|date=1993 Dec 1|volume=90|issue=23|pages=10962-6|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7902575|id=PMID 7902575}} These [[beta sheet|β sheets]] are thought to lead to [[amyloid]] aggregation.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,54079613,2006-05-19T19:46:33Z,Abdull,"*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]","*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,54655353,2006-05-23T04:57:14Z,Benzene,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Remarkably, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This may imply their probable independent origin.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the the circadian clock of ''Synecohococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for eukaryotic organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This may imply their probable independent origin.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Literature,54655596,2006-05-23T04:59:36Z,Benzene,"Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
Aschoff J (eds.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam","Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
Aschoff J (eds.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251–254","[1, 4, 5, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,54655767,2006-05-23T05:01:10Z,Benzene,"*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]","*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]",[11]
Von Neumann architecture,Von Neumann bottleneck,55199814,2006-05-26T04:44:47Z,Lowercase,"The separation between the CPU and memory leads to what is known as the ''von Neumann bottleneck''. The [[throughput]] (data transfer rate) between the CPU and memory is very small in comparison with the amount of memory. In modern machines, throughput is very small in comparison with the rate at which the CPU itself can work. Under some circumstances (when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data), this gives rise to a serious limitation in overall effective processing speed. The CPU is continuously forced to wait for vital data to be transferred to or from memory. As CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between the two, the bottleneck has become more and more of a problem.
[[Cache]] between CPU and main memory helps to alleviate some of the performance issues of the von Neumann bottleneck. Additionally, the developement of [[branch prediction]] algorithms has helped to mitigate this problem. It is less clear whether the ''intellectual bottleneck'' that Backus criticized has changed much since 1977. Backus's proposed solution has not had a major influence. Modern [[functional programming]] and [[object-oriented]] programming are much less geared towards ''pushing vast numbers of words back and forth'' than earlier languages like [[Fortran]], but internally, that is still what computers spend much of their time doing.","The separation between the CPU and memory leads to what is known as the ''von Neumann bottleneck''. The [[throughput]] (data transfer rate) between the CPU and memory is very small in comparison with the amount of memory. In modern machines, throughput is very small in comparison with the rate at which the CPU itself can work. Under some circumstances (when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data), this gives rise to a serious limitation in overall effective processing speed. The CPU is continuously forced to wait for vital data to be transferred to or from memory. As CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between the two, the bottleneck has become more and more of a problem.
The term ""von Neumann bottleneck"" was coined by [[John Backus]] in his 1977 ACM [[Turing award]] lecture. According to Backus:
:""Surely there must be a less primitive way of making big changes in the store than by pushing vast numbers of words back and forth through the von Neumann bottleneck. Not only is this tube a literal bottleneck for the data traffic of a problem, but, more importantly, it is an intellectual bottleneck that has kept us tied to word-at-a-time thinking instead of encouraging us to think in terms of the larger conceptual units of the task at hand. Thus programming is basically planning and detailing the enormous traffic of words through the von Neumann bottleneck, and much of that traffic concerns not significant data itself, but where to find it.""
[[Cache]] between CPU and main memory helps to alleviate some of the performance issues of the von Neumann bottleneck. Additionally, the developement of [[branch prediction]] algorithms has helped to mitigate this problem. It is less clear whether the ''intellectual bottleneck'' that Backus criticized has changed much since 1977. Backus's proposed solution has not had a major influence. Modern [[functional programming]] and [[object-oriented]] programming are much less geared towards ''pushing vast numbers of words back and forth'' than earlier languages like [[Fortran]], but internally, that is still what computers spend much of their time doing.","[1, 5, 9]"
Stem cell,(Top),55426346,2006-05-27T15:29:57Z,69.119.121.151,"[[Image:Mouse embryonic stem cells.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Mus musculus|Mouse]] [[Mammalian embryogenesis|embryo]]nic stem cells. [http://www.news.wisc.edu/packages/stemcells/labphotos.html '''More lab photos'''] ]]
'''Stem cells''' in animals and humans are primal undifferentiated [[Cell_(biology)|cells]] that retain the ability to [[mitosis|divide]] and [[Cellular differentiation|differentiate]] into some, or all other, cell types. (The equivalent in higher [[plants]] are [[meristem]]atic cells.) Stem cells have the potential to act as a repair system for the body, because they can divide and differentiate, replenishing other cells as long as the host organism is alive.
[[medical research|Medical researchers]] believe stem cell research has the potential to change the treatment of human [[disease]], by being used to repair specific [[biological tissue|tissue]]s or to grow [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s. But there is general agreement that ""significant technical hurdles remain that will only be overcome through years of intensive research.""{{ref|hurdles}}
The study of stem cells began in the 1960s after research by Canadian scientists [[Ernest McCulloch|Ernest A. McCulloch]] and [[James Till|James E. Till]].","[[Image:Mouse embryonic stem cells.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Mus musculus|Mouse]] [[Mammalian embryogenesis|embryo]]nic stem cells. [http://www.news.wisc.edu/packages/stemcells/labphotos.html '''More lab photos'''] ]]
'''Stem cells''' in animals are primal undifferentiated [[Cell_(biology)|cells]] that retain the ability to [[mitosis|divide]] and [[Cellular differentiation|differentiate]] into other cell types. In higher [[plants]] this function is the defining property of the [[meristem]]atic cells. Stem cells have the ability to act as a repair system for the body, because they can divide and differentiate, replenishing other cells as long as the host organism is alive.
[[medical research|Medical researchers]] believe stem cell research has the potential to change the face of human [[disease]] by being used to repair specific [[biological tissue|tissue]]s or to grow [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s. Yet there is general agreement that, ""significant technical hurdles remain that will only be overcome through years of intensive research.""{{ref|hurdles}}
The study of stem cells is attributed as beginning in the 1960s after research by Canadian scientists [[Ernest McCulloch|Ernest A. McCulloch]] and [[James Till|James E. Till]].",[11]
Code injection,ASP Injection,55618256,2006-05-28T20:07:06Z,JoeBot,"""PHP Injection,"" ""ASP Injection,"" et cetera are terms coined which refer to various types of code injection attacks which allow an attacker to supply code to the server side scripting engine. In the case of ""PHP Injection,"" the server side scripting engine is [http://www.php.net/ PHP].
In practice, PHP Injection is either the exploitation of ""Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities,"" ""Include File Injection,"" or similar code injection vulnerabilties.","""ASP Injection"", ""PHP Injection"" etc are terms coined which refer to various types of code injection attacks which allow an attacker to supply code to the server side scripting engine. In the case of ""ASP Injection"", the server side scripting engine is Microsoft [[Active Server Pages]], an add-on to Microsoft IIS.
In practice, ASP Injection is either the exploitation of '''Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities''', '''Include File Injection''' or similar code injection vulnerabilities.
Example:
<%
If not isEmpty(Request( ""username"" ) ) Then
Const ForReading = 1, ForWriting = 2, ForAppending = 8
Dim fso, f
Set fso = CreateObject(""Scripting.FileSystemObject"")
Set f = fso.OpenTextFile(Server.MapPath( ""userlog.txt"" ), ForAppending, True)
f.Write Request(""username"") & vbCrLf
f.close
Set f = nothing
Set fso = Nothing
%>
List of logged users:
<%
Server.Execute( ""userlog.txt"" )
%>
<%
Else
%>
<%
End If
%>
In this example, the user is able to insert a command instead of a username.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Asperger syndrome,Prevalence,56708444,2006-06-03T20:02:51Z,70.142.153.51,"A 1993 total population study carried out in [[Sweden]] found that, at a minimum, 36 per 10,000 school-aged children definitely meet the criteria for Asperger syndrome. If merely suspected cases are included, the prevalence becomes approximately 71 per 10,000 (Ehlers & [[Christopher Gillberg|Gillberg]]). Gillberg estimates 30-50% of all Aspergers go undiagnosed (Gillberg, 2002). It was also found that in adults with high or average ability (IQ of 100 or above) that 36 per 10,000 have Asperger's (Barnard et. al., 2001). Adults with Asperger's appear to be at greater risk of [[depression]] than the general population.
Like other conditions classified as [[autism spectrum disorder]]s, Asperger syndrome appears to be more prevalent among males than females, with males making up approximately 75–80 percent of diagnoses. Many [[clinician]]s believe that this may not reflect the actual incidence among females; well-known Asperger syndrome expert [[Tony Attwood]] suggests that females learn to better compensate for their impairments because of differences in [[socialization]] (Attwood, pp 151–2). Some preliminary evidence for this is found in the Ehlers & Gillberg study, which found a 4:1 male to female ratio in the people they thought definitely had Asperger's but a much less lopsided 2.3 to 1 ratio when merely suspected or otherwise borderline cases were included.
The overwhelming majority of available information on Asperger syndrome relates to children; there is currently more conjecture than hard evidence on how it affects adults. It is thought that most people with Asperger syndrome learn to cope with their [[Social skills|social]] impairments later in life. However, there is no ""cure"" as such, and some people, including prominent clinicians such as Attwood and some of those diagnosed with Asperger's, would strenuously argue that a cure is neither possible nor desirable (see ""[[#A gift and a curse|A gift and a curse]]"" and ""[[#Culture|Culture]]"" below), mainly pointing out that the syndrome is a [[Heredity|hereditary trait]] and attempts to ""cure"" or eliminate it would be an example of [[eugenics]]. Organizations such as [[Cure Autism Now]] disagree; this remains a highly controversial area.","A 1993 total population study carried out in [[Sweden]] found that, at a minimum, 36 per 10,000 school-aged children definitely meet the criteria for Asperger syndrome. If merely suspected cases are included, the prevalence becomes approximately 71 per 10,000 (Ehlers & [[Christopher Gillberg|Gillberg]]). Gillberg estimates 30-50% of all Aspergers go undiagnosed (Gillberg, 2002). It was also found that in adults with high or average ability (IQ of 100 or above) that 36 per 10,000 have Asperger's (Barnard et. al., 2001). Adults with Asperger's appear to be at greater risk of [[depression]] than the general population. Asberger's Syndrome is one of the leading causes of [[crime]]s and [[poverty]] in the [[Western World]].
Like other conditions classified as [[autism spectrum disorder]]s, Asperger syndrome appears to be more prevalent among males than females, with males making up approximately 75–80 percent of diagnoses. Many [[clinician]]s believe that this may not reflect the actual incidence among females; well-known Asperger syndrome expert [[Tony Attwood]] suggests that females learn to better compensate for their impairments because of differences in [[socialization]] (Attwood, pp 151–2). Some preliminary evidence for this is found in the Ehlers & Gillberg study, which found a 4:1 male to female ratio in the people they thought definitely had Asperger's but a much less lopsided 2.3 to 1 ratio when merely suspected or otherwise borderline cases were included.
The overwhelming majority of available information on Asperger syndrome relates to children; there is currently more conjecture than hard evidence on how it affects adults. It is thought that most people with Asperger syndrome learn to cope with their [[Social skills|social]] impairments later in life. However, there is no ""cure"" as such, and some people, including prominent clinicians such as Attwood and some of those diagnosed with Asperger's, would strenuously argue that a cure is neither possible nor desirable (see ""[[#A gift and a curse|A gift and a curse]]"" and ""[[#Culture|Culture]]"" below), mainly pointing out that the syndrome is a [[Heredity|hereditary trait]] and attempts to ""cure"" or eliminate it would be an example of [[eugenics]]. Organizations such as [[Cure Autism Now]] disagree; this remains a highly controversial area. Many adults with the disorder are more likely to commit crimes, live in poverty, commit suicide, and suffer depression than the general population.",[1]
Asperger syndrome,Further reading,56947444,2006-06-05T04:32:42Z,Pokey2006,"
* {{cite book | author=Attwood, Tony; foreword by Lorna Wing| title=Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals | location=London| publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers| year=1998 | id=ISBN 1-85302-577-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Bashe, Patricia Romanowski; and Kirby, Barbara L. Forewards by Simon Baron-Cohen and Tony Attwood | title=The Oasis Guide to Asperger Syndrome | location=New York | publisher=Crown Publishers| year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-4000-8152-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Baker, Jed | title=Preparing for Life: The Complete Guide for Transitioning to Adulthood for those with Autism and Asperger's Syndrome| location=Arlington, Texas| publisher=Future Horizons| year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-932565-337}}
* {{cite book | author=Bolick, Teresa| title=Asperger Syndrome and Adolescence: Helping Preteens and Teens Get Ready for the Real World| location=Gloucester, Mass.| publisher=Fair Winds Press| year=2001 | id=ISBN 1-931412-69-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Bolick, Teresa| title=Asperger Syndrome and Young Children: Building Skills for the Real World| location=Gloucester, Mass.| publisher=Fair Winds Press| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1592330622}}
* {{cite book | author=Faherty, Catherine| title=Asperger's ... What Does It Mean To Me? (A Workbook)| location=Arlington, Texas| publisher=Future Horizons| year=2000 | id=ISBN 1885477597}}
* {{cite book | author=Haddon, Mark | title=[[The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time]]: A Novel | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0385509456}}
* {{cite book | author=Lawson, Wendy | title=Understanding and Working With the Spectrum of Autism: An Insider's View | location=London | publisher=Jessica Kingsley | year=2001 | id=ISBN 1853029718}}
* {{cite book | author=Levanthal-Belfer, Laurie; and Coe, Cassandra | title=Asperger Syndrome in Young Children: A Developmental Approach for Parents and Professionals |location=London| publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-84310-748-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Myles, Brenda Smith; Trautman, Melissa; and Schelvan, Ronda | title=The Hidden Curriculum: practical solutions for understanding unstated rules in social situations| location=Shawnee Mission, Kansas| publisher=Autism Asperger Publishing Co.| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-931282-60-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Ratey, John J., and Catherine Johnson | title=Shadow Syndromes: The Mild Forms of Major Mental Disorders That Sabotage Us | location=New York | publisher=Bantam | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0553379593}}
* {{cite book | author=Schnurr, Rosina G. Illustrated by John Strachan| title=Asperger's Huh? A Child's Perspective | location=Ottawa| publisher=Anisor Pub | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0968447309}}
* {{cite book | author=Schopler, E.; Mesibov, G.; and Kunce, L. | title=Social Stories and Comic Book Conversations With Students with Asperger Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism (Chapter by Carol A. Gray) | location=New York | publisher=Plenum Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-306-45746-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Sohn, Alan; and Grayson, Cathy | title=Parenting Your Asperger Child | location=New York| publisher=Perigree Trade| year=2005 | id=ISBN 0399530703 }}
* {{cite book | author=Stoddart, Kevin P. (Editor) | title=Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives (Chapter by Carol A. Gray) | location=London| publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers| year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-84310-268-4}}
*
*
","
* {{cite book | author=Attwood, Tony; foreword by Lorna Wing| title=Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals | location=London| publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers| year=1998 | id=ISBN 1-85302-577-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Bashe, Patricia Romanowski; and Kirby, Barbara L. Forewards by Simon Baron-Cohen and Tony Attwood | title=The Oasis Guide to Asperger Syndrome | location=New York | publisher=Crown Publishers| year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-4000-8152-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Baker, Jed | title=Preparing for Life: The Complete Guide for Transitioning to Adulthood for those with Autism and Asperger's Syndrome| location=Arlington, Texas| publisher=Future Horizons| year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-932565-337}}
* {{cite book | author=Bolick, Teresa| title=Asperger Syndrome and Adolescence: Helping Preteens and Teens Get Ready for the Real World| location=Gloucester, Mass.| publisher=Fair Winds Press| year=2001 | id=ISBN 1-931412-69-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Bolick, Teresa| title=Asperger Syndrome and Young Children: Building Skills for the Real World| location=Gloucester, Mass.| publisher=Fair Winds Press| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1592330622}}
* {{cite book | author=Davies, Amelia| title=Teaching Asperger's Students Social Skills Through Acting: All Their World is a Stage!| location=Arlington, Texas| publisher=Future Horizons| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1932565116}}
* {{cite book | author=Faherty, Catherine| title=Asperger's ... What Does It Mean To Me? (A Workbook)| location=Arlington, Texas| publisher=Future Horizons| year=2000 | id=ISBN 1885477597}}
* {{cite book | author=Haddon, Mark | title=[[The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time]]: A Novel | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0385509456}}
* {{cite book | author=Lawson, Wendy | title=Understanding and Working With the Spectrum of Autism: An Insider's View | location=London | publisher=Jessica Kingsley | year=2001 | id=ISBN 1853029718}}
* {{cite book | author=Levanthal-Belfer, Laurie; and Coe, Cassandra | title=Asperger Syndrome in Young Children: A Developmental Approach for Parents and Professionals |location=London| publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-84310-748-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Myles, Brenda Smith; Trautman, Melissa; and Schelvan, Ronda | title=The Hidden Curriculum: practical solutions for understanding unstated rules in social situations| location=Shawnee Mission, Kansas| publisher=Autism Asperger Publishing Co.| year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-931282-60-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Ratey, John J., and Catherine Johnson | title=Shadow Syndromes: The Mild Forms of Major Mental Disorders That Sabotage Us | location=New York | publisher=Bantam | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0553379593}}
* {{cite book | author=Schnurr, Rosina G. Illustrated by John Strachan| title=Asperger's Huh? A Child's Perspective | location=Ottawa| publisher=Anisor Pub | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0968447309}}
* {{cite book | author=Schopler, E.; Mesibov, G.; and Kunce, L. | title=Social Stories and Comic Book Conversations With Students with Asperger Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism (Chapter by Carol A. Gray) | location=New York | publisher=Plenum Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-306-45746-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Sohn, Alan; and Grayson, Cathy | title=Parenting Your Asperger Child | location=New York| publisher=Perigree Trade| year=2005 | id=ISBN 0399530703 }}
* {{cite book | author=Stoddart, Kevin P. (Editor) | title=Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives (Chapter by Carol A. Gray) | location=London| publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers| year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-84310-268-4}}
*
*
",[11]
Port (computer networking),(Top),57023258,2006-06-05T17:02:52Z,Arbitrary username,"{{mergeto|Computer port (software)}} {{Expand}}
In [[computer networking]], '''TCP and UDP ports''' are special numbers, ranging from 0-65535, recognized by the [[Transmission_Control_Protocol|TCP]] and [[User_Datagram_Protocol|UDP]] protocols. These protocols use the ports to map incoming data to a particular process running on a computer.
One might describe the idea using the following analogy. Imagine computers having thousands of numbered hardware ports, each with wires sticking out of them. In this virtual scenario, applications could communicate as follows: Application A listens for network traffic arriving on port 90 (for example.) Application B knows that Application A is always listening on port 90, so it sends some data down the corresponding wire. The number of concurrent listening applications is limited by the number of wires there are sticking out of the computer.
This analogy is only for explanation, in reality, however, there may only be one hardware port (the network socket).
By including the desired port number in the transmission of data it is possible to target specific applications on the receiving end and as long as they are listening to the correct port number they will receive the correct data, even though all data is sent through the same physical port. In this way we can create the illusion that there are many thousands of available ports.
Whether or not network ports are used depends on the [[Transport_layer|transport layer]]. Both [[User_Datagram_Protocol|UDP]] and [[Transmission_control_protocol|TCP]] use ports.
A port may send/receive data one direction at a time (Half Duplex) or simultaneously in both directions (Full duplex). Software network ports may also connect internal programs on a single computer system.
In TCP and UDP the combination of a port and a network address ([[Internet Protocol|IP]]-number) is called a ''[[socket]]'': e.g. the [[List of TCP and UDP port numbers|TCP and UDP port numbers]].","{{mergeto|Computer port (software)}} {{Expand}}
In the [[Transmission_Control_Protocol|TCP]] and [[User_Datagram_Protocol|UDP]] protocols used in [[computer networking]], a '''port''' is a special number present in the header of a data packet. Ports are typically used to map data to a particular process running on a computer. As an example, a server used for sending and receiving email may provide both an [[SMTP]] and a [[POP3]] service; these will be handled by different server processes, and the port number will be used to determine which data is associated with which process. This may be considered loosely analogous to a simulating the effect of a single server with multiple physical connections. Note that not all [[transport layer]]s use network ports; for example, although UDP and TCP use ports, [[ICMP]] does not.
In both TCP and UDP, each packet header will specify a source port and a destination port, each of which is a 16-bit unsigned integer (i.e. ranging from 0 to 65535), as well as specifying the source and destination network addresses ([[Internet Protocol|IP]]-numbers) among other things. A process may ""bind"" to a particular port to send and receive data, meaning that it will listen for incoming packets whose destination port matches that port number, and/or send outgoing packets whose source port is set to that port number. Processes may also bind to multiple ports.
Applications implementing common services will normally listen on specific port numbers which have been defined by convention for use with the given protocol — see [[list of TCP and UDP port numbers]]. Typically, these will be low port numbers, and in [[Unix]] only processes owned by the [[superuser]] can listen on port numbers from 0 to 1023; this is for security to prevent untrusted processes from acting as system services. Conversely, the client end of the connection will typically use a high port number.
Because the port number forms part of the packet header, it is readily interpreted not only by the sending and receiving computers, but also by other aspects of the networking infrastructure. In particular, [[firewall]]s (whether implemented in hardware or software) are commonly configured to respond differently to packets depending on their source and/or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is one application of this.
Processes implement connections to TCP and UDP ports by means of [[internet socket|socket]]s. A socket is a transport end-point, which a process can create and then bind to a socket address; in TCP or UDP, a socket address consists of a combination of a port and an IP number. Sockets may be set to send/receive data in one direction at a time, called ''half duplex'', or simultaneously in both directions, called ''full duplex''. (Aside from TCP and UDP ports, sockets may also be bound to software network ports to connect internal programs on a single computer system.)
Because different services commonly listen on different port numbers as discussed, the practice of attempting to connect in sequence to a wide range of services on a single computer is commonly known as [[port scanning]]; this is usually associated with malicious [[cracking]].","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,57366237,2006-06-07T15:32:31Z,Smithbrenon,"*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]","*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]",[11]
Methamphetamine,United Kingdom,58603000,2006-06-14T16:46:34Z,Jll,"In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], methamphetamine is classified as a [[Class B drug|Class B]] drug under the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]]. The maximum penalty for possession is five years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is 14 years. If methamphetamine is prepared for injection, it is re-classified as a [[Class A drug|Class A]] drug. The minimum penalty for such possession is seven years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is life imprisonment.
On 14th June 2006 Drugs Minister Vernon Coaker announced methamphetamine is to be reclassified to a [[Class A drug|Class A]] drug.","In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], methamphetamine is classified as a [[Class B drug|Class B]] drug under the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]]. The maximum penalty for possession is five years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is 14 years. If methamphetamine (or any other Class B drug) is prepared for injection, then it is re-classified as a [[Class A drug|Class A]] drug. The maximum penalty for such possession is seven years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is life imprisonment.
On [[14 June]] [[2006]] [[Under-secretary of State]] for policing, security and community safety in the [[Home Office]], [[Vernon Coaker]], announced that methamphetamine is to be reclassified as a Class A drug, following a recomendation made by the [[Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs]] earlier in the month.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5079266.stm Crystal meth to be class A drug], BBC News, 14 June 2006] The reasons for the ACMD's recomendation [http://www.drugs.gov.uk/publication-search/acmd/ACMDFurtherMethylamphetamine?view=Binary Letter from the Chairman of the ACMD to the Home Secretary], 5 June 2006 were that there is now evidence that the drug is becoming more widely used within the United Kingdom, that the police have become aware of several illicit laboratories synthesising the drug, and also that media interest in it has grown.
This replaced the Council's previous advice issued in its 2005 report, that there was little evidence of use of the drug in the United Kingdom at that time, and that reclassifying it would create unnecessary interest in it from potential recreational users.[http://www.drugs.gov.uk/publication-search/acmd/ACMD-meth-report-November-2005?view=Binary Methylamphetamine Review], A Report by the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, 2005","[9, 3]"
Parkinson's disease,Symptoms,59631667,2006-06-20T14:39:56Z,PaulWicks,"The symptoms of Parkinson's disease are broadly divided into two categories; those that affect movement (motor symptoms), and those that do not (non-motor symptoms). The latter includes disorders of mood, behavior, thinking, and sensation. Although there is some degree of heterogeneity in symptom distribution and progression, a typical presentation would be tremor or abnormal slowness in one limb, usually a hand and often on the right side of the body.","The symptoms of Parkinson's disease are broadly divided into two categories; those that affect movement ([[Motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease|motor symptoms]]), and those that do not (non-motor symptoms). The former include stiffness, rigidity, slowness of movement, and [[gait]] abnormalities. The latter includes disorders of mood, behavior, thinking, and sensation. Although there is some degree of heterogeneity in symptom distribution and progression, a typical presentation would be tremor or abnormal slowness in one limb, usually a hand and often on the right side of the body.","[1, 4, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Symptoms,59642047,2006-06-20T15:52:55Z,PaulWicks,"Parkinson disease affects movement (motor symptoms). Typical other symptoms include disorders of mood, behavior, thinking, and sensation (non-motor symptoms). Individual patients' symptoms may be quite dissimilar; progression is also distinctly individual. There are four major dopamine pathways in the brain; the nigrostriatal pathway, referred to above, mediates movement and is the most conspicuously affected in early Parkinson's disease. The other pathways are the mesocortical, the mesolimbic, and the tuberoinfundibular. These pathways are associated with, respectively: volition and emotional responsiveness; desire, initiative, and reward; and sensory processes and maternal behavior. Reduction in dopamine along the non-striatal pathways is the likely explanation for much of the neuropsychiatric pathology associated with Parkinson's disease.","The symptoms of Parkinson's disease are broadly divided into two categories; those that affect movement ([[Motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease|motor symptoms]]), and those that do not ([[Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease|non-motor symptoms]]). The former include stiffness, rigidity, slowness of movement, and [[gait]] abnormalities. The latter includes disorders of mood, behavior, thinking, and sensation. Although there is some degree of heterogeneity in symptom distribution and progression, a typical presentation would be tremor or abnormal slowness in one limb, usually a hand and often on the right side of the body.","[1, 2, 3, 9, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,59712081,2006-06-20T23:21:42Z,Marudubshinki,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the the circadian clock of ''Synecohococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for eukaryotic organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synecohococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for eukaryotic organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.",[11]
Gene therapy,What are some recent developments in gene therapy research?,59976255,2006-06-22T10:37:26Z,Smmalarkodi,"University of California, Los Angeles, research team gets genes into the brain using liposomes coated in a polymer call polyethylene glycol (PEG). The transfer of genes into the brain is a significant achievement because viral vectors are too big to get across the ""blood-brain barrier."" This method has potential for treating Parkinson's disease. See '''Undercover genes slip into the brain''' at NewScientist.com (March 20, 2003).
RNA interference or gene silencing may be a new way to treat Huntington's. Short pieces of double-stranded RNA (short, interfering RNAs or siRNAs) are used by cells to degrade RNA of a particular sequence. If a siRNA is designed to match the RNA copied from a faulty gene, then the abnormal protein product of that gene will not be produced. See '''Gene therapy may switch off Huntington's''' at NewScientist.com (March 13, 2003).
New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. Technique has potential to treat the blood disorder thalassaemia, cystic fibrosis, and some cancers. See '''Subtle gene therapy tackles blood disorder''' at NewScientist.com (October 11, 2002).
Gene therapy for treating children with X-SCID (sever combined immunodeficiency) or the ""bubble boy"" disease is stopped in France when the treatment causes leukemia in one of the patients. See ''''Miracle' gene therapy trial halted''' at NewScientist.com (October 3, 2002).
Researchers at Case Western Reserve University and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane. See '''DNA nanoballs boost gene therapy''' at NewScientist.com (May 12, 2002).
Sickle cell is successfully treated in mice. See '''Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease''' from March 18, 2002, issue of The Scientist.","University of California, Los Angeles, research team gets genes into the brain using liposomes coated in a polymer call polyethylene glycol (PEG). The transfer of genes into the brain is a significant achievement because viral vectors are too big to get across the ""blood-brain barrier."" This method has potential for treating Parkinson's disease. See '''Undercover genes slip into the brain''' at NewScientist.com (March 20, 2003).
RNA interference or gene silencing may be a new way to treat Huntington's. Short pieces of double-stranded RNA (short, interfering RNAs or siRNAs) are used by cells to degrade RNA of a particular sequence. If a siRNA is designed to match the RNA copied from a faulty gene, then the abnormal protein product of that gene will not be produced. See '''Gene therapy may switch off Huntington's''' at NewScientist.com (March 13, 2003).
New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. Technique has potential to treat the blood disorder thalassaemia, cystic fibrosis, and some cancers. See '''Subtle gene therapy tackles blood disorder''' at NewScientist.com (October 11, 2002).
Gene therapy for treating children with X-SCID (sever combined immunodeficiency) or the ""bubble boy"" disease is stopped in France when the treatment causes leukemia in one of the patients. See ''''Miracle' gene therapy trial halted''' at NewScientist.com (October 3, 2002).
Researchers at Case Western Reserve University and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane. See '''DNA nanoballs boost gene therapy''' at NewScientist.com (May 12, 2002).
Sickle cell is successfully treated in mice. See '''Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease''' from March 18, 2002, issue of The Scientist.
The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID held from 2000 and 2002 was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany. (V. Cavazzana-Calvo, Thrasher and Mavilio 2004)","[1, 4, 5, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,60455944,2006-06-25T06:38:15Z,67.9.140.5,"*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://www.dbeat.com/28/ 28 hour day]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]","*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Epidemiology,60842157,2006-06-27T14:31:55Z,Profsnow,"The worldwide [[prevalence]] of Parkinson's disease is 4 to 6 million people. There are over 1.5 million in [[China]] alone. It is likely that there are millions of people with Parkinson's disease that remain undiagnosed. Prevalence estimates range from a low of 7 per 100,000 in [[Ethiopia]] to a high of 329.3 per 100,000 in [[Nebraska]], U.S.A., and 328.3 cases per 100,000 in the [[Parsi]] community in [[Bombay, India]]. The greatest prevalence of any country is the [[United States of America|U.S.A.]], with between 100 and 250 cases per 100,000.{{fact}}
The average age at which symptoms begin is 55-60, and although cases at ages as low as 11 have been reported it is highly unusual for people under 30 to develop Parkinson's. The risk of developing it substantially increases with age. It occurs in all parts of the world, but appears to be more common in people of European ancestry than in those of African ancestry. Those of East Asian ancestry have an intermediate risk. It is more common in rural than urban areas and men are affected slightly more than women. About 2% of the population develops the disease some time during life.","The worldwide [[prevalence]] of Parkinson's disease is 4 to 6 million people. There are over 1.5 million in [[China]] alone. The disease usually has a long, subtle onset, so diagnosis occurs most often after many years of subclinical disease {{fact}}. Prevalence estimates range from a low of 7 per 100,000 in [[Ethiopia]] to a high of 329.3 per 100,000 in [[Nebraska]], U.S.A. (although that figure was arrived at using capture-recapture estimates), and 328.3 cases per 100,000 in the [[Parsi]] community in [[Bombay, India]]. The greatest prevalence of any country is the [[United States of America|U.S.A.]], with between 100 and 250 cases per 100,000.{{fact}}
The average age at which symptoms begin is 55-60, and although cases at ages as low as 11 have been reported it is highly unusual for people under 30 to develop Parkinson's. The risk of developing it substantially increases with age. It occurs in all parts of the world, but appears to be more common in people of European ancestry than in those of African ancestry. Those of East Asian ancestry have an intermediate risk. It is more common in rural than urban areas and men are affected at a rate about double that of women. There is a suggestion of increased prevalence in the California Hispanic population Van Den Eeden SK, Tanner CM, Bernstein AL, Fross RD, Leimpeter A, Bloch DA, Nelson LM. Incidence of Parkinson's disease: variation by age, gender, and race/ethnicity.
- Am J Epidemiol. 2003 Jun 1;157(11):1015-22. . About 2% of the population develops the disease some time during life.
Incidence has been estimated by several groups, starting with northern California Van Den Eeden SK, Tanner CM, Bernstein AL, Fross RD, Leimpeter A, Bloch DA, Nelson LM. Incidence of Parkinson's disease: variation by age, gender, and race/ethnicity.
- Am J Epidemiol. 2003 Jun 1;157(11):1015-22. . They observed age and sex corrected incidence of 13.4 per 100,000/year. They note a rapid increase in incidence with age, male rates nearly double female rates, and an elevated rate amongst Hispanics. This study was followed by a group in Spain J. Benito-Leon, F. Bermejo-Pareja, J. M. Morales-Gonzalez, J. Porta-Etessam, R. Trincado, S. Vega, and E. D. Louis. Incidence of Parkinson disease and parkinsonism in three elderly populations of central Spain. Neurology, March 9, 2004; 62(5): 734 - 741. who used the two-stage survey technique pioneered in the Copiah County study {{fact}} to survey a cohort age 65 to 85. Within that group, incidence adjusted for age and sex was 186.8/100,000 per year, with men's rates being 2.55 times that of women. For the same age group, Van den Eeden and colleagues observed an incidence of roughly 120/100,000/year. Soon thereafter the Rotterdam sudy was published L. M.L. de Lau, P. C.L.M. Giesbergen, M. C. de Rijk, A. Hofman, P. J. Koudstaal, and M. M.B. Breteler. Incidence of parkinsonism and Parkinson disease in a general population: The Rotterdam Study
- Neurology, October 12, 2004; 63(7): 1240 - 1244. using techniques similar to the Spanish group and Copiah County. They note age-specific incidence rates from 0.3 per 1000 person-years in subjects aged 55 to 65 years, to 4.4 per 1000 person-years for those aged ≥85 year, and a sex ratio of 1.55 for male incidence.","[1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10]"
Stem cell,External links,61072643,2006-06-28T20:00:09Z,168.122.194.111,"*''[http://www.celltherapysociety.org International Society for Cellular Therapy]''
*''[http://www.isscr.org International Society for Stem Cell Research]''
*''[http://www.progenitorcelltherapy.com Progenitor Cell Therapy]''
*''[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=116811&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=161696 Video Archive: The Stem Cell Controversy]
*''[http://www.cordbloodusa.org/articles-a5-Cord_Blood_Stem_Cell.htm Stem Cell & Cord Blood implications]''","*''[http://www.celltherapysociety.org International Society for Cellular Therapy]''
*''[http://www.isscr.org International Society for Stem Cell Research]''
*''[http://www.progenitorcelltherapy.com Progenitor Cell Therapy]''
*''[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=116811&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=161696 Video Archive: The Stem Cell Controversy]
*''[http://www.cordbloodusa.org/articles-a5-Cord_Blood_Stem_Cell.htm Stem Cell & Cord Blood implications]''
*[http://www.puramatrix.com PuraMatrix Peptide Hydrogel for optimazed 3D cell culture enviroment and cell growth]",[1]
Alzheimer's disease,Disease mechanism,61425541,2006-06-30T19:44:46Z,Andrew73,"Alzheimer's begins as a deficiency in the production of [[acetylcholine]], a vital neurotransmitter. Much early therapeutic research was based on this hypothesis, including restoration of the function of the cholinergic neurons.","Three major competing hypotheses exist to explain the cause of the disease.
The oldest hypothesis is the ""cholinergic hypothesis"". It states that Alzheimer's begins as a deficiency in the production of [[acetylcholine]], a vital neurotransmitter. Much early therapeutic research was based on this hypothesis, including restoration of the ""cholinergic nuclei"". The possibility of cell-replacement therapy was investigated on the basis of this hypothesis. All of the first-generation anti-Alzheimer's medications are based on this hypothesis and work to preserve acetylcholine by inhibiting [[acetylcholinesterase]]s (enzymes that break down acetylcholine). These medications, though sometimes beneficial, have not led to a cure. In all cases, they have served to only treat symptoms of the disease and have neither halted nor reversed it. These results and other research have led to the conclusion that acetylcholine deficiencies may not be directly causal, but are a result of widespread brain tissue damage, damage so widespread that cell-replacement therapies are likely to be impractical.
The other two hypotheses each have their advocates, and have often been described (lightheartedly) as the ""tau-ist"" and ""ba-ptist"" viewpoints in scientific publications by Alzheimer's disease researchers. ""Tau-ists"" believe that the tau protein abnormalities come first and lead to a full disease cascade. ""bA-ptists"" believe that [[beta amyloid]] deposits are the causative factor in the disease. For example, the presence of the APP gene on [[chromosome]] 21 is believed to explain the high incidence of early-onset AD pathology in patients with [[Down syndrome]], who carry three copies of chromosome 21 and thus APP itself. The ""ba-ptist"" theory is finding new supporters due to recent discoveries of impaired [[vascular]] and [[cerebrospinal fluid]] transport of beta amyloid out of the brain tissues, resulting in a greater risk for plaque formation. A third protein, [[alpha-synuclein]], which has already been shown to be important in [[Parkinson's disease]], has also been demonstrated to be associated with amyloid plaques in AD. This hypothesis has been given the name ""syn-ners"" among AD researchers. There is also a ""triple lesion"" hypothesis that proposes a pathological interaction among these three candidate proteins. The extent of each protein's contribution may determine whether or not the ""lesion disorder"" manifests as AD, Parkinsonism, or other degenerative diseases.
The presence of plaques and tangles, however, does not always correlate well with clinical Alzheimer's; in other words, not all people who have plaques and/or tangles manifest symptoms of the disease. Loss of synapses correlates much better with the decline of cognition than the presence of plaques and tangles, as well as loss of dendrites and dendritic spines. Some recent research is focusing on the possibility that plaques and tangles arise as a defense against another, as yet undiscovered, process or substance that itself causes the disease. Researchers are intrigued by the idea that the plaques and tangles might not be the problem, but rather a symptom of the problem. The plaques and neurofibrillary tangles may be the result of the brains's efforts to contain the abnormal proteins produced by the disease.","[1, 3, 4, 9, 6]"
Asperger syndrome,Notable cases,61875486,2006-07-03T17:21:08Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{see|List of autistic people}}
[[Image:Albert Einstein 1947.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Albert Einstein]] may have had Asperger syndrome.]]
Asperger syndrome is sometimes viewed as a syndrome with both advantages and disadvantages.Grandin, Temple (2003). [http://www.onlineparadigm.com/archives/230-SP03_MH.pdf Genius May Be An Abnormality. (PDF)] ''Paradigm''. Accessed 1 July 2006. Adults with Asperger syndrome or autism achieved success in their fields, possibly as a result of intellectual gifts and above-average focus and motivation associated with the syndrome.{{fact}} Prominent Asperger-diagnosed individuals include [[Nobel Prize]]-winning economist [[Vernon Smith]],{{cite web | last = Herera | first = Sue | year = 25 February 2005 | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7030731/ | title = Mildest autism has 'selective advantages' | publisher = MSNBC | accessdate = 2006-03-27}} industrial rocker [[Gary Numan]],[http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/numan%20has%20aspergers_01_03_2006 Numan has Aspergers?] ''ContactMusic.com'' Accessed 2 July 2006. ''[[Noot vir Noot]]'' champion [[Daantjie Badenhorst]], [[The Vines|Vines]] frontman [[Craig Nicholls]],
[http://www.nme.com/news/110590.htm Vines singer diagnosis revealed.] ''NME.com'' Accessed 3 July 2006. and [[Satoshi Tajiri]], the creator of [[Pokémon]].[http://www.unisa.ac.za/cmsys/staff/contents/news/newsclips/docs/You02122004_(b).pdf SA's own Rain Man.] Accessed 31 May 2006.","{{see|List of autistic people}}
[[Image:Albert Einstein 1947.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Albert Einstein]] may have had Asperger syndrome.]]
Asperger syndrome is sometimes viewed as a syndrome with both advantages and disadvantages.Grandin, Temple (2003). [http://www.onlineparadigm.com/archives/230-SP03_MH.pdf Genius May Be An Abnormality. (PDF)] ''Paradigm''. Accessed 1 July 2006. Adults with Asperger syndrome or autism achieved success in their fields, possibly as a result of intellectual gifts and above-average focus and motivation associated with the syndrome.{{fact}} Prominent Asperger-diagnosed individuals include [[Nobel Prize]]-winning economist [[Vernon Smith]],{{cite web | last = Herera | first = Sue | year = 25 February 2005 | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7030731/ | title = Mildest autism has 'selective advantages' | publisher = MSNBC | accessdate = 2006-03-27}} industrial rocker [[Gary Numan]],[http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/numan%20has%20aspergers_01_03_2006 Numan has Aspergers?] ''ContactMusic.com'' Accessed 2 July 2006. ''[[Noot vir Noot]]'' champion [[Daantjie Badenhorst]], [[The Vines|Vines]] frontman [[Craig Nicholls]],
[http://www.nme.com/news/110590.htm Vines singer diagnosis revealed.] ''NME.com'' Accessed 3 July 2006. and [[Satoshi Tajiri]], the creator of [[Pokémon]].Plaza, Amadeo. [http://igo.ampednews.com/features/182/2/ A Salute to Japanese Game Designers.] Accessed 3 July 2006.",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,62087736,2006-07-04T22:04:08Z,Bio Doc,"'''Paraquat''' is a quaternary ammonium herbicide. Other members of this class include diquat, cyperquat, diethamquat, difenzoquat and morfamquat. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease. Paraquat structurally resembles MPTP and its metabolite MPP+. MPTP and MPP+ are neurotoxic chemicals, that induce Parkinson's Disease in exposed humans. Paraquat might therefore might, as do MPTP and MPP+ inhibit tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine.
'''Rotenone''' is an insecticide that has been demonstrated as a cause of mouse-model Parkinson's disease. Rotenone is commonly used in powdered form to treat parasitic mites on chickens and other fowl, and so can be found in poultry. Rotenone is produced by extraction from the roots, seeds, and leaves of certain tropical legumes. Rotenone inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So Rotenone causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''Maneb''' is a fungicide that contains manganese. The major active element of Maneb is manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease, so there is a greatly increased likelihood of developing symptoms by people involved in horticulture and agriculture. As Maneb contains manganese it is possible that it causes Parkinson's Disease symptoms via the same means as manganese, which is by inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. The effects of Maneb are potentiated when there is simultaneous exposure to the pesticide Paraquat.
'''Manganese''' can cause [[manganism]], an irreversible neurological disorder similar to Parkinson's disease. Occupational exposures occur mainly in welding, mining as miners are surrounded by manganese dust and airborne manganese particles, alloy production, processing, ferro-manganese operations especially in which manganese ore or manganese compounds are turned into steel, and work with agrochemicals. The towns and communities surrounding the areas of manganese heavy industry could also become affected by exposure to manganese. It is also hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally-occurring manganese in shower water also puts people at risk. Manganese inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So manganese may cause Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''[[MPTP]]''' (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a chemical that may be produced accidentally during illicit manufacture of the recreational drug MPPP, which is a synthetic heroin substitute. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was discovered in 1976 after a chemistry graduate student synthesized MPPP incorrectly and injected the result. It was contaminated with MPTP, and within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of acute Parkinson's disease. It was also developed but unused as a herbicide and was distributed on the streets as a synthetic opioid-like drug. MPTP inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So MPTP causes acute Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''[[Toluene]]''' is a solvent that has been shown to cause or that has been associated with people with Parkinson's disease. Toluene is used as an octane booster in fuel, as a solvent in paints, paint thinners, chemical reactions, rubber, printing, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanning, disinfectants, and to produce phenol and TNT (a component of explosives). It is also used as a raw material for toluene diisocyanate, which is used in the manufacture of polyurethane foams. The precise means of toxicity is not known.
'''N-Hexane''', a constituent of solvents has been shown to cause parkinsonism. Most of the n-hexane used in industry is mixed with similar chemicals called solvents. The major use for solvents containing n-hexane is to extract vegetable oils from crops such as soybeans. These solvents are also used as cleaning agents in the printing, textile, furniture, and shoemaking industries. Use by chemists. Certain kinds of special glues used in the roofing and shoe and leather industries also contain n-hexane. Several consumer products contain n-hexane, such as gasoline, spot removers, quick-drying glues used in various hobbies, and rubber cement. The precise means is not known.
'''Carbon disulfide''', usually in solvents or pesticides, can cause Parkinson's disease that is associated with other neurological symptoms. The effects can persist for years after exposure to the carbon disulfide has ceased. Potential sources include pesticides used as fumigants, disulfiram (a drug used in the treatment of chronic alcoholism), industrial solvents, solvents used in the production of viscose rayon and cellophane film. Means of toxicity is not established. However, carbon disulphide interferes with pyridoxal 5-phosphate. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate is essential for the formation of dopamine from L-dopa. So carbon disulphide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by reducing the formation of L-dopa.","A number of toxins are known to cause Parkinson's Disease, either alone, in conjunction with other factors, or as an initiating rather than a perpetuating cause. These account for a small minority of cases of Parkinson's Disease.
'''Paraquat''' is a quaternary ammonium herbicide, and the second most widely used herbicide in the world[http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/actives/paraquat.htm]. Other members of this class include diquat, cyperquat, diethamquat, difenzoquat and morfamquat. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease. Paraquat structurally resembles MPTP and its metabolite MPP+. MPTP and MPP+ are neurotoxic chemicals, that induce Parkinson's Disease in exposed humans. Paraquat might therefore might, as do MPTP and MPP+ inhibit tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Rotenone''' is an insecticide that is known to cause Parkinson's Disease. Insecticides are also known to affect well water. Rotenone is commonly used in powdered form to treat parasitic mites on chickens and other fowl, and so can be found in poultry. Rotenone is produced by extraction from the roots, seeds, and leaves of certain tropical legumes. Rotenone inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So Rotenone causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Maneb''' is a fungicide that contains manganese. The major active element of Maneb is manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease, so there is a greatly increased likelihood of developing symptoms by people involved in horticulture and agriculture. As Maneb contains manganese it is possible that it causes Parkinson's Disease symptoms via the same means as manganese, which is by inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. The effects of Maneb are potentiated when there is simultaneous exposure to the pesticide Paraquat. [http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Carbon monoxide''' toxicity is frequent due to the formation of carbon monoxide by very common means such as gas cookers and exhaust fumes. However, it normally requires the person having gone in to a coma as a result of the carbon monoxide poisoning before symptoms of Parkinson's Disease develop. Carbon monoxide causes hemoglobin (which transports oxygen) to turn in to carboxyhemoglobin (which does not transport oxygen). Oxygen is required for the formation of L-dopa. So carbon monoxide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by interfering with the availability of oxygen to the brain. However, the precise means by which it can cause Parkinsonism has still not been proven. [http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Manganese''' can cause [[Manganism]], an irreversible neurological disorder similar to Parkinson's disease. Occupational exposures occur mainly in - welding, mining as miners are surrounded by manganese dust and airborne manganese particles, alloy production, processing, ferro-manganese operations especially in which manganese ore or manganese compounds are turned into steel, and work with agrochemicals. The towns and communities surrounding the areas of manganese heavy industry could also become affected by exposure to manganese. It is also hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally-occurring manganese in shower water also puts people at risk. Manganese inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So manganese causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels. [http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Mercury''' toxicity is a known cause of symptoms that include those of Parkinson's Disease, especially tremor. One of the chief targets of the toxin is the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). The enzyme is irreversibly inhibited by several mercury compounds, the lipoic acid component of the multienzyme complex binds mercury compounds tightly and thus inhibits PDH. However, the cause of the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease is likely to be due to the fact that mercury potently causes the release of dopamine, thereby lowering dopamine levels.Mercury is found in a wqide variety of sources : dietary fish intake, ethnic over-the-counter medications, occupational exposures to mercury vapour, possession of dental amalgam fillings, gold production, skin ointment, some soaps.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''MPTP''' (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a chemical that may be produced accidentally during illicit manufacture of the recreational drug MPPP, which is a synthetic heroin substitute. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was discovered in 1976 after a chemistry graduate student synthesized MPPP incorrectly and injected the result. It was contaminated with MPTP, and within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of Parkinson's disease. It was also developed but unused as a herbicide. MPTP inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So MPTP causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Toluene''' is a solvent that has been shown to cause or that has been associated with people with Parkinson's Disease. Toluene is used as an octane booster in fuel, as a solvent in paints, paint thinners, chemical reactions, rubber, printing, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanning, disinfectants, and to produce phenol and TNT (a component of explosives). It is also used as a raw material for toluene diisocyanate, which is used in the manufacture of polyurethane foams. The precise means of toxicity is not known.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''N-Hexane''', a constituent of solvents has been shown to cause Parkinsonism. Most of the n-hexane used in industry is mixed with similar chemicals called solvents. The major use for solvents containing n-hexane is to extract vegetable oils from crops such as soybeans. These solvents are also used as cleaning agents in the printing, textile, furniture, and shoemaking industries. Use by chemists. Certain kinds of special glues used in the roofing and shoe and leather industries also contain n-hexane. Several consumer products contain n-hexane, such as gasoline, spot removers, quick-drying glues used in various hobbies, and rubber cement. The precise means is not known.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Carbon disulfide''', usually in solvents or pesticides, can cause Parkinson's Disease that is associated with other neurological symptoms. The effects can persist for years after exposure to the carbon disulfide has ceased. Potential sources : pesticides used as fumigants, disulfiram (a drug used in the treatment of chronic alcoholism), industrial solvents, solvents used in the production of viscose rayon and cellophane film. Means of toxicity is not established. However, carbon disulphide interferes with pyridoxal 5-phosphate. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate is essential for the formation of dopamine from L-dopa. So carbon disulphide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by reducing the formation of L-dopa.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Copper''' accumulates in Wilson's Disease, which is associated with Parkinson's Disease. Although copper may cause symptoms by other means, there do not appear to be published studies in which copper has otherwise caused Parkinson's Disease. This may be because copper is not normally formed in to a vapour or dust that can readily be inhaled or consumed. Copper can be found in high quantities in copper mines, copper cooking pots, copper plumbing, very excessive consumption of copper nutritional supplements. Excess copper can cause the formation of a copper-dopamine complex, which leads to the oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Cyanide''', usually from the consumption of potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide can result in Parkinsonism. Cyanide is also produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae, and are found in a number of foods and plants, such as unprocessed cassava, cherry pits,apricot pits, bitter almonds. Hydrogen cyanide is contained in vehicle exhaust and in tobacco smoke,as does burning plastic.Cyanides are also found in gold processing.
Cyanide interrupts the electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Cyanide also occupies the place of oxygen in hemoglobin (which transports oxygen). Oxygen is required for the formation of L-dopa. So carbon monoxide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by interefering with the availability of oxygen to the brain. However, the precise means by which it causes Parkinson's Disease has still not been proven.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]","[1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Non-Motor Symptoms,62094617,2006-07-04T22:55:01Z,Fuji San,,"Mood disturbances:
*[[clinical depression|depression]]: occurs in about 40-80% of cases; 20% of depression cases are major depressive disorder; severity and persistence of depression is positively associated with executive dysfunction and dementia;
*[[anxiety]] or [[panic attacks]] Note: 70% of individuals with Parkinson's disease diagnosed with pre-existing depression go on to develop anxiety; 90% of Parkinson's disease patients with pre-existing anxiety subsequently develop depression);
*[[apathy]] or [[abulia]]: apathy is an absence of feeling or desire; abulia translates from Greek as the absence or negative of will;
[[cognition|Cognitive]] disturbances:
*[[slowed reaction time]]; both voluntary and involuntary motor responses are significantly slowed.
*[[executive dysfunction]], characterized by difficulties in: differential allocation of attention, impulse control, set shifting, prioritizing, evaluating the salience of ambient data, interpeting social cues, and subjective time awareness. This complex is present to some degree in most Parkinson's patients; it may progress to:
*[[dementia]]: a later development in approximately 20-40% of all patients, typically starting with slowing of thought and progressing to difficulties with abstract thought, memory, and behavioral regulation.
*[[memory loss]]; [[procedural memory]] is more impaired than [[declarative memory]]. Prompting elicits improved recall.
*medication effects: some of the above cognitive disturbances are improved by dopaminergic medications, while others are actually worsened {{cite journal
|author=Michael J Frank
|title= Dynamic Dopamine Modulation in the Basal Ganglia: A Neurocomputational Account of Cognitive Deficits in Medicated and Non-mediacated Parkinsonism
|journal=[[Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience (journal)|Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience]]
|year=2005 | volume=17 | pages= 51–73
|url=http://www.u.arizona.edu/~mfrank/pubs-abstr.html#Frank05
}}
[[Sleep disturbances]]:
*Excessive daytime somnolence;
*Initial, intermediate, and terminal insomnia;
*Disturbances in REM sleep: disturbingly vivid dreams, and REM Sleep Disorder, characterized by acting out of dream content;
[[Sensation]] disturbances:
*impaired visual [[contrast sensitivity]], spatial reasoning, [[color|colour]] discrimination, convergence insufficiency (characterized by [[double vision]]) and [[oculomotor control]]
*[[dizziness]] and fainting; usually attributable orthostatic hypotension, a failure of the autonomous nervous system to adjust blood pressure in response to changes in body position
*impaired [[proprioception]] (the awareness of bodily position in three-dimensional space)
*loss of sense of [[smell]] ([[anosmia]]),
*[[pain]]: neuropathic, muscle, joints, and tendons, attributable to tension, dystonia, muscular cramps, rigidity, joint stiffness, and injuries associated with attempts at accommodation
[[autonomic nervous system|Autonomic]] disturbances:
*[[oily skin]] and [[seborrheic dermatitis]];
*[[urinary incontinence]], typically in later disease progression
*[[constipation]] and [[gastric]] dysmotility: severe enough to endanger comfort and even health
*[[altered sexual function]]: characterized by impotence; profound impairment of sexual arousal, behavior, orgasm, and drive is found in mid and late parkinson disease. Current data addresses male sexual function almost exclusively, but female sex drive is also diminished.","[1, 4, 9, 10, 7]"
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,62199466,2006-07-05T15:47:49Z,Netsnipe,"A number of toxins are known to cause Parkinson's Disease, either alone, in conjunction with other factors, or as an initiating rather than a perpetuating cause. These account for a small minority of cases of Parkinson's Disease.
'''Paraquat''' is a quaternary ammonium herbicide, and the second most widely used herbicide in the world[http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/actives/paraquat.htm]. Other members of this class include diquat, cyperquat, diethamquat, difenzoquat and morfamquat. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease. Paraquat structurally resembles MPTP and its metabolite MPP+. MPTP and MPP+ are neurotoxic chemicals, that induce Parkinson's Disease in exposed humans. Paraquat might therefore might, as do MPTP and MPP+ inhibit tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Rotenone''' is an insecticide that is known to cause Parkinson's Disease. Insecticides are also known to affect well water. Rotenone is commonly used in powdered form to treat parasitic mites on chickens and other fowl, and so can be found in poultry. Rotenone is produced by extraction from the roots, seeds, and leaves of certain tropical legumes. Rotenone inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So Rotenone causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Maneb''' is a fungicide that contains manganese. The major active element of Maneb is manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease, so there is a greatly increased likelihood of developing symptoms by people involved in horticulture and agriculture. As Maneb contains manganese it is possible that it causes Parkinson's Disease symptoms via the same means as manganese, which is by inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. The effects of Maneb are potentiated when there is simultaneous exposure to the pesticide Paraquat. [http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Carbon monoxide''' toxicity is frequent due to the formation of carbon monoxide by very common means such as gas cookers and exhaust fumes. However, it normally requires the person having gone in to a coma as a result of the carbon monoxide poisoning before symptoms of Parkinson's Disease develop. Carbon monoxide causes hemoglobin (which transports oxygen) to turn in to carboxyhemoglobin (which does not transport oxygen). Oxygen is required for the formation of L-dopa. So carbon monoxide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by interfering with the availability of oxygen to the brain. However, the precise means by which it can cause Parkinsonism has still not been proven. [http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Manganese''' can cause [[Manganism]], an irreversible neurological disorder similar to Parkinson's disease. Occupational exposures occur mainly in - welding, mining as miners are surrounded by manganese dust and airborne manganese particles, alloy production, processing, ferro-manganese operations especially in which manganese ore or manganese compounds are turned into steel, and work with agrochemicals. The towns and communities surrounding the areas of manganese heavy industry could also become affected by exposure to manganese. It is also hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally-occurring manganese in shower water also puts people at risk. Manganese inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So manganese causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels. [http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Mercury''' toxicity is a known cause of symptoms that include those of Parkinson's Disease, especially tremor. One of the chief targets of the toxin is the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). The enzyme is irreversibly inhibited by several mercury compounds, the lipoic acid component of the multienzyme complex binds mercury compounds tightly and thus inhibits PDH. However, the cause of the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease is likely to be due to the fact that mercury potently causes the release of dopamine, thereby lowering dopamine levels.Mercury is found in a wqide variety of sources : dietary fish intake, ethnic over-the-counter medications, occupational exposures to mercury vapour, possession of dental amalgam fillings, gold production, skin ointment, some soaps.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''MPTP''' (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a chemical that may be produced accidentally during illicit manufacture of the recreational drug MPPP, which is a synthetic heroin substitute. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was discovered in 1976 after a chemistry graduate student synthesized MPPP incorrectly and injected the result. It was contaminated with MPTP, and within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of Parkinson's disease. It was also developed but unused as a herbicide. MPTP inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So MPTP causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Toluene''' is a solvent that has been shown to cause or that has been associated with people with Parkinson's Disease. Toluene is used as an octane booster in fuel, as a solvent in paints, paint thinners, chemical reactions, rubber, printing, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanning, disinfectants, and to produce phenol and TNT (a component of explosives). It is also used as a raw material for toluene diisocyanate, which is used in the manufacture of polyurethane foams. The precise means of toxicity is not known.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''N-Hexane''', a constituent of solvents has been shown to cause Parkinsonism. Most of the n-hexane used in industry is mixed with similar chemicals called solvents. The major use for solvents containing n-hexane is to extract vegetable oils from crops such as soybeans. These solvents are also used as cleaning agents in the printing, textile, furniture, and shoemaking industries. Use by chemists. Certain kinds of special glues used in the roofing and shoe and leather industries also contain n-hexane. Several consumer products contain n-hexane, such as gasoline, spot removers, quick-drying glues used in various hobbies, and rubber cement. The precise means is not known.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Carbon disulfide''', usually in solvents or pesticides, can cause Parkinson's Disease that is associated with other neurological symptoms. The effects can persist for years after exposure to the carbon disulfide has ceased. Potential sources : pesticides used as fumigants, disulfiram (a drug used in the treatment of chronic alcoholism), industrial solvents, solvents used in the production of viscose rayon and cellophane film. Means of toxicity is not established. However, carbon disulphide interferes with pyridoxal 5-phosphate. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate is essential for the formation of dopamine from L-dopa. So carbon disulphide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by reducing the formation of L-dopa.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Copper''' accumulates in Wilson's Disease, which is associated with Parkinson's Disease. Although copper may cause symptoms by other means, there do not appear to be published studies in which copper has otherwise caused Parkinson's Disease. This may be because copper is not normally formed in to a vapour or dust that can readily be inhaled or consumed. Copper can be found in high quantities in copper mines, copper cooking pots, copper plumbing, very excessive consumption of copper nutritional supplements. Excess copper can cause the formation of a copper-dopamine complex, which leads to the oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome.
[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]
'''Cyanide''', usually from the consumption of potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide can result in Parkinsonism. Cyanide is also produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae, and are found in a number of foods and plants, such as unprocessed cassava, cherry pits,apricot pits, bitter almonds. Hydrogen cyanide is contained in vehicle exhaust and in tobacco smoke,as does burning plastic.Cyanides are also found in gold processing.
Cyanide interrupts the electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Cyanide also occupies the place of oxygen in hemoglobin (which transports oxygen). Oxygen is required for the formation of L-dopa. So carbon monoxide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by interefering with the availability of oxygen to the brain. However, the precise means by which it causes Parkinson's Disease has still not been proven.[http://p4.forumforfree.com/toxic-causes-of-parkinsons-disease-vt14-parkinsons.html Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]","'''Paraquat''' is a quaternary ammonium herbicide. Other members of this class include diquat, cyperquat, diethamquat, difenzoquat and morfamquat. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease. Paraquat structurally resembles MPTP and its metabolite MPP+. MPTP and MPP+ are neurotoxic chemicals, that induce Parkinson's Disease in exposed humans. Paraquat might therefore might, as do MPTP and MPP+ inhibit tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine.
'''Rotenone''' is an insecticide that has been demonstrated as a cause of mouse-model Parkinson's disease. Rotenone is commonly used in powdered form to treat parasitic mites on chickens and other fowl, and so can be found in poultry. Rotenone is produced by extraction from the roots, seeds, and leaves of certain tropical legumes. Rotenone inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So Rotenone causes Parkinson's Disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''Maneb''' is a fungicide that contains manganese. The major active element of Maneb is manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease, so there is a greatly increased likelihood of developing symptoms by people involved in horticulture and agriculture. As Maneb contains manganese it is possible that it causes Parkinson's Disease symptoms via the same means as manganese, which is by inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. The effects of Maneb are potentiated when there is simultaneous exposure to the pesticide Paraquat.
'''Manganese''' can cause [[manganism]], an irreversible neurological disorder similar to Parkinson's disease. Occupational exposures occur mainly in welding, mining as miners are surrounded by manganese dust and airborne manganese particles, alloy production, processing, ferro-manganese operations especially in which manganese ore or manganese compounds are turned into steel, and work with agrochemicals. The towns and communities surrounding the areas of manganese heavy industry could also become affected by exposure to manganese. It is also hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally-occurring manganese in shower water also puts people at risk. Manganese inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So manganese may cause Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''[[MPTP]]''' (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a chemical that may be produced accidentally during illicit manufacture of the recreational drug MPPP, which is a synthetic heroin substitute. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was discovered in 1976 after a chemistry graduate student synthesized MPPP incorrectly and injected the result. It was contaminated with MPTP, and within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of acute Parkinson's disease. It was also developed but unused as a herbicide and was distributed on the streets as a synthetic opioid-like drug. MPTP inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So MPTP causes acute Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''[[Toluene]]''' is a solvent that has been shown to cause or that has been associated with people with Parkinson's disease. Toluene is used as an octane booster in fuel, as a solvent in paints, paint thinners, chemical reactions, rubber, printing, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanning, disinfectants, and to produce phenol and TNT (a component of explosives). It is also used as a raw material for toluene diisocyanate, which is used in the manufacture of polyurethane foams. The precise means of toxicity is not known.
'''N-Hexane''', a constituent of solvents has been shown to cause parkinsonism. Most of the n-hexane used in industry is mixed with similar chemicals called solvents. The major use for solvents containing n-hexane is to extract vegetable oils from crops such as soybeans. These solvents are also used as cleaning agents in the printing, textile, furniture, and shoemaking industries. Use by chemists. Certain kinds of special glues used in the roofing and shoe and leather industries also contain n-hexane. Several consumer products contain n-hexane, such as gasoline, spot removers, quick-drying glues used in various hobbies, and rubber cement. The precise means is not known.
'''Carbon disulfide''', usually in solvents or pesticides, can cause Parkinson's disease that is associated with other neurological symptoms. The effects can persist for years after exposure to the carbon disulfide has ceased. Potential sources include pesticides used as fumigants, disulfiram (a drug used in the treatment of chronic alcoholism), industrial solvents, solvents used in the production of viscose rayon and cellophane film. Means of toxicity is not established. However, carbon disulphide interferes with pyridoxal 5-phosphate. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate is essential for the formation of dopamine from L-dopa. So carbon disulphide may cause Parkinson's Disease symptoms by reducing the formation of L-dopa.","[2, 1, 3, 9, 6]"
Asperger syndrome,Emotional peculiarities,62286468,2006-07-06T01:00:54Z,Natche24,"A person with Asperger syndrome may have trouble understanding the [[emotions]] of other people, and the subtle messages that are sent by facial expression, eye contact and body language are often missed. They also might have trouble showing [[empathy]] with other people. Because of this, a person with Asperger syndrome might be seen as egotistical, selfish or uncaring. In most cases these are unfair labels, because the affected person is neurologically unable to understand other people's emotional states. They are usually shocked, upset and remorseful when told their actions were hurtful or inappropriate. It is clear that people with Asperger's Syndrome do not lack emotions. However, the concrete nature of attachments they might have (i.e. to objects rather than to people) often seems curious, or even can be cause of concern, to people who do not share their perspective.Attwood (1997), p.55-57
However, not showing affection (or not doing so in conventional societally-acceptable ways) does not necessarily mean that he or she does not feel it. Understanding this can lead the significant other to feel less rejected and be more understanding. There are usually ways to work around the problems, such as being more explicit about one's needs. For instance, when describing emotions, it can be helpful to be direct and to avoid vague terms such as ""upset"" when the emotion being described is anger (some individuals with Asperger's would interpret ""upset"" as mere annoyance, or even [[nausea]]). It is often effective to lay out in clear language what the problem is and to ask the partner with Asperger's to describe what emotions are being felt or ask why a certain emotion was being felt. It is very helpful if the family member or significant other reads as much as he or she can about Asperger’s syndrome and any [[comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders. Attwood (1997) p.57-66. In a minority of situations the opposite problem occurs; the person with Asperger's is unusually affectionate to significant others and misses or misinterprets signals from the other partner, causing the partner to get annoyed and leave the person with Asperger syndrome feeling depressed and alone. {{fact}}","A person with Asperger syndrome may have trouble understanding the [[emotions]] of other people, and the subtle messages that are sent by facial expression, eye contact and body language are often missed. They also might have trouble showing [[empathy]] with other people. Because of this, a person with Asperger syndrome might be seen as egotistical, selfish or uncaring. In most cases these are unfair labels, because the affected person is neurologically unable to understand other people's emotional states. They are usually shocked, upset and remorseful when told their actions were hurtful or inappropriate. It is clear that people with Asperger's Syndrome do not lack emotions. However, the concrete nature of attachments they might have (i.e. to objects rather than to people) often seems curious, or even can be cause of concern, to people who do not share their perspective.Attwood (1997), p.55-57
However, not showing affection (or not doing so in conventional societally-acceptable ways) does not necessarily mean that he or she does not feel it. Understanding this can lead the significant other to feel less rejected and be more understanding. There are usually ways to work around the problems, such as being more explicit about one's needs. For instance, when describing emotions, it can be helpful to be direct and to avoid vague terms such as ""upset"" when the emotion being described is anger (some individuals with Asperger's would interpret ""upset"" as mere annoyance, or even [[nausea]]). It is often effective to lay out in clear language what the problem is and to ask the partner with Asperger's to describe what emotions are being felt or ask why a certain emotion was being felt. It is very helpful if the family member or significant other reads as much as he or she can about Asperger’s syndrome and any [[comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders. Attwood (1997) p.57-66 In a minority of situations the opposite problem occurs; the person with Asperger's is unusually affectionate to significant others and misses or misinterprets signals from the other partner, causing the partner to get annoyed and leave the person with Asperger syndrome feeling depressed and alone. Attwood (1997) p.165-169 ",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Related diseases,62348275,2006-07-06T10:43:47Z,Chris 73,,"There are other disorders that are called '''[[Parkinson plus syndrome|Parkinson-Plus diseases]]'''. These include:
* [[Multiple System Atrophy]] (MSA)
** [[Shy-Drager Syndrome]] (SDS)
** Striatonigral degeneration (SND)
** Olivopontocerebellar atrophy (OPCA)
* Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP)
* Corticobasal degeneration (CBD)'''
Some people include dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) as one of the 'Parkinson-plus' syndromes. Although idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients also have Lewy bodies in their brain tissue, the distibution is denser and more widespread in DLB. Even so, the relationship between Parkinson disease, Parkinson disease with dementia (PDD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) might be most accurately conceptualized as an spectrum, with a discrete area of overlap between each of the three disorders. The natural history and role of Lewy bodies is very little understood.
Patients often begin with typical Parkinson's disease symptoms which persist for some years; these Parkinson-plus diseases can only be diagnosed when other symptoms become apparent with the passage of time. These Parkinson-plus diseases usually progress more quickly than typical ideopathic Parkinson disease. The usual anti-Parkinson's medications are typically either less effective or not effective at all in controlling symptoms; patients may be exquisitely sensitive to neuroleptic medications like [[haloperidol]]. Additionally, the cholinesterase inhibiting medications have shown preliminary efficacy in treating the cognitive, psychiatric, and behavioral aspcects of the disease, so correct differential diagnosis is important.
There is some controversy as to whether Parkinson's disease is related to [[essential tremor]]. As the two have certain similarities, there may be some confusion or misunderstanding that some cases of Parkinson's may be essential tremor; the reverse is also true. Other research appears to suggest that ET patients an elevated chance of developing Parkinson's or that it is a precursor.","[1, 4, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Prognosis,62549889,2006-07-07T13:15:46Z,Andrew73,"Most older studies have noted increased mortality in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). However, the 2005 Rotterdam Study, which [[Prospective study|prospectively]] followed a large [[cohort]] of participants, noted only a modest decrease in survival in patients without dementia.{{cite journal
|author=Lonneke M. L. de Lau ''et al.''
|title=Prognosis of Parkinson Disease
|journal=[[Archives of Neurology]]
|year=2005 | volume=62 | issue=8 | pages= 1265–1269
|url=http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/8/1265
}} A 2004 community-based cohort study of 245 PD patients demonstrated similar findings in patients with clinically definite PD.{{cite journal
|author=Karen Herlofson ''et al.''
|title=Mortality and Parkinson disease
|journal=[[Neurology (journal)|Neurology]]
|year=2004 | volume=62 | pages=937–942
|url=http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/6/937
}}
The most commonly reported cause of death in PD patients is [[pneumonia]]. Swallowing difficulties may lead to [[Pulmonary aspiration|aspiration]] of food, causing [[aspiration pneumonia]] (a specific form of pneumonia caused by gastric acid, food and digestive tract bacteria). A weak cough secondary to respiratory muscle stiffness may increase susceptibility to [[infection]]. Onset of dementia doubles the odds of death and depression more than doubles the odds ratio.{{cite journal
|author=TA Hughes, HF Ross, RHS Mindham, EGS Spokes
|title=Mortality in Parkinson's disease and its association with dementia and depression
|journal=[[Acta Neurologica Scandinavica]]
|year=2004 | volume=110 | issue=2 | pages=118
|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2004.00292.x
}}
[[:Category:Deaths from Parkinson's Disease|List of deaths from Parkinson's disease]]","PD is not by itself a fatal disease, but it does get worse with time. The average life expectancy of a PD patient is generally the same as for people who do not have the disease{{fact}}. However, in the late stages of the disease, PD may cause complications such as choking, pneumonia, and falls that can lead to death.
The progression of symptoms in PD may take 20 years or more. In some people, however, the disease progresses more quickly. There is no way to predict what course the disease will take for an individual person. One commonly used system for describing how the symptoms of PD progress is called the [[Hoehn and Yahr scale]].
Another commonly used scale is the [[Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale]] (UPDRS). This much more complicated scale has multiple ratings that measure mental functioning, behavior, and mood; activities of daily living; and motor function. Both the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the UPDRS are used to measure how individuals are faring and how much treatments are helping them.
With appropriate treatment, most people with PD can live productive lives for many years after diagnosis.","[1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10]"
Parkinson's disease,Prognosis,62550807,2006-07-07T13:22:49Z,Andrew73,"Most older studies have noted increased mortality in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). However, the 2005 Rotterdam Study, which [[Prospective study|prospectively]] followed a large [[cohort]] of participants, noted only a modest decrease in survival in patients without dementia.{{cite journal
|author=Lonneke M. L. de Lau ''et al.''
|title=Prognosis of Parkinson Disease
|journal=[[Archives of Neurology]]
|year=2005 | volume=62 | issue=8 | pages= 1265–1269
|url=http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/8/1265
}} A 2004 community-based cohort study of 245 PD patients demonstrated similar findings in patients with clinically definite PD.{{cite journal
|author=Karen Herlofson ''et al.''
|title=Mortality and Parkinson disease
|journal=[[Neurology (journal)|Neurology]]
|year=2004 | volume=62 | pages=937–942
|url=http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/6/937
}}
The most commonly reported cause of death in PD patients is [[pneumonia]]. Swallowing difficulties may lead to [[Pulmonary aspiration|aspiration]] of food, causing [[aspiration pneumonia]] (a specific form of pneumonia caused by gastric acid, food and digestive tract bacteria). A weak cough secondary to respiratory muscle stiffness may increase susceptibility to [[infection]]. Onset of dementia doubles the odds of death and depression more than doubles the odds ratio.{{cite journal
|author=TA Hughes, HF Ross, RHS Mindham, EGS Spokes
|title=Mortality in Parkinson's disease and its association with dementia and depression
|journal=[[Acta Neurologica Scandinavica]]
|year=2004 | volume=110 | issue=2 | pages=118
|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2004.00292.x
}}
[[:Category:Deaths from Parkinson's Disease|List of deaths from Parkinson's disease]]","PD is not by itself a fatal disease, but it does get worse with time. The average life expectancy of a PD patient is generally the same as for people who do not have the disease{{fact}}. However, in the late stages of the disease, PD may cause complications such as choking, pneumonia, and falls that can lead to death.
The progression of symptoms in PD may take 20 years or more. In some people, however, the disease progresses more quickly. There is no way to predict what course the disease will take for an individual person. One commonly used system for describing how the symptoms of PD progress is called the [[Hoehn and Yahr scale]].
Another commonly used scale is the [[Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale]] (UPDRS). This much more complicated scale has multiple ratings that measure mental functioning, behavior, and mood; activities of daily living; and motor function. Both the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the UPDRS are used to measure how individuals are faring and how much treatments are helping them.
With appropriate treatment, most people with PD can live productive lives for many years after diagnosis.","[1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 4]"
Parkinson's disease,Non-Motor Symptoms,62550981,2006-07-07T13:24:12Z,Floriana,,"Mood disturbances:
*[[clinical depression|depression]]: occurs in about 40-80% of cases; 20% of depression cases are major depressive disorder; severity and persistence of depression is positively associated with executive dysfunction and dementia;
*[[anxiety]] or [[panic attacks]] Note: 70% of individuals with Parkinson's disease diagnosed with pre-existing depression go on to develop anxiety; 90% of Parkinson's disease patients with pre-existing anxiety subsequently develop depression);
*[[apathy]] or [[abulia]]: apathy is an absence of feeling or desire; abulia translates from Greek as the absence or negative of will;
[[cognition|Cognitive]] disturbances:
*[[slowed reaction time]]; both voluntary and involuntary motor responses are significantly slowed.
*[[executive dysfunction]], characterized by difficulties in: differential allocation of attention, impulse control, set shifting, prioritizing, evaluating the salience of ambient data, interpeting social cues, and subjective time awareness. This complex is present to some degree in most Parkinson's patients; it may progress to:
*[[dementia]]: a later development in approximately 20-40% of all patients, typically starting with slowing of thought and progressing to difficulties with abstract thought, memory, and behavioral regulation.
*[[memory loss]]; [[procedural memory]] is more impaired than [[declarative memory]]. Prompting elicits improved recall.
*medication effects: some of the above cognitive disturbances are improved by dopaminergic medications, while others are actually worsened {{cite journal
|author=Michael J Frank
|title= Dynamic Dopamine Modulation in the Basal Ganglia: A Neurocomputational Account of Cognitive Deficits in Medicated and Non-mediacated Parkinsonism
|journal=[[Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience (journal)|Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience]]
|year=2005 | volume=17 | pages= 51–73
|url=http://www.u.arizona.edu/~mfrank/pubs-abstr.html#Frank05
}}
[[Sleep disturbances]]:
*Excessive daytime somnolence;
*Initial, intermediate, and terminal insomnia;
*Disturbances in REM sleep: disturbingly vivid dreams, and REM Sleep Disorder, characterized by acting out of dream content;
[[Sensation]] disturbances:
*impaired visual [[contrast sensitivity]], spatial reasoning, [[color|colour]] discrimination, convergence insufficiency (characterized by [[double vision]]) and [[oculomotor control]]
*[[dizziness]] and fainting; usually attributable orthostatic hypotension, a failure of the autonomous nervous system to adjust blood pressure in response to changes in body position
*impaired [[proprioception]] (the awareness of bodily position in three-dimensional space)
*loss of sense of [[smell]] ([[anosmia]]),
*[[pain]]: neuropathic, muscle, joints, and tendons, attributable to tension, dystonia, muscular cramps, rigidity, joint stiffness, and injuries associated with attempts at accommodation
[[autonomic nervous system|Autonomic]] disturbances:
*[[oily skin]] and [[seborrheic dermatitis]];
*[[urinary incontinence]], typically in later disease progression
*[[constipation]] and [[gastric]] dysmotility: severe enough to endanger comfort and even health
*[[altered sexual function]]: characterized by impotence; profound impairment of sexual arousal, behavior, orgasm, and drive is found in mid and late parkinson disease. Current data addresses male sexual function almost exclusively, but female sex drive is also diminished.","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Parkinson's disease,Prognosis,62551227,2006-07-07T13:26:19Z,Floriana,"PD is not by itself a fatal disease, but it does get worse with time. The average life expectancy of a PD patient is generally the same as for people who do not have the disease{{fact}}. However, in the late stages of the disease, PD may cause complications such as choking, pneumonia, and falls that can lead to death.
The progression of symptoms in PD may take 20 years or more. In some people, however, the disease progresses more quickly. There is no way to predict what course the disease will take for an individual person. One commonly used system for describing how the symptoms of PD progress is called the [[Hoehn and Yahr scale]].
Another commonly used scale is the [[Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale]] (UPDRS). This much more complicated scale has multiple ratings that measure mental functioning, behavior, and mood; activities of daily living; and motor function. Both the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the UPDRS are used to measure how individuals are faring and how much treatments are helping them.
With appropriate treatment, most people with PD can live productive lives for many years after diagnosis.","Most older studies have noted increased mortality in patients with Parkinson disease (PD). However, the 2005 Rotterdam Study, which [[Prospective study|prospectively]] followed a large [[cohort]] of participants, noted only a modest decrease in survival in patients without dementia.{{cite journal
|author=Lonneke M. L. de Lau ''et al.''
|title=Prognosis of Parkinson Disease
|journal=[[Archives of Neurology]]
|year=2005 | volume=62 | issue=8 | pages= 1265–1269
|url=http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/8/1265
}} A 2004 community-based cohort study of 245 PD patients demonstrated similar findings in patients with clinically definite PD.{{cite journal
|author=Karen Herlofson ''et al.''
|title=Mortality and Parkinson disease
|journal=[[Neurology (journal)|Neurology]]
|year=2004 | volume=62 | pages=937–942
|url=http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/6/937
}}
The most commonly reported cause of death in PD patients is [[pneumonia]]. Swallowing difficulties may lead to [[Pulmonary aspiration|aspiration]] of food, causing [[aspiration pneumonia]] (a specific form of pneumonia caused by gastric acid, food and digestive tract bacteria). A weak cough secondary to respiratory muscle stiffness may increase susceptibility to [[infection]]. Onset of dementia doubles the odds of death and depression more than doubles the odds ratio.{{cite journal
|author=TA Hughes, HF Ross, RHS Mindham, EGS Spokes
|title=Mortality in Parkinson's disease and its association with dementia and depression
|journal=[[Acta Neurologica Scandinavica]]
|year=2004 | volume=110 | issue=2 | pages=118
|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2004.00292.x
}}
[[:Category:Deaths from Parkinson's Disease|List of deaths from Parkinson's disease]]","[1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Notes,62586683,2006-07-07T17:27:30Z,Dmitri Lytov,"
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]","
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Literature,63682218,2006-07-13T22:39:14Z,Wikirefine,"Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
Aschoff J (eds.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251–254","Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2004) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York
Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251–254","[1, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),63688767,2006-07-13T23:24:53Z,Wikirefine,"{{citations missing}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. (The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''diem'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."") It was initially discovered in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, annual, is called [[chronobiology]].
The circadian rhythm partly depends on external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. Early researchers observed that some sort of ""internal"" rhythm must exist, because plants and animals did not react immediately to artificially-induced changes in daily rhythms. However it has been well established that a mechanism for adjustment also exists, as plants and animals eventually adjust their internal clock to a new pattern (if it is sufficiently regular and not too far off the norm for the species). Overall, circadian rhythms are defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. It was noticed in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''diem'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[2, 3, 4]"
Asperger syndrome,Definitions and diagnostic criteria,63736356,2006-07-14T05:35:40Z,58.186.80.121,"Asperger syndrome is defined in section 299.80 of the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM-IV) by six main criteria. These criteria generally define Asperger syndrome as a condition not accounted for by another specific [[pervasive developmental disorder]] or [[schizophrenia]] in which there is impairment in nonverbal behaviors and social interaction that affects important areas of functioning, repetitive behavior and intense focus of interest, and no significant delay in language, cognitive development, self-help skills, or adaptive behavior (other than social interaction).BehaveNet® Clinical Capsule™. [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR: Asperger's Disorder (AD).] Retrieved 28 June 2006.
The diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome is complicated by the lack of a standardized diagnostic screen or schedule, and the use of several different screening instruments.NINDS (May 11, 2006). [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/asperger/detail_asperger.htm Asperger Syndrome Fact Sheet.] Accessed 2 July 2006. The diagnostic criteria of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual'' are criticized for being vague and subjective.Timini S. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/extract/328/7433/226-a? Diagnosis of autism: Adequate funding is needed for assessment services.] ''BMJ''. 2004 Jan 24;328(7433):226. PMID 14739199Ehlers S, Gillberg C. The epidemiology of Asperger's syndrome: a total population study. ''J Child Psychol Psychiatry.'' 1993 Nov;34(8):1327-50. PMID 8294522 [http://www.asperger.org/MAAP_Sub_Find_It_-_Publications_Ehlers_and_Gillberg_Article.htm Full Text.] Some doctors believe that AS is not a separate and distinct disorder, calling it [[high functioning autism]] (HFA) instead.NINDS (May 11, 2006). [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/asperger/detail_asperger.htm Asperger Syndrome Fact Sheet.] Accessed 2 July 2006.Stoddart, Kevin P. (Editor) (2005). ""Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives"". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-268-4. p. 239. Szatmari suggests AS was promoted as a diagnosis to spark more research into the syndrome: ""It was introduced into the official classification systems in 1994 and has grown in popularity as a diagnosis, even though its validity has not been clearly established. It is interesting to note that it was introduced not so much as an indication of its status as a 'true' disorder, but more to stimulate research ... its validity is very much in question."" The diagnoses of AS or HFA may be used interchangeably, complicating prevalence estimates: the same child could receive different diagnoses, depending on the screening tool the doctor uses, and some children will be diagnosed with HFA instead of AS, and vice versa.
In ''A Guide to Asperger Syndrome'', [[Christopher Gillberg]] argues that although there may well be significant delays in some areas of language development, it is often combined with exceptionally high functioning in other language-related areas.{{cite book | author = Christopher Gillberg | title = A guide to Asperger Syndrome | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0521001838}} p. number missing. Gillberg has his [[Christopher_Gillberg#Gillberg.27s_Criteria_for_Asperger.27s_Disorder|own set of diagnostic criteria,]] which emphasizes linguistic peculiarities which go unmentioned in the DSM-IV criteria. Another definition is by a team of Canadian researchers, often called the Szatmari definition, after the first listed author of the paper in which these criteria first appeared.Ehlers S, Gillberg C. The epidemiology of Asperger's syndrome: a total population study. ''J Child Psychol Psychiatry.'' 1993 Nov;34(8):1327-50. PMID 8294522 [http://www.asperger.org/MAAP_Sub_Find_It_-_Publications_Ehlers_and_Gillberg_Article.htm Full Text.] Finally, there is the [[ICD|ICD-10]] definition, which has similar criteria to the DSM-IV version.AS-IF.org. [http://www.as-if.org.uk/criteria.htm Asperger Syndrome Information and features.] Retrieved 29 June 2006. In the ICD-10 the phrase ''Asperger's syndrome'' is synonymous with ''Autistic psychopathy'' and ''[[Schizoid personality disorder|Schizoid disorder]] of childhood''.","Asperger syndrome is defined in section 299.80 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) as:
#Qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
##Marked impairments in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body [[posture]], and gestures to regulate social interaction.
##Failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level.
##A lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest to other people).
##A lack of social or emotional reciprocity.
#Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
##Encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal in either intensity or focus.
##Apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals.
##Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole-body movements).
##Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
#The disturbance causes clinically significant impairments in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
#There is no clinically significant general delay in language (e.g., single words used by age two years, communicative phrases used by age three years).
#There is no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills or adaptive behavior (other than in social interaction) and curiosity about the [[social environment|environment]] in childhood.
#Criteria are not met for another specific [[Pervasive Developmental Disorder]] or [[Schizophrenia]].
The diagnostic criteria of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual'' are criticized for being vague and subjective; a condition that one psychologist might define as a significant impairment might be defined by another psychologist as merely insignificant.
In ''A Guide to Asperger Syndrome'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), Christopher Gillberg also criticizes
the ""no significant delay"" clauses of the DSM, and to a lesser extent some of the others, and argues that the clauses represent a misunderstanding or oversimplification of the syndrome. He states that although there may well be significant delay in some areas of language development, it is often combined with exceptionally high functioning in other language-related areas, and he argues that this combination superficially resembles but is in reality very different from normal development in language and adaptive behavior.
Partly because of Asperger syndrome's recent appearance in the DSM and partly because of differences of opinion such as Gillberg's, at least three other, slightly different sets of diagnostic criteria are used in the field besides the DSM-IV definition. One is due to Gillberg himself and his wife and is also endorsed by Attwood; among other differences, this definition emphasizes the linguistic peculiarities, which go unmentioned in the DSM-IV criteria. Another definition is due to a team of Canadian researchers and is often called the Szatmari definition, after the first listed author of the paper in which these criteria first appeared. Both of these definitions were first published in 1989. The third is the [[ICD-10]] definition; this one is similar to the DSM-IV version, and Gillberg criticizes it in much the same manner as he does the DSM-IV version.
Gillberg's criteria are as follows (All six criteria must be met for confirmation of diagnosis; however, self-diagnosis is not recommended):
#Severe impairment in reciprocal social interaction (at least two of the following)
##inability to interact with peers
##lack of desire to interact with peers
##lack of appreciation of social cues
##socially and emotionally inappropriate behavior
#All-absorbing narrow interest (at least one of the following)
##exclusion of other activities
##repetitive adherence
##more rote than meaning
#Imposition of routines and interests (at least one of the following)
##on self, in aspects of life
##on others
#Speech and language problems (at least three of the following)
##delayed development
##superficially perfect expressive language
##formal, pedantic language
##odd prosody, peculiar voice characteristics
##impairment of comprehension including misinterpretations of literal/implied meanings
#Non-verbal communication problems (at least one of the following)
##limited use of gestures
##clumsy/gauche body language
##limited facial expression
##inappropriate expression
##peculiar, stiff gaze
#Motor clumsiness: poor performance on neurodevelopmental examination
For ICD-10, the phrase ''Asperger's syndrome'' is synonymous with ''Autistic psychopathy'' and ''[[Schizoid personality disorder|Schizoid disorder]] of childhood''.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9]"
Asperger syndrome,External links,63842750,2006-07-14T20:23:31Z,Dubhagan,":* [http://www.autismasperger.net Stephen Shore's website offering his insight into life with Asperger syndrome]
:* [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/articles/article.php?artID=868 Asperger's Syndrome in Adults] - From ''Mental Health Matters''
:* [http://www.WrongPlanet.net WrongPlanet -Asperger's Syndrome Support Site] - Largest online support site for individuals with Asperger's
:* [http://isnt.autistics.org/ Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical] - 'Well-known parody of non-autistics by some people from the autism spectrum'
:* [http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&prgDate=5-May-04 ''Fresh Air with Terry Gross''] - 'National Public Radio (NPR) Program on Asperger's ([[May 5]] 2004)'
:* [http://www.asperger.net/ Autism Asperger Publishing Company] Publisher for [[Myles, Brenda Smith]]
:* [http://www.FutureHorizons-autism.com - 'Future Horizons Inc.] 'Publisher and distributor of books, videos, DVDs and workbooks, including works by Attwood and Myles' Their site includes a [http://www.futurehorizons-autism.com/links_resources.htm#Autism/Aspergers_Resources comprehensive list] of links to Asperger and Autism organizations and services
:* [http://www.autismresearchcentre.com Autism Research Center] - 'Collaboration of scientists at Cambridge University and elsewhere to find new and validated methods for assessment and intervention of autism spectrum conditions'
:* [http://www.autistics.org Autistics.org] - 'Resources by and for those on the autistic spectrum'
:* [http://www.weirdnotstupid.com Weird Not Stupid] - A website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the Autism Spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it.
:* [http://iautistic.com/ i autistic] - Autism resources by an autistic. Includes free autism tests, games, videos, books, art, resources & explainations.
:* [http://www.autismnsw.com.au ASPECT Australia] - 'Autism Spectrum Australia, for people on the autism spectrum and their families'
:* [http://www.nas.org.uk National Autistic Society, UK] - 'The National Autistic Society exists to champion the rights and interests of all people with autism and to ensure that they and their families receive quality services appropriate to their needs'
* '''Lists of further links'''
:* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum/Asperger%27s_Syndrome/ DMOZ category on Asperger's syndrome] – a listing of organizations and websites worldwide representing Asperger's syndrome
:* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/aspergerssyndrome.html MedlinePlus]
:* [http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/lib_aspe.htm AS Family Village]
{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Autism]]
[[Category:Eponymous medical terms]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Special education|A]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[cy:Syndrom Asperger]]
[[da:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[de:Autismus#Asperger-Syndrom]]
[[es:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[fi:Aspergerin oireyhtymä]]
[[fr:Syndrome d'Asperger]]
[[he:תסמונת אספרגר]]
[[it:Sindrome di Asperger]]
[[ja:アスペルガー症候群]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Asperger]]
[[no:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[pl:Zespół Aspergera]]
[[pt:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[ru:Синдром Аспергера]]
[[simple:Asperger's syndrome]]
[[sv:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[zh:亞斯伯格症候群]]",":* [http://www.autismasperger.net Stephen Shore's website offering his insight into life with Asperger syndrome]
:* [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/articles/article.php?artID=868 Asperger's Syndrome in Adults] - From ''Mental Health Matters''
:* [http://isnt.autistics.org/ Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical] - 'Well-known parody of non-autistics by some people from the autism spectrum'
:* [http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&prgDate=5-May-04 ''Fresh Air with Terry Gross''] - 'National Public Radio (NPR) Program on Asperger's ([[May 5]] 2004)'
:* [http://www.asperger.net/ Autism Asperger Publishing Company] Publisher for [[Myles, Brenda Smith]]
:* [http://www.FutureHorizons-autism.com - 'Future Horizons Inc.] 'Publisher and distributor of books, videos, DVDs and workbooks, including works by Attwood and Myles' Their site includes a [http://www.futurehorizons-autism.com/links_resources.htm#Autism/Aspergers_Resources comprehensive list] of links to Asperger and Autism organizations and services
:* [http://www.autismresearchcentre.com Autism Research Center] - 'Collaboration of scientists at Cambridge University and elsewhere to find new and validated methods for assessment and intervention of autism spectrum conditions'
:* [http://www.autistics.org Autistics.org] - 'Resources by and for those on the autistic spectrum'
:* [http://www.weirdnotstupid.com Weird Not Stupid] - A website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the Autism Spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it.
:* [http://iautistic.com/ i autistic] - Autism resources by an autistic. Includes free autism tests, games, videos, books, art, resources & explainations.
:* [http://www.autismnsw.com.au ASPECT Australia] - 'Autism Spectrum Australia, for people on the autism spectrum and their families'
:* [http://www.nas.org.uk National Autistic Society, UK] - 'The National Autistic Society exists to champion the rights and interests of all people with autism and to ensure that they and their families receive quality services appropriate to their needs'
* '''Lists of further links'''
:* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum/Asperger%27s_Syndrome/ DMOZ category on Asperger's syndrome] – a listing of organizations and websites worldwide representing Asperger's syndrome
:* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/aspergerssyndrome.html MedlinePlus]
:* [http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/lib_aspe.htm AS Family Village library]
{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Autism]]
[[Category:Eponymous medical terms]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Special education|A]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[cy:Syndrom Asperger]]
[[da:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[de:Autismus#Asperger-Syndrom]]
[[es:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[fi:Aspergerin oireyhtymä]]
[[fr:Syndrome d'Asperger]]
[[he:תסמונת אספרגר]]
[[it:Sindrome di Asperger]]
[[ja:アスペルガー症候群]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Asperger]]
[[no:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[pl:Zespół Aspergera]]
[[pt:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[ru:Синдром Аспергера]]
[[simple:Asperger's syndrome]]
[[sv:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[zh:亞斯伯格症候群]]",[11]
Prion,Dissent,63853254,2006-07-14T21:32:32Z,216.234.170.85,"A fragment of society, figuratively referred to as Flat Earthers, exists to oppose any impingement on the establishment. Dissent here comes from autoclaving the remains of diseased animals, leaving ash and no protein nor nucleic acid, which is then fed back to the animals which might exhibit the disease. This leaves no organism, much less a [[pathogen]], and since what remains must explain the disease, the cause would seem to be an element in excess: an environmental [[poison]].
Even essential elements like [[Iron]] and [[Copper]] can be made into poisons with sheer volume, and [[Manganese]] is required in much smaller amounts than either, so it becomes toxic in much smaller amounts.
Mark Purdy and David R. Brown, representing the major dissenting position on this topic, that prions are only an effect of the disease (or that Manganese is the hypothetical protein-X mentioned above) would identify Manganese as the major culprit in the flattening of prions. Secondarily, it would seem that [[organophosphates]] bind with Copper, leaving Manganese(II) as a poor substitute for a normal interaction between prions and Copper(II).
While Purdy cites epidemiology (clusters of BSE downwind from pesticide factories) as evidence, "After this, therefore because of this." remains a fallacy, so In Vivo production of the disease with organophosphates or Copper deficiency remains to be seen. The alternative to intentionally exposing cattle that are not likely to otherwise get the disease (cattle in areas with a history of no or very low incidence of BSE) will make lawyers rich for the amount of damage that BSE has caused. Either way.","Flat Earthers on this topic support the original view that protein does not reproduce on its own, nor does it warp other instances of itself. Evidence here comes from autoclaving the remains of diseased animals, leaving ash and no protein nor nucleic acid, which is then fed back to the animals which exhibit the disease. This leaves no organism, much less a [[pathogen]], and since what remains must explain the disease, the cause would seem to be an element in excess: an environmental [[poison]].
Even essential elements like [[Iron]] and [[Copper]] can be made into poisons with sheer volume, and [[Manganese]] is required in much smaller amounts than either, so it becomes toxic in much smaller amounts.
Mark Purdy and Doctor David R. Brown, represent a major dissenting position on this topic, that prions are only an effect of the disease or that Manganese is the hypothetical protein-X mentioned above. These men would identify Manganese as the immediate cause in the flattening of prions. Metal toxicity might be secondary to [[organophosphate]] exposure. It would seem that organophosphates bind with Copper, leaving Manganese(II) as a poor substitute for a normal interaction between prions and Copper(II).
While Purdy cites epidemiology (clusters of disease downwind from pesticide factories and in locales with low soil concentrations of copper) as evidence, "After this, therefore because of this." remains a fallacy, so in vivo production of the disease with organophosphates or Copper deficiency remains to be replicated. The alternative to intentionally exposing cattle that are not likely to otherwise get the disease (cattle in areas with a history of no or very low incidence of BSE) to a Copper deficiency, a Manganese toxicity, or both in the case of organophosphate exposure, will make lawyers rich for the amount of damage that BSE has caused.
Either way.","[1, 3, 6]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),63988471,2006-07-15T18:27:41Z,Mottzo,"A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. It was noticed in the movement of plant leaves in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first evidence for an endogenous circadian oscillation was made in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimulus. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[1, 3, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),63989420,2006-07-15T18:33:46Z,Jclerman,"A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first evidence for an endogenous circadian oscillation was made in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimulus. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimuli. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[11]
Asperger syndrome,Research into causes,64584151,2006-07-19T02:12:48Z,Keyne,"{{see|Causes of autism}}
The [[Causes of autism|cause]] of AS is unknown. Even though no consensus exists for the cause(s) of AS, it is widely accepted that AS is probably hereditaryMuhle R, Trentacoste SV, Rapin I. ""The genetics of autism."" ''Pediatrics''. 2004 May;113(5):e472-86. Review. PMID 15121991, but no specific genes have been confirmed to cause AS. Other possible causes being investigated include: a [[serotonin]] dysfunction,Murphy DG, Daly E, Schmitz N, et al. ""Cortical serotonin 5-HT2A receptor binding and social communication in adults with Asperger's syndrome: an in vivo SPECT study."" ''Am J Psychiatry.'' 2006 May;163(5):934-6. PMID 16648340 [[cerebellar]] dysfunction,Gowen E, Miall RC. ""Behavioural aspects of cerebellar function in adults with Asperger syndrome."" ''Cerebellum.'' 2005;4(4):279-89. PMID 16321884 and [[neurodiversity]].Clements, Colleen. [http://www.cma.ca/index.cfm/ci_id/7977/la_id/1.htm Making intelligence a disease.] The Medical Post, 2001. Retrieved 18 July 2006. Colleen Clements is clinical associate professor of psychiatry at the University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.
There are several studies linking autism with differences in brain-volumes such as enlarged [[amygdala]] and [[hippocampus]],Schumann CM, Hamstra J, Goodlin-Jones BL, et al. ""The amygdala is enlarged in children but not adolescents with autism; the hippocampus is enlarged at all ages."" ''J Neurosci.'' 2004 Jul 14;24(28):6392-401. PMID 15254095Other brain region differences have also been found.Kwon H, Ow AW, Pedatella KE, et al. ""Voxel-based morphometry elucidates structural neuroanatomy of high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome."" ''Dev Med Child Neurol.'' 2004 Nov;46(11):760-4. PMID 15540637 Different neural connectivity has also been found.Belmonte MK, Allen G, Beckel-Mitchener A, et al. ""Autism and Abnormal Development of Brain Connectivity."" ''J Neurosci.'' 2004 Oct 20;24(42):9228-31 PMID 15496656 [http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/24/42/9228 Full text] News-Medical.net (7 Feb 2005). [http://www.news-medical.net/?id=7651 Clues to autism's neural basis.] Retrieved 11 December 2005. PMID 15694294 ","{{see|Causes of autism}}
The [[Causes of autism|cause]] of AS is unknown. Even though no consensus exists for the cause(s) of AS, it is widely accepted that AS is probably hereditaryMuhle R, Trentacoste SV, Rapin I. ""The genetics of autism."" ''Pediatrics''. 2004 May;113(5):e472-86. Review. PMID 15121991, but no specific genes have been confirmed to cause AS. Other possible causes being investigated include: a [[serotonin]] dysfunction,Murphy DG, Daly E, Schmitz N, et al. ""Cortical serotonin 5-HT2A receptor binding and social communication in adults with Asperger's syndrome: an in vivo SPECT study."" ''Am J Psychiatry.'' 2006 May;163(5):934-6. PMID 16648340 and [[cerebellar]] dysfunction.Gowen E, Miall RC. ""Behavioural aspects of cerebellar function in adults with Asperger syndrome."" ''Cerebellum.'' 2005;4(4):279-89. PMID 16321884.
There are several studies linking autism with differences in brain-volumes such as enlarged [[amygdala]] and [[hippocampus]],Schumann CM, Hamstra J, Goodlin-Jones BL, et al. ""The amygdala is enlarged in children but not adolescents with autism; the hippocampus is enlarged at all ages."" ''J Neurosci.'' 2004 Jul 14;24(28):6392-401. PMID 15254095Other brain region differences have also been found.Kwon H, Ow AW, Pedatella KE, et al. ""Voxel-based morphometry elucidates structural neuroanatomy of high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome."" ''Dev Med Child Neurol.'' 2004 Nov;46(11):760-4. PMID 15540637 Different neural connectivity has also been found.Belmonte MK, Allen G, Beckel-Mitchener A, et al. ""Autism and Abnormal Development of Brain Connectivity."" ''J Neurosci.'' 2004 Oct 20;24(42):9228-31 PMID 15496656 [http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/24/42/9228 Full text] News-Medical.net (7 Feb 2005). [http://www.news-medical.net/?id=7651 Clues to autism's neural basis.] Retrieved 11 December 2005. PMID 15694294 ",[2]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),64933287,2006-07-20T22:30:09Z,132.199.237.130,"A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimuli. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant light) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimuli. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[3]
Methadone,External Links,65526580,2006-07-24T10:12:51Z,24.27.117.18,"* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.aatod.org/qa_regarding.html#seven American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence - Q&A ]
* [http://www.atforum.com Addiction Treatment Forum]
* [http://dpt.samhsa.gov/choosestate.asp Clinic Locator - Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services)]
* [http://www.methadone.org National Alliance of Methadone Advocates (NAMA)]
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/methadone.html U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) - ""Methadone""]
* [http://www.MethadoneAnonymous.info Methadone Support, Awareness etc.]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]","* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.aatod.org/qa_regarding.html#seven American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence - Q&A ]
* [http://www.atforum.com Addiction Treatment Forum]
* [http://dpt.samhsa.gov/choosestate.asp Clinic Locator - Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services)]
* [http://www.methadone.org National Alliance of Methadone Advocates (NAMA)]
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/methadone.html U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) - ""Methadone""]
* [http://www.MethadoneAnonymous.info MethadoneAnonymous - Methadone Support, Awareness, etc...]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]",[11]
Methadone,External links,65762540,2006-07-25T14:31:00Z,24.27.117.18,"* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.atforum.com Addiction Treatment Forum]
* [http://www.methadone.org National Alliance of Methadone Advocates (NAMA)]
* [http://www.MethadoneAnonymous.info Methadone Anonymous - Support & Awareness Group]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]","* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.atforum.com Addiction Treatment Forum]
* [http://www.methadone.org National Alliance of Methadone Advocates (NAMA)]
* [http://www.MethadoneAnonymous.info Methadone Anonymous - Support & Awareness Group]
* [http://dpt.samhsa.gov/choosestate.asp Clinic Locator, National]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]",[11]
Methadone,External links,65762666,2006-07-25T14:31:48Z,24.27.117.18,"* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.atforum.com Addiction Treatment Forum]
* [http://www.methadone.org National Alliance of Methadone Advocates (NAMA)]
* [http://www.MethadoneAnonymous.info Methadone Anonymous - Support & Awareness Group]
* [http://dpt.samhsa.gov/choosestate.asp Clinic Locator, National]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]","* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.atforum.com Addiction Treatment Forum]
* [http://www.methadone.org National Alliance of Methadone Advocates (NAMA)]
* [http://www.MethadoneAnonymous.info Methadone Anonymous - Support & Awareness Group]
* [http://dpt.samhsa.gov/choosestate.asp Clinic Locator, United States]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,65918181,2006-07-26T07:27:36Z,Tmopkisn,"*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
* [http://clockwatchassembly.com Clock Watch Assembly]","*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,65925341,2006-07-26T08:44:09Z,84.202.86.139,"The ability of light to reset the biological clock depends on the [[phase response curve]] (to light). Depending on the phase of sleep, the light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. The required [[illuminance]] varies from species to species, much lower light levels being required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.","The ability of light to reset the biological clock depends on the [[phase response curve]] (to light). Depending on the phase of sleep, the light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. The required [[illuminance]] varies from species to species, much lower light levels being required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm), at least until age 60 or so.Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.","[1, 3, 10]"
Asperger syndrome,Comorbidities,67334259,2006-08-02T23:03:59Z,68.112.148.184,"{{main|Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders}}
Most patients presenting in clinical settings with AS have other comorbid psychiatric disorders.Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N. ""Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report."" ''J Intellect Disabil Res'' 42 ( Pt 4):279-83 PMID 9786442 Children are likely to present with [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), while [[clinical depression|depression]] is a common diagnosis in adolescents and adults.Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N. ""Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report."" ''J Intellect Disabil Res'' 42 ( Pt 4):279-83 PMID 9786442 A study of referred adult patients found that 30% presenting with ADHD had ASD as well.Stahlberg O, Soderstrom H, et al. ""Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and other psychotic disorders in adults with childhood onset AD/HD and/or autism spectrum disorders."" ''Journal of neural transmission''. 2004 Jul;111(7):891-902. PMID 15206005
Research indicates people with AS may be far more likely to have the associated conditions.Stoddart, K. P. (Editor) (2005). ""Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives"". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-268-4, p. 44. People with AS symptoms may frequently be diagnosed with [[clinical depression]], [[oppositional defiant disorder]], [[antisocial personality disorder]], [[Tourette syndrome]], [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]], [[general anxiety disorder]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] or [[obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]].Gillberg C, Billstedt E. ""Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders."" ''Acta Psychiatr Scand.'' 2000 Nov;102(5):321-30. PMID 11098802 [[Dysgraphia]], [[dyspraxia]], [[dyslexia]] or [[dyscalculia]] may also be diagnosed.AS-IF.org. [http://www.as-if.org.uk/overlap.htm Asperger Syndrome Information and features: Overlap]. Retrieved 6 July 2006.
Also worth noting, is the gender-specific diagnostic trends clinicians are prone to practicing, such as depression being more commonly diagnosed in females, where as, anti-social personality disorder is more stereotypically defined as a male-dominated dramatic-erratic personality disorder of the Cluster B type.
I would also add, that in diagnosing female patients with AS, other comorbid disorders might include the borderline personality disorder which has been gaining in popularity recently.","{{main|Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders}}
Most patients presenting in clinical settings with AS have other comorbid psychiatric disorders.Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N. ""Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report."" ''J Intellect Disabil Res'' 42 ( Pt 4):279-83 PMID 9786442 Children are likely to present with [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), while [[clinical depression|depression]] is a common diagnosis in adolescents and adults.Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N. ""Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report."" ''J Intellect Disabil Res'' 42 ( Pt 4):279-83 PMID 9786442 A study of referred adult patients found that 30% presenting with ADHD had ASD as well.Stahlberg O, Soderstrom H, et al. ""Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and other psychotic disorders in adults with childhood onset AD/HD and/or autism spectrum disorders."" ''Journal of neural transmission''. 2004 Jul;111(7):891-902. PMID 15206005
Research indicates people with AS may be far more likely to have the associated conditions.Stoddart, K. P. (Editor) (2005). ""Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives"". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-268-4, p. 44. People with AS symptoms may frequently be diagnosed with [[clinical depression]], [[oppositional defiant disorder]], [[antisocial personality disorder]], [[Tourette syndrome]], [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]], [[general anxiety disorder]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] or [[obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]].Gillberg C, Billstedt E. ""Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders."" ''Acta Psychiatr Scand.'' 2000 Nov;102(5):321-30. PMID 11098802 [[Dysgraphia]], [[dyspraxia]], [[dyslexia]] or [[dyscalculia]] may also be diagnosed.AS-IF.org. [http://www.as-if.org.uk/overlap.htm Asperger Syndrome Information and features: Overlap]. Retrieved 6 July 2006.
Also worth noting, is the gender-specific diagnostic trends some clinicians and researchers are prone to practicing, such as depression being more commonly diagnosed in females, where as, anti-social personality disorder is more stereotypically defined as a male-dominated personality disorder of the Cluster B type.
Any scientist would tell you that causation does not equal a correlation, therefore, it would be extreme to conclude that no men suffer from depression. Conversely, that no women meet the criteria for anti-social personality disorder.
What's significant here is that the same could be said about the 10:1 ratio of boys versus girls being diagnosed with AS, and the disorder even being characterized as ""extreme maleness.""
Yet, where diagnosing female patients with AS is concerned, other comorbid disorders might include post-traumatic stress disorder, complex post-traumatic stress disorder, the spectrum of dissociative disorders, and borderline personality disorder which has been gaining in popularity recently.","[1, 4, 10]"
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,67629132,2006-08-04T13:07:34Z,Musical Linguist,"There are a number of toxins that may cause Parkinson's disease or cause symptoms mimicking Parkinson's disease. These include : Paraquat (herbicide), Rotenone (pesticide), Maneb (fungicide), Manganese, MPTP (drug by product), Toluene (solvent), N-hexane (solvent), Carbon disulfide (usually in solvents or pesticides), Carbon monoxide, Mercury, Cyanide, and Copper. [http://www.viartis.net/parkinsons.disease/toxic.causes.htm Toxic causes of Parkinson's Disease]","The following is a list of toxins that may cause Parkinson's disease or cause symptoms mimicking Parkinson's disease:
'''Paraquat''' is a quaternary ammonium herbicide. Other members of this class include diquat, cyperquat, diethamquat, difenzoquat and morfamquat. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's Disease. Paraquat structurally resembles MPTP and its metabolite MPP+. MPTP and MPP+ are neurotoxic chemicals, that induce Parkinson's Disease in exposed humans. Paraquat might therefore might, as do MPTP and MPP+ inhibit tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine.
'''Rotenone''' is an insecticide that has the poptential to cause Parkinson's disease. Insecticides are also known to affect well water. Rotenone is commonly used in powdered form to treat parasitic mites on chickens and other fowl, and so can be found in poultry. Rotenone is produced by extraction from the roots, seeds, and leaves of certain tropical legumes. Rotenone inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So rotenone could cause Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels. When given intavenously to mice, rotenone has been demonstrated to cause a model of Parkinson's disease. Rotenone toxicity is caused by complex I inhibition, depletion of cellular [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], and oxidative damage. These processes cause neuronal loss in midbrain dopaminergic neurons, leading to depletion of dopamine in the brain.{{cite journal | author=T. B. Sherer''et al.'' | title=Mechanism of Toxicity in Rotenone Models of Parkinson's Disease | journal=[[The Journal of Neuroscience (journal)|The Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2003 | volume=23 | issue=34| pages= 10756–10764 | url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/short/23/34/10756}}
'''Maneb''' is a fungicide that contains manganese. The major active element of Maneb is manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate. Pesticides are known to be associated with an increased rate of Parkinson's disease, so there is a greatly increased likelihood of developing symptoms by people involved in horticulture and agriculture. As Maneb contains manganese it is possible that it causes Parkinson's Disease symptoms via the same means as manganese, which is by inhibiting tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. The effects of Maneb are potentiated when there is simultaneous exposure to the pesticide Paraquat.
'''Manganese''' can cause [[manganism]], an irreversible neurological disorder similar to Parkinson's disease. Occupational exposures occur mainly in welding, mining as miners are surrounded by manganese dust and airborne manganese particles, alloy production, processing, ferro-manganese operations especially in which manganese ore or manganese compounds are turned into steel, and work with agrochemicals. The towns and communities surrounding the areas of manganese heavy industry could also become affected by exposure to manganese. It is also hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally-occurring manganese in shower water also puts people at risk. Manganese inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So manganese may cause Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''[[MPTP]]''' (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a chemical that may be produced accidentally during illicit manufacture of the recreational drug MPPP, which is a synthetic heroin substitute. The neurotoxicity of MPTP was discovered in 1976 after a chemistry graduate student synthesized MPPP incorrectly and injected the result. It was contaminated with MPTP, and within three days he began exhibiting symptoms of acute Parkinson's disease. It was also developed but unused as a herbicide and was distributed on the streets as a synthetic opioid-like drug. MPTP inhibits tyrosine hydroxylation, which is essential for the formation of dopamine. So MPTP causes acute Parkinson's disease by lowering dopamine levels.
'''[[Toluene]]''' is a solvent that has been shown to cause or that has been associated with people with Parkinson's disease. Toluene is used as an octane booster in fuel, as a solvent in paints, paint thinners, chemical reactions, rubber, printing, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanning, disinfectants, and to produce phenol and TNT (a component of explosives). It is also used as a raw material for toluene diisocyanate, which is used in the manufacture of polyurethane foams. The precise means of toxicity is not known.
'''N-hexane''', a constituent of solvents has been shown to cause parkinsonism. Most of the n-hexane used in industry is mixed with similar chemicals called solvents. The major use for solvents containing n-hexane is to extract vegetable oils from crops such as soybeans. These solvents are also used as cleaning agents in the printing, textile, furniture, and shoe making industries. Use by chemists. Certain kinds of special glues used in the roofing and shoe and leather industries also contain n-hexane. Several consumer products contain n-hexane, such as gasoline, spot removers, quick-drying glues used in various hobbies, and rubber cement. The precise means is not known.
'''Carbon disulfide''', usually in solvents or pesticides, can cause Parkinson's disease that is associated with other neurological symptoms. The effects can persist for years after exposure to the carbon disulfide has ceased. Potential sources include pesticides used as fumigants, disulfiram (a drug used in the treatment of chronic alcoholism), industrial solvents, solvents used in the production of viscose rayon and cellophane film. Means of toxicity is not established. However, carbon disulphide interferes with pyridoxal 5-phosphate. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate is essential for the formation of dopamine from L-dopa. So carbon disulphide may cause Parkinson's disease symptoms by reducing the formation of L-dopa.
'''Carbon monoxide''' toxicity is frequent due to the formation of carbon monoxide by very common means such as gas cookers and exhaust fumes. However, it normally requires severe exposure (e.g. the person going into a coma as a result of the carbon monoxide poisoning) before symptoms of Parkinson's disease develop. Carbon monoxide causes hemoglobin (which transports oxygen) to turn in to carboxyhemoglobin (which does not transport oxygen). Oxygen is required for the formation of L-dopa. So carbon monoxide may cause Parkinson's disease symptoms by interfering with the availability of oxygen to the brain. However, the precise means by which it can cause parkinsonism has still not been proven.
'''[[Mercury]]''' toxicity is a known cause of symptoms that mimic Parkinson's disease, especially tremor. One of the chief targets of the toxin is the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). The enzyme is irreversibly inhibited by several mercury compounds, the lipoic acid component of the multienzyme complex binds mercury compounds tightly and thus inhibits PDH. However, the cause of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease is likely to be due to the fact that mercury potently causes the release of dopamine, thereby lowering dopamine levels. Mercury is found in a wide variety of sources: dietary fish intake, ethnic over-the-counter medications, occupational exposures to mercury vapour, possession of dental amalgam fillings, gold production, skin ointment, some soaps.
'''[[Cyanide]]''', usually from the consumption of potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide can result in Parkinsonism. Cyanide is also produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae, and are found in a number of foods and plants, such as unprocessed cassava, cherry pits, apricot pits, bitter almonds. Hydrogen cyanide is contained in vehicle exhaust and in tobacco smoke, as does burning plastic. Cyanides are also found in gold processing. Cyanide interrupts the electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Cyanide also occupies the place of oxygen in hemoglobin (which transports oxygen). Oxygen is required for the formation of L-dopa. So carbon monoxide may cause Parkinson's disease symptoms by interefering with the availability of oxygen to the brain. However, the precise means by which it causes Parkinson's disease has still not been proven.
'''Copper''' accumulates in [[Wilson's disease]], which is associated with Parkinson's disease. Although copper may cause symptoms by other means, there do not appear to be published studies in which copper has otherwise caused Parkinson's disease. This may be because copper is not normally formed in to a vapour or dust that can readily be inhaled or consumed. Copper can be found in high quantities in copper mines, copper cooking pots, copper plumbing, very excessive consumption of copper nutritional supplements. Excess copper can cause the formation of a copper-dopamine complex, which leads to the oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome.","[1, 4, 7, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,68155850,2006-08-07T08:21:28Z,Rok Bura,"The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and industrial metals [http://viartis.net/parkinsons.disease/toxic.causes.htm]. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in human beings and other animals, of any age. MPTP was notorious for a string of Parkinson's disease cases in California in 1982 when it contaminated the illicit production of the synthetic opiate [[MPPP]].
Other toxin-based models employ PCBs,{{cite news
|first=Leslie
|last=Orr
|title=PCBs, fungicide open brain cells to Parkinson's assault
|date=February 10, 2005
|publisher=[[Medical News Today]]
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=19791
}} [[paraquat]]{{cite journal
|author=Amy B. Manning-Bog ''et al.''
|title= The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice
|journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] | year=2002 | volume=277 | issue=3 | pages=1641–1644
|url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/3/1641
}} (a herbicide) in combination with maneb, a fungicide{{cite journal
|author=Mona Thiruchelvam ''et al.''
|title=The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=20 | issue=24 | pages=9207–9214
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9207
}} [[rotenone]]{{cite journal
|author=Ranjita Betarbet ''et al.''
|title=Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=3 | pages=1301–1306
|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n12/abs/nn1200_1301.html
}} (an insecticide), and specific organochlorine pesticides including dieldrin{{cite journal
|author=Masashi Kitazawaa, Vellareddy Anantharama and Anumantha G. Kanthasamy
|title=Dieldrin-induced oxidative stress and neurochemical changes contribute to apoptopic cell death in dopaminergic cells
|journal=[[Free Radical Biology and Medicine]] | year=2001 | volume=31 | issue=11 | pages=1473–1485
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T38-44HSN76-P&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2001&_alid=373422978&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4940&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a104ac89bd7948e14863371142a639a
}} and lindane.{{cite journal
|author=F.M. Corrigan, C.L. Wienburg, R.F. Shore, S.E. Daniel, D. Mann
|title=Organochlorine Insecticides in Substandia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A]] | year=2000 | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=229–234
|url=http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1087-2620&volume=59&issue=4&spage=229
}} Numerous studies have found an increase in Parkinson disease in persons who consume rural well water; researchers theorize that water consumption is a proxy measure of pesticide exposure. In agreement with this hypothesis are studies which have found a dose-dependent an increase in PD in persons exposed to agricultural chemicals.","There are a number of toxins that may cause Parkinson's disease or cause symptoms mimicking Parkinson's disease. These include : Paraquat (herbicide), Rotenone (pesticide), Maneb (fungicide), Manganese, MPTP (drug by product), Toluene (solvent), N-hexane (solvent), Carbon disulfide (usually in solvents or pesticides), Carbon monoxide, Mercury, Cyanide, and Copper. [http://viartis.net/parkinsons.disease/toxic.causes.htm].","[1, 2, 8]"
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,68456256,2006-08-08T19:21:04Z,7001,"One theory holds that the disease may result in many or even most cases from the combination of a genetically determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with exposure to those toxins.{{cite journal
|author=DA Di Monte, M Lavasani, AB Manning-Bog
|title=Environmental factors in Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Neurotoxicology]] | year=2002 | volume=23 | issue=4–5 | pages=487–502
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12428721
}} This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population: rather, its incidence varies geographically. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and industrial metals. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in human beings and other animals, of any age. MPTP was notorious for a string of Parkinson's disease cases in California in 1982 when it contaminated the illicit production of the synthetic opiate [[MPPP]].
Other toxin-based models employ PCBs,{{cite news
|first=Leslie
|last=Orr
|title=PCBs, fungicide open brain cells to Parkinson's assault
|date=February 10, 2005
|publisher=[[Medical News Today]]
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=19791
}} [[paraquat]]{{cite journal
|author=Amy B. Manning-Bog ''et al.''
|title= The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice
|journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] | year=2002 | volume=277 | issue=3 | pages=1641–1644
|url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/3/1641
}} (a herbicide) in combination with maneb, a fungicide{{cite journal
|author=Mona Thiruchelvam ''et al.''
|title=The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=20 | issue=24 | pages=9207–9214
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9207
}} [[rotenone]]{{cite journal
|author=Ranjita Betarbet ''et al.''
|title=Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=3 | pages=1301–1306
|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n12/abs/nn1200_1301.html
}} (an insecticide), and specific organochlorine pesticides including dieldrin{{cite journal
|author=Masashi Kitazawaa, Vellareddy Anantharama and Anumantha G. Kanthasamy
|title=Dieldrin-induced oxidative stress and neurochemical changes contribute to apoptopic cell death in dopaminergic cells
|journal=[[Free Radical Biology and Medicine]] | year=2001 | volume=31 | issue=11 | pages=1473–1485
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T38-44HSN76-P&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2001&_alid=373422978&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4940&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a104ac89bd7948e14863371142a639a
}} and lindane.{{cite journal
|author=F.M. Corrigan, C.L. Wienburg, R.F. Shore, S.E. Daniel, D. Mann
|title=Organochlorine Insecticides in Substandia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A]] | year=2000 | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=229–234
|url=http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1087-2620&volume=59&issue=4&spage=229
}} Numerous studies have found an increase in Parkinson disease in persons who consume rural well water; researchers theorize that water consumption is a proxy measure of pesticide exposure. In agreement with this hypothesis are studies which have found a dose-dependent an increase in PD in persons exposed to agricultural chemicals.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids (medical)|cybrids]] have found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than nuclear DNA, is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may be the cause of the majority of PD cases.
However, the ubiquity of agricultural chemical exposures makes it difficult to gauge the true extent of the problem. In the current state of knowledge about the origins of the disease, it appears that family history of the disease and (especially) multiple episodes of head-trauma-induced unconsciousness increase individual risk more than does pesticide exposure, but research is continuing.","There are a number of toxins that may cause Parkinson's disease or cause symptoms mimicking Parkinson's disease. These include : Paraquat (herbicide), Rotenone (pesticide), Maneb (fungicide), Manganese, MPTP (drug by product), Toluene (solvent), N-hexane (solvent), Carbon disulfide (usually in solvents or pesticides), Carbon monoxide, Mercury, Cyanide, and Copper. [http://viartis.net/parkinsons.disease/toxic.causes.htm].","[1, 2, 4, 8]"
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,68575409,2006-08-09T09:21:10Z,7013,"One theory holds that the disease may result in many or even most cases from the combination of a genetically determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with exposure to those toxins.{{cite journal
|author=DA Di Monte, M Lavasani, AB Manning-Bog
|title=Environmental factors in Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Neurotoxicology]] | year=2002 | volume=23 | issue=4–5 | pages=487–502
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12428721
}} This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population: rather, its incidence varies geographically. It would appear that incidence varies by time as well, for although the later stages of untreated PD are distinct and readily recognizable, the disease was not remarked upon until the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, and not long thereafter become a common observation in clinical practice. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and industrial metals. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in human beings and other animals, of any age. MPTP was notorious for a string of Parkinson's disease cases in California in 1982 when it contaminated the illicit production of the synthetic opiate [[MPPP]].
Other toxin-based models employ PCBs,{{cite news
|first=Leslie
|last=Orr
|title=PCBs, fungicide open brain cells to Parkinson's assault
|date=February 10, 2005
|publisher=[[Medical News Today]]
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=19791
}} [[paraquat]]{{cite journal
|author=Amy B. Manning-Bog ''et al.''
|title= The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice
|journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] | year=2002 | volume=277 | issue=3 | pages=1641–1644
|url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/3/1641
}} (a herbicide) in combination with maneb, a fungicide{{cite journal
|author=Mona Thiruchelvam ''et al.''
|title=The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=20 | issue=24 | pages=9207–9214
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9207
}} [[rotenone]]{{cite journal
|author=Ranjita Betarbet ''et al.''
|title=Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=3 | pages=1301–1306
|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n12/abs/nn1200_1301.html
}} (an insecticide), and specific organochlorine pesticides including dieldrin{{cite journal
|author=Masashi Kitazawaa, Vellareddy Anantharama and Anumantha G. Kanthasamy
|title=Dieldrin-induced oxidative stress and neurochemical changes contribute to apoptopic cell death in dopaminergic cells
|journal=[[Free Radical Biology and Medicine]] | year=2001 | volume=31 | issue=11 | pages=1473–1485
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T38-44HSN76-P&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2001&_alid=373422978&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4940&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a104ac89bd7948e14863371142a639a
}} and lindane.{{cite journal
|author=F.M. Corrigan, C.L. Wienburg, R.F. Shore, S.E. Daniel, D. Mann
|title=Organochlorine Insecticides in Substandia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A]] | year=2000 | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=229–234
|url=http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1087-2620&volume=59&issue=4&spage=229
}} Numerous studies have found an increase in Parkinson disease in persons who consume rural well water; researchers theorize that water consumption is a proxy measure of pesticide exposure. In agreement with this hypothesis are studies which have found a dose-dependent an increase in PD in persons exposed to agricultural chemicals.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids (medical)|cybrids]] have found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than nuclear DNA, is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may be the cause of the majority of PD cases.
However, the ubiquity of agricultural chemical exposures makes it difficult to gauge the true extent of the problem. In the current state of knowledge about the origins of the disease, it appears that family history of the disease and (especially) multiple episodes of head-trauma-induced unconsciousness increase individual risk more than does pesticide exposure, but research is continuing.","There are a number of toxins that may cause Parkinson's disease or cause symptoms mimicking Parkinson's disease. These include : Paraquat (herbicide), Rotenone (pesticide), Maneb (fungicide), Manganese, MPTP (drug by product), Toluene (solvent), N-hexane (solvent), Carbon disulfide (usually in solvents or pesticides), Carbon monoxide, Mercury, Cyanide, and Copper. [http://viartis.net/parkinsons.disease/toxic.causes.htm].","[1, 2, 4, 8]"
Hypnosis,Richard Bandler,68670005,2006-08-09T19:22:42Z,86.111.161.228,,"Co-founder of Neuro-Linguistic-Programming, Richard Bandler is the worlds best and renowned hypnotist after training with Milton Erikkson (of which their was notable dislike between them). Richard Bandler is most famed for his work at removing phobias within 2 minutes and the handshake interupt, a trance induction which uses the subconscious process of a handshake to induce a deep trance and proclaims to have never found a single person to be unhypnotisable.","[1, 5, 10]"
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,68798581,2006-08-10T11:29:21Z,Blah Blah Blah,"One theory holds that the disease may result in many or even most cases from the combination of a genetically determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with exposure to those toxins.{{cite journal
|author=DA Di Monte, M Lavasani, AB Manning-Bog
|title=Environmental factors in Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Neurotoxicology]] | year=2002 | volume=23 | issue=4–5 | pages=487–502
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12428721
}} This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population: rather, its incidence varies geographically. It would appear that incidence varies by time as well, for although the later stages of untreated PD are distinct and readily recognizable, the disease was not remarked upon until the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, and not long thereafter become a common observation in clinical practice. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and industrial metals. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in human beings and other animals, of any age. MPTP was notorious for a string of Parkinson's disease cases in California in 1982 when it contaminated the illicit production of the synthetic opiate [[MPPP]].
Other toxin-based models employ PCBs,{{cite news
|first=Leslie
|last=Orr
|title=PCBs, fungicide open brain cells to Parkinson's assault
|date=February 10, 2005
|publisher=[[Medical News Today]]
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=19791
}} [[paraquat]]{{cite journal
|author=Amy B. Manning-Bog ''et al.''
|title= The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice
|journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] | year=2002 | volume=277 | issue=3 | pages=1641–1644
|url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/3/1641
}} (a herbicide) in combination with maneb, a fungicide{{cite journal
|author=Mona Thiruchelvam ''et al.''
|title=The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=20 | issue=24 | pages=9207–9214
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9207
}} [[rotenone]]{{cite journal
|author=Ranjita Betarbet ''et al.''
|title=Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=3 | pages=1301–1306
|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n12/abs/nn1200_1301.html
}} (an insecticide), and specific organochlorine pesticides including dieldrin{{cite journal
|author=Masashi Kitazawaa, Vellareddy Anantharama and Anumantha G. Kanthasamy
|title=Dieldrin-induced oxidative stress and neurochemical changes contribute to apoptopic cell death in dopaminergic cells
|journal=[[Free Radical Biology and Medicine]] | year=2001 | volume=31 | issue=11 | pages=1473–1485
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T38-44HSN76-P&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2001&_alid=373422978&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4940&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a104ac89bd7948e14863371142a639a
}} and lindane.{{cite journal
|author=F.M. Corrigan, C.L. Wienburg, R.F. Shore, S.E. Daniel, D. Mann
|title=Organochlorine Insecticides in Substandia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A]] | year=2000 | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=229–234
|url=http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1087-2620&volume=59&issue=4&spage=229
}} Numerous studies have found an increase in Parkinson disease in persons who consume rural well water; researchers theorize that water consumption is a proxy measure of pesticide exposure. In agreement with this hypothesis are studies which have found a dose-dependent an increase in PD in persons exposed to agricultural chemicals.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids (medical)|cybrids]] have found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than nuclear DNA, is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may be the cause of the majority of PD cases.
However, the ubiquity of agricultural chemical exposures makes it difficult to gauge the true extent of the problem. In the current state of knowledge about the origins of the disease, it appears that family history of the disease and (especially) multiple episodes of head-trauma-induced unconsciousness increase individual risk more than does pesticide exposure, but research is continuing.","There are a number of toxins that may cause Parkinson's disease or cause symptoms mimicking Parkinson's disease. These include : Paraquat (herbicide), Rotenone (pesticide), Maneb (fungicide), Manganese, MPTP (drug by product), Toluene (solvent), N-hexane (solvent), Carbon disulfide (usually in solvents or pesticides), Carbon monoxide, Mercury, Cyanide, and Copper. [http://viartis.net/parkinsons.disease/toxic.causes.htm].","[1, 2, 4, 8]"
Parkinson's disease,Prognosis,68873010,2006-08-10T19:29:59Z,Fred Bauder,"in the late stages of the disease, PD may cause complications such as choking, pneumonia, and falls that can lead to death.
The progression of symptoms in PD may take 20 years or more. In some people, however, the disease progresses more quickly. There is no way to predict what course the disease will take for an individual person. One commonly used system for describing how the symptoms of PD progress is called the [[Hoehn and Yahr scale]].
Another commonly used scale is the [[Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale]] (UPDRS). This much more complicated scale has multiple ratings that measure mental functioning, behavior, and mood; activities of daily living; and motor function. Both the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the UPDRS are used to measure how individuals are faring and how much treatments are helping them.
With appropriate treatment, most people with PD can live productive lives for many years after diagnosis.","PD is not by itself a fatal disease, but it does get worse with time. The average life expectancy of a PD patient is generally the same as for people who do not have the disease{{fact}}. However, in the late stages of the disease, PD may cause complications such as choking, pneumonia, and falls that can lead to death.
The progression of symptoms in PD may take 20 years or more. In some people, however, the disease progresses more quickly. There is no way to predict what course the disease will take for an individual person. One commonly used system for describing how the symptoms of PD progress is called the [[Hoehn and Yahr scale]].
Another commonly used scale is the [http://www.parkinson.org/site/pp.asp?c=9dJFJLPwB&b=123510 Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale] (UPDRS). This much more complicated scale has multiple ratings that measure mental functioning, behavior, and mood; activities of daily living; and motor function. Both the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the UPDRS are used to measure how individuals are faring and how much treatments are helping them. It should be noted that neither scale is specific to Parkinson's Disease; that patients with other illnesses can score in the Parkinson's range.
With appropriate treatment, most people with PD can live productive lives for many years after diagnosis.",[1]
Circadian rhythm,See also,68970194,2006-08-11T06:12:10Z,Clayoquot,"*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]","*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]",[9]
Stem cell,Key events in stem cell research,69075106,2006-08-11T19:45:46Z,ThomWatson,"* '''1960s''' - [[Joseph Altman]] and Gopal Das present evidence of adult [[neurogenesis]], ongoing stem cell activity in the brain; their reports contradict [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]]'s ""no new neurons"" dogma and are largely ignored
* '''1963''' - [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] and [[James Till|Till]] illustrate the presence of self-renewing stem cells in mouse bone marrow
* '''1968''' - [[bone marrow]] [[transplant]] between two siblings successfully treats [[SCID]]
* '''1978''' - [[haematopoietic stem cell]]s are discovered in human [[cord blood]]
* '''1981''' - mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s are derived from the [[inner cell mass]]
* '''1992''' - neural stem cells are cultured ''[[in vitro]]'' as neurospheres
* '''1995''' - [[President]] [[Bill Clinton]] signs into law the [[Dickey Amendment]] which makes it illegal for Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.
* '''1997''' - leukemia is shown to originate from a haematopoietic stem cell, the first direct evidence for [[cancer stem cell]]s
* '''1998''' - [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] and coworkers derive the first human embryonic [[stem cell line]] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
* '''2000s''' - several reports of [[adult stem cell]] plasticity are published
* '''2004-2005''' - [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] claims to have created several human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines from unfertilised human [[oocyte]]s. The lines are later shown to be fabricated
* '''2006''' - [[Pasteur Institute]] scientists provide evidence that muscle stem cells might retain both template DNA strands during cell division, resulting in conservative rather than [[semiconservative replication|semiconservative DNA replication]].{{cite journal| author=Shinin V, Gayraud-Morel B, Gomes D and Tajbakhsh S | year=2006 | title=Asymmetric division and cosegregation of template DNA strands in adult muscle satellite cells | journal= Nat Cell Biol | volume=8 | issue=7 | page=677-682}} {{Entrez Pubmed|16799552}}
* '''July 19, 2006''' - [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] vetoed a bill which would have allowed Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.","* '''1960s''' - [[Joseph Altman]] and Gopal Das present evidence of adult [[neurogenesis]], ongoing stem cell activity in the brain; their reports contradict [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]]'s ""no new neurons"" dogma and are largely ignored
* '''1963''' - [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] and [[James Till|Till]] illustrate the presence of self-renewing stem cells in mouse bone marrow
* '''1968''' - [[bone marrow]] [[transplant]] between two siblings successfully treats [[SCID]]
* '''1978''' - [[haematopoietic stem cell]]s are discovered in human [[cord blood]]
* '''1981''' - mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s are derived from the [[inner cell mass]]; [[UCSF]]'s [[Gail Martin]] co-discovers [[embryonic stem cell]]s in mice, and coins the term ''[[embryonic stem cell]]''.
* '''1992''' - neural stem cells are cultured ''[[in vitro]]'' as neurospheres
* '''1995''' - [[President]] [[Bill Clinton]] signs into law the [[Dickey Amendment]] which makes it illegal for Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.
* '''1997''' - leukemia is shown to originate from a haematopoietic stem cell, the first direct evidence for [[cancer stem cell]]s
* '''1998''' - [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] and coworkers derive the first human embryonic [[stem cell line]] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
* '''1999''' - [[UCSF]] scientists carry out first studies of [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], or [[therapeutic cloning]], at a US university.
* '''2000s''' - several reports of [[adult stem cell]] plasticity are published
* '''2001''' - [[UCSF]] scientists isolate human [[embryonic stem cell]]s.
* '''August 9, 2001''' - [[UCSF]] and University of Wisconsin's human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines qualify for inclusion in [[National Institutes of Health]] Stem Cell Registry, established by President George W. Bush.
* '''2002''' - [[UCSF]] begins shipping two human embryonic stem cell lines to labs around the world for study.
* '''2004-2005''' - [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] claims to have created several human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines from unfertilised human [[oocyte]]s. The lines are later shown to be fabricated
* '''2004''' - [[UCSF]] researchers report identification of human adult stem cells in the brain that potentially could be used to develop strategies for regenerating damaged brain tissue, and could offer insight into the most common type of brain tumor.
* '''November 2, 2004''' - California voters vote to support [[Proposition 71]], designating $3 billion for stem cell research over 10 years.
* '''2005''' - [[UCSF]] scientists report isolation of new lines of human [[embryonic stem cell]]s, using techniques that make them less likely to carry animal diseases and, therefore, better potential candidates for transplantation into patients.
* '''2006''' - [[Pasteur Institute]] scientists provide evidence that muscle stem cells might retain both template DNA strands during cell division, resulting in conservative rather than [[semiconservative replication|semiconservative DNA replication]].{{cite journal| author=Shinin V, Gayraud-Morel B, Gomes D and Tajbakhsh S | year=2006 | title=Asymmetric division and cosegregation of template DNA strands in adult muscle satellite cells | journal= Nat Cell Biol | volume=8 | issue=7 | page=677-682}} {{Entrez Pubmed|16799552}}
* '''July 19, 2006''' - [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] vetoed a bill which would have allowed Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
DNA sequencing,Chemical sequencing,69338247,2006-08-13T05:16:37Z,George Church,,"In 1976-7, Allan Maxam and [[Walter Gilbert]] developed a method of DNA sequencing based on chemical modification of DNA followed by its subsequent cleavage [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=265521].
This method supplemented earlier RNA sequencing approaches and was initially popular since purified DNA could be used directly, while alternative methods (below) required that each DNA to be read be cloned first production of single-stranded DNA. While chemical sequencing has presented difficulties with scale-up, especially in the need for hazardous chemicals, it played a key role in the first multiplex sequencing which has proven a versatile and scaleable concept. Chemical sequencing methods originated in the study of DNA-protein interactions (footprinting), nucleic acid structure and epigenetic modifications to DNA, and those remain as important applications.","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
Alzheimer's disease,Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors,70551496,2006-08-19T07:15:40Z,Ipeltan,"[[Acetylcholinesterase]] (AChE) inhibition was thought to be important because there is a reduction in activity of the [[cholinergic]] neurons. AChE-inhibitors reduce the rate at which acetylcholine (ACh) is broken down and hence increase the concentration of ACh in the brain (combatting the loss of ACh caused by the death of the cholinergin neurons). Acetylcholinesterase-inhibitors seemed to modestly moderate symptoms but do not prevent disease progression including cell death.
Examples include:
* [[tacrine]] - no longer clinically used
* [[donepezil]] - (marketed as Aricept)
* [[galantamine]] - (marketed as Razadyne, formerly Reminyl)
* [[rivastigmine]] - (marketed as Exelon)
[[As of 2004|Recently]], a controversy has erupted about cholinesterase inhibitors because a study in the respected medical journal [[The Lancet]] has suggested they are ineffective.Courtney C, Farrell D, Gray R, Hills R, Lynch L, Sellwood E, Edwards S, Hardyman W, Raftery J, Crome P, Lendon C, Shaw H, Bentham P; AD2000 Collaborative Group. ''Long-term donepezil treatment in 565 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD2000): randomised double-blind trial.'' [[The Lancet|Lancet]] 2004;363:2105-15. PMID 15220031 The pharmaceutical companies, but also many independent clinicians, dispute the findings of the study, based on methodologic grounds.","[[Acetylcholinesterase]] (AChE) inhibition was thought to be important because there is a reduction in activity of the [[cholinergic]] neurons. AChE-inhibitors reduce the rate at which acetylcholine (ACh) is broken down and hence increase the concentration of ACh in the brain (combatting the loss of ACh caused by the death of the cholinergin neurons). Acetylcholinesterase-inhibitors seemed to modestly moderate symptoms but do not prevent disease progression including cell death.
Examples include:
* [[tacrine]] - no longer clinically used
* [[donepezil]] - (marketed as Aricept)
* [[galantamine]] - (marketed as Razadyne, formerly Reminyl)
* [[rivastigmine]] - (marketed as Exelon)
[[As of 2004|Recently]], a controversy has erupted about cholinesterase inhibitors because a study in the respected medical journal [[The Lancet]] has suggested they are ineffective.Courtney C, Farrell D, Gray R, Hills R, Lynch L, Sellwood E, Edwards S, Hardyman W, Raftery J, Crome P, Lendon C, Shaw H, Bentham P; AD2000 Collaborative Group. ''Long-term donepezil treatment in 565 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD2000): randomised double-blind trial.'' [[The Lancet|Lancet]] 2004;363:2105-15. PMID 15220031 The pharmaceutical companies, but also many independent clinicians, dispute the findings of the study, based on methodologic grounds. A [[transdermal patch]] is under development that may ease administration of rivastigmine.[http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=47681 Exelon Patch, The First Transdermal Therapy For Alzheimer's Disease, May Provide Promising New Approach To Treatment Of Dementia]","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,71014452,2006-08-21T19:08:26Z,160.94.59.2,"*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]","*[http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Laboratory] [[Franz Halberg]] coined the word ''circadian''.
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]","[1, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),71014675,2006-08-21T19:09:35Z,160.94.59.2,"A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimuli. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]], comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that twenty four hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when isolated from external stimuli. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[1, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,71014939,2006-08-21T19:11:00Z,160.94.59.2,"*[http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center] [[Franz Halberg]] coined the word ''circadian''.
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]","*[http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center] [[Franz Halberg]] coined the word ''circadian''.
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2006/01/18/darkness_unveils_vital_metabolic_fuel_switch_between_sugar_and_fat.html Texas study on darkness' influence on fat metabolization]
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]",[11]
Genetically modified food,Safety assurance and benefits,71331502,2006-08-23T06:35:09Z,128.250.240.48,"By 2006, well over 100 scientific publications had reported on the nutritional value of animals feeds (and food) derived from genetically modified crops as compared to their conventional counterparts. These studies also followed the fates of DNA and novel proteins after ingestion by animals, and more recently, provided comprehensive fingerprinting of protein profiles (which is usually called a proteomics approach [http://www.isb.vt.edu/news/2006/news06.jan.htm#jan0603] ) or comprehensive fingerprinting of metabolites (known as a metabolomics approach [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/109745858/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0] ) where GM crops compared to their non-GM counterparts.
Scientific reviews of this research [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(0j02uw555pkzfi45al1hxovb)/app/home/contribution.asp?][http://www.aspajournal.it/archivio/pdf_2004/2_2004/articolo-01.pdf] have concentrated so far on the first generation of genetically modified plants, with no intended gross changes in composition. These reviews find that with the first generation of genetically modified crops, there are no significant differences in feed or nutritional value as compared to nutritional performance of the corresponding conventional crop, and that no residues of recombinant DNA or novel proteins are found in any organ or tissue sample obtained from animals fed modified materials.
Comprehensive chemical fingerprinting of GM potatoes and comparison with conventional potato varieties has shown that, apart from intended changes in food composition, the GM potatoes appeared to be substantially equivalent to traditional cultivars [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/40/14458]. Other detailed comparisons of GM and conventional pototoes using protein fingerprinting (2006 [http://www.isb.vt.edu/news/2006/news06.jan.htm#jan0603])) detected a great deal of variation in protein profiles of different potato varieties, but found considerably fewer differences due to insertion of a new trait by genetic engineering than detected by a survey of different non-GM strains of potato.
Mycotoxins are chemicals made by molds that are detrimental to human health. Many different mycotoxins are produced by fungi such as ''Aspergillus'' or ''Fusarium'' species that grow on plants. Some of these chemicals cause liver damage, or cancer, and in the case of fumonisin, the mycotoxin produced by certain ''Fusarium'' fungal species that are natural colonizers of maize, severe human birth defects and throat cancer are caused in humans by ingestion of contaminated maize as food.
Fungal growth on maize is promoted by moisture, climatic factors, and most notably, insect predation. Several reports demonstrate that insect protected GM maize can have lower mycotoxin levels due to reduced insect damage to the crop. World-wide trade losses from mycotoxin presence in maize are hundreds of millions $US annually, with the United States, China, and Argentina suffering the greatest losses. The reduction of mycotoxins provided by Bt corn has been estimated to provide the United States alone a total benefit of $23 million annually. ( Discussed fully by Felicia Wu, University of Pittsburgh, in Transgenic Research (2006) 15:277–289 ).","By 2006, well over 100 scientific publications had reported on the nutritional value of animals feeds (and food) derived from genetically modified crops as compared to their conventional counterparts. These studies also followed the fates of DNA and novel proteins after ingestion by animals, and more recently, provided comprehensive fingerprinting of protein profiles (which is usually called a proteomics approach [http://www.isb.vt.edu/news/2006/news06.jan.htm#jan0603] ) or comprehensive fingerprinting of metabolites (known as a metabolomics approach [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/109745858/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0] ) where GM crops compared to their non-GM counterparts.
Scientific reviews of this research [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(0j02uw555pkzfi45al1hxovb)/app/home/contribution.asp?][http://www.aspajournal.it/archivio/pdf_2004/2_2004/articolo-01.pdf] have concentrated so far on the first generation of genetically modified plants, with no intended gross changes in composition. These reviews find that with the first generation of genetically modified crops, there are no significant differences in feed or nutritional value as compared to nutritional performance of the corresponding conventional crop, and that no residues of recombinant DNA or novel proteins are found in any organ or tissue sample obtained from animals fed modified materials.
Comprehensive chemical fingerprinting of GM potatoes in comparison with conventional potato varieties has shown that, apart from the intended changes in food composition, the GM potatoes appeared to be substantially equivalent to traditional cultivars [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/40/14458]. Other detailed comparisons of detailed protein profiles of both GM and conventional pototoes [http://www.isb.vt.edu/news/2006/news06.jan.htm#jan0603])) detected a great deal of variation in protein profiles of different conventonally potato varieties, but found considerably fewer differences in protein profile due to insertion of a new trait by genetic engineering.
Mycotoxins are chemicals made by molds that are detrimental to human health. Many different mycotoxins are produced by fungi such as ''Aspergillus'' or ''Fusarium'' species that grow on plants. Some of these chemicals cause liver damage, or cancer, and in the case of fumonisin, the mycotoxin produced by certain ''Fusarium'' fungal species that are natural colonizers of maize, severe human birth defects and throat cancer are caused in humans by ingestion of contaminated maize as food.
Fungal growth on maize is promoted by moisture, climatic factors, and most notably, insect predation. Several reports demonstrate that insect protected GM maize can have lower mycotoxin levels due to reduced insect damage to the crop. World-wide trade losses from mycotoxin presence in maize are hundreds of millions $US annually, with the United States, China, and Argentina suffering the greatest losses. The reduction of mycotoxins provided by Bt corn has been estimated to provide the United States alone a total benefit of $23 million annually. ( Discussed fully by Felicia Wu, University of Pittsburgh, in Transgenic Research (2006) 15:277–289 ).","[2, 3]"
Prion,Dissent,72184291,2006-08-27T13:23:39Z,203.214.90.205,"Mark Purdy and Doctor David R. Brown have suggested that metal ion interactions with prion protein might be relevant to progression of prion-mediated disease.[http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf 2000-09-22, Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry] Purdy cites epidemiological studies of clusters of prion disease in locales with low soil concentrations of copper as evidence.","Mark Purdy and Doctor David R. Brown have suggested that metal ion interactions with prion protein might be relevant to progression of prion-mediated disease.[http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf 2000-09-22, Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry] Purdy cites epidemiological studies of clusters of prion disease in locales with low soil concentrations of copper as evidence.
This isnt dissent per se. It's merely an alternative model for the initial aquisition of Prion related diseases. Its relevance and specificity to bovines is questionable and possible it is more relevant to murine disease aquisition. How it relates to the BSE epidemic is hard to fathom, it certainly may play a role in disease aquisition, however, the plague like transmission is overwhelmingly attributed to the consumption of infectious material. To title this section dissent is kind of baffling as there are many other occurences which result in the initial incidence of the disease, but, none of these account of the aformentioned epidemic. Furthermore, the models which do explain PrP formation biochemical models are just that, biochemical models, proven in a laboratory. They certainly are not epidemiological studies used to build models in the absence of experimental work.","[1, 4]"
Down syndrome,History,72341132,2006-08-28T06:46:55Z,Fastifex,"{{main|History of Down syndrome}}
English physician [[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental retardation in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866 entitled ""Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots"".{{cite journal| author=Down, J.L.H.| year=1866| title=Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots| journal=Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital| volume=3| pages=259-262| url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/down.html| accessdate=2006-07-14}} For a history of the disorder, see {{cite web| last=Conor| first=Ward |url =http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm| title =John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828 - 1896)| accessdate =2006-06-02}} Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities ([[epicanthal fold]]s) with those of [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach's Mongolian race]], Down used the terms ''mongolism'' and ''mongolian idiocy''.{{cite journal | Author =Conor, W.O.| year =1999| title =John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message| journal =Down Syndrome Research and Practice| volume =6| issue =1| pages =19-24| url =http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm| accessdate =2006-06-02}} [[Idiot|Idiocy]] was a medical term used at that time to refer to a severe degree of intellectual impairment. Down wrote that monoglism represented ""retrogression,"" the appearance of Mongoloid traits in the children of allegedly more advanced Caucasian parents.
By the 20th century, ""mongolian idiocy"" had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most people with it were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]]. Few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the [[eugenics]] movement, a number of states (33 of the 48 United States) and countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the [[Germany|German]] [[euthanasia]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|""Aktion T-4""]] begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion at the nature of these programs led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after World War II. Even voluntary institutionalization of children with Down syndrome has become rare in Western countries.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown, although the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was due to a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. There was some expert opinion that it might result from trauma occurring during pregnancy.{{cite book| author=Warkany, J.| title=Congenital Malformations| location=Chicago| publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc| date=1971| pages=313-314| id=ISBN 0-8151-9098-0}}
With the discovery of [[karyotype]] techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify the obvious abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, [[Jérôme Lejeune|Professor Jérôme Lejeune]] discovered that Down's syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.{{cite web|url=http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp |title=Jérôme Lejeune Foundation|accessdate=2006-06-02}} The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
In 1961, a group of nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that ''mongolian idiocy'' had ""misleading connotations,"" had become ""an embarrassing term"" and should be changed.{{cite journal| author=Allen, Gordon, C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet| year=1961| title=Mongolism (Correspondence)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=775| volume=1| issue=7180}} ''The Lancet'' supported ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) officially dropped references to ''mongolism'' in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones |first=Norman| date=1979 |title=On the diagnostic term ""Down's disease""| journal=Medical History |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=102-104 |id=PMID 153994}}
In 1975, the United States [[National Institute of Health]] convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: ""The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.""A planning meeting was held on 20 March 1974, resulting in a letter to ''The Lancet''.{{cite journal| year=1974| title=Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=798| volume=303| issue=7861}} The conference was held 10-11 February 1975, and reported to ''The Lancet'' shortly afterward, {{cite journal| year=1975| title=Classification and nomenclature of morphological defects (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=513| volume=305| issue=7905}} While both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, Canada and other countries, while Down's syndrome continues to be used in the United Kingdom and other areas.{{cite web|last=Leshin |first=Len| date=2003 |url=http://www.ds-health.com/name.htm |title=What's in a name|accessdate=2006-05-12}}","{{main|History of Down syndrome}}
English physician [[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental retardation in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866 entitled ""Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots"".{{cite journal| author=Down, J.L.H.| year=1866| title=Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots| journal=Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital| volume=3| pages=259-262| url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/down.html| accessdate=2006-07-14}} For a history of the disorder, see {{cite web| last=Conor| first=Ward |url =http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm| title =John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828 - 1896)| accessdate =2006-06-02}} Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities ([[epicanthal fold]]s) with those of [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach's Mongolian race]], Down used the terms ''mongolism'' and ''mongolian idiocy''.{{cite journal | Author =Conor, W.O.| year =1999| title =John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message| journal =Down Syndrome Research and Practice| volume =6| issue =1| pages =19-24| url =http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm| accessdate =2006-06-02}}, another variation being ''Mongoloid idiot'' [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1:28311759/Mongolian+(or+Mongoloid)+idiot.html?refid=ency_botnm] [[Idiot|Idiocy]] was a medical term used at that time to refer to a severe degree of intellectual impairment. Down wrote that monoglism represented ""retrogression,"" the appearance of Mongoloid traits in the children of allegedly more advanced Caucasian parents.
By the 20th century, ""mongolian idiocy"" had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most people with it were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]]. Few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the [[eugenics]] movement, a number of states (33 of the 48 United States) and countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the [[Germany|German]] [[euthanasia]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|""Aktion T-4""]] begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion at the nature of these programs led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after World War II. Even voluntary institutionalization of children with Down syndrome has become rare in Western countries.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown, although the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was due to a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. There was some expert opinion that it might result from trauma occurring during pregnancy.{{cite book| author=Warkany, J.| title=Congenital Malformations| location=Chicago| publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc| date=1971| pages=313-314| id=ISBN 0-8151-9098-0}}
With the discovery of [[karyotype]] techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify the obvious abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, [[Jérôme Lejeune|Professor Jérôme Lejeune]] discovered that Down's syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.{{cite web|url=http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp |title=Jérôme Lejeune Foundation|accessdate=2006-06-02}} The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
In 1961, a group of nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that ''mongolian idiocy'' had ""misleading connotations,"" had become ""an embarrassing term"" and should be changed.{{cite journal| author=Allen, Gordon, C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet| year=1961| title=Mongolism (Correspondence)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=775| volume=1| issue=7180}} ''The Lancet'' supported ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) officially dropped references to ''mongolism'' in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones |first=Norman| date=1979 |title=On the diagnostic term ""Down's disease""| journal=Medical History |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=102-104 |id=PMID 153994}}
In 1975, the United States [[National Institute of Health]] convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: ""The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.""A planning meeting was held on 20 March 1974, resulting in a letter to ''The Lancet''.{{cite journal| year=1974| title=Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=798| volume=303| issue=7861}} The conference was held 10-11 February 1975, and reported to ''The Lancet'' shortly afterward, {{cite journal| year=1975| title=Classification and nomenclature of morphological defects (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=513| volume=305| issue=7905}} While both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, Canada and other countries, while Down's syndrome continues to be used in the United Kingdom and other areas.{{cite web|last=Leshin |first=Len| date=2003 |url=http://www.ds-health.com/name.htm |title=What's in a name|accessdate=2006-05-12}}",[11]
Prion,External links,74066268,2006-09-06T03:20:10Z,Drdaveng,"*[http://www.mad-cow-facts.com Mad Cow Disease] Information from the Center for Global Food Issues.
*[http://www.madcowering.com Madcowering] A BSE-TSE blog.
*[http://thepathologicalprotein.com/ The Pathological Protein - Mad Cow, Chronic Wasting, and Other Deadly Prion Diseases] (2003, updated online 2005). Philip Yam, [[Scientific American]] magazine writer and News Editor.
*[http://www-micro.msb.le.ac.uk/3035/prions.html Prion Diseases] (2003). Dr. Sean Heaphy, Leicester University.
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/prusiner/245.shl Prion Diseases and the BSE Crisis] (1997). Article from Science magazine by Stanley Prusiner, discoverer of prions.
*[http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/481_90.html Britannica Nobel: prion, 1997]
*ICTVdb [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/90.001.0.01.htm 90.001.0.01. Mammalian Prions]
*[http://www.mad-cow.org/ Official Mad Cow Disease Home Page.]
*[http://organicconsumers.org/madcow.htm News & Views on Mad Cow Disease, Mad Deer Disease, Chronic Wasting Disease, and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]
*[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/prusiner-autobio.html Biography of Dr Prusiner]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050514111648.htm Science Daily article on a vaccine for prion diseases]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/09/030917074003.htm Science Daily article on transmission of prions through soil]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Proteins]]
[[Category:Prions|*]]
[[bg:Прион]]
[[cs:Prion]]
[[de:Prion]]
[[et:Prioonid]]
[[es:Prión]]
[[eo:Priono]]
[[fr:Prion (protéine)]]
[[gl:Prión]]
[[ko:프리온]]
[[ia:Prion]]
[[it:Prione]]
[[he:פריון]]
[[lt:Prionas]]
[[hu:Prion]]
[[nl:Prion]]
[[ja:プリオン]]
[[pl:Prion]]
[[pt:Príon]]
[[ru:Прионы]]
[[sk:Prión]]
[[sr:Приони]]
[[fi:Prioni]]
[[sv:Prion]]
[[zh:朊毒體]]","*[http://www.mad-cow-facts.com Mad Cow Disease] Information from the Center for Global Food Issues.
*[http://www.madcowering.com Madcowering] A BSE-TSE blog.
*[http://thepathologicalprotein.com/ The Pathological Protein - Mad Cow, Chronic Wasting, and Other Deadly Prion Diseases] (2003, updated online 2005). Philip Yam, [[Scientific American]] magazine writer and News Editor.
*[http://www-micro.msb.le.ac.uk/3035/prions.html Prion Diseases] (2003). Dr. Sean Heaphy, Leicester University.
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/prusiner/245.shl Prion Diseases and the BSE Crisis] (1997). Article from Science magazine by Stanley Prusiner, discoverer of prions.
*[http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/481_90.html Britannica Nobel: prion, 1997]
*ICTVdb [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/90.001.0.01.htm 90.001.0.01. Mammalian Prions]
*[http://www.mad-cow.org/ Official Mad Cow Disease Home Page.]
*[http://organicconsumers.org/madcow.htm News & Views on Mad Cow Disease, Mad Deer Disease, Chronic Wasting Disease, and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]
*[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/prusiner-autobio.html Biography of Dr Prusiner]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050514111648.htm Science Daily article on a vaccine for prion diseases]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/09/030917074003.htm Science Daily article on transmission of prions through soil]
*[http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=435 A good overview of prion biology from the Science Creative Quarterly]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Proteins]]
[[Category:Prions|*]]
[[bg:Прион]]
[[cs:Prion]]
[[de:Prion]]
[[et:Prioonid]]
[[es:Prión]]
[[eo:Priono]]
[[fr:Prion (protéine)]]
[[gl:Prión]]
[[ko:프리온]]
[[ia:Prion]]
[[it:Prione]]
[[he:פריון]]
[[lt:Prionas]]
[[hu:Prion]]
[[nl:Prion]]
[[ja:プリオン]]
[[pl:Prion]]
[[pt:Príon]]
[[ru:Прионы]]
[[sk:Prión]]
[[sr:Приони]]
[[fi:Prioni]]
[[sv:Prion]]
[[zh:朊毒體]]",[11]
Dream,The expectation fulfillment theory of dreams,74489473,2006-09-08T08:16:04Z,Conserrnd,"{{ExpertVerify|July 2006}}
Psychologist [[Joe Griffin]], one of the founders of [[human givens]] psychology, has put forward an explanation for why humans dream: The expectation fulfillment theory of dreaming. He reviewed all the available scientific evidence and conducted a 12 year program of research that showed that all dreams are expressed in the form of sensory metaphors.{{cite book
| last = Griffin
| first = J.
| year = 1997
| title = The Origin of Dreams: How and why we evolved to dream
| publisher = The Therapist Ltd
}}{{cite book
| last = Griffin
| first = J.
= Tyrrell, I.
| year = 2004
| title = Dreaming Reality: How dreaming keeps us sane or can drive us mad
| publisher HG Publishing
}} Interviewed by ''New Scientist'' he explained how his findings ""show that ordinarily dream sleep does a great housekeeping job for us. Each night it brings down our autonomic arousal level. Dreams are metaphorical translations of those waking introspections – emotionally arousing feelings and thoughts – that we don’t act upon while we are awake. Once aroused, our brain has to complete that cycle of arousal and, if we don’t complete it in the external world, we do so in our dream sleep. The patterns of arousal are metaphorically acted out and thereby deactivated."" (''New Scientist.'' April 12th pp44-47)
Research by [[Michel Jouvet]] indicated that instinctive behaviours are programmed during the REM state in the foetus and the neonate. This is necessarily in the form of incomplete templates for which the animal later identifies analogous sensory components in the real world. These analogical templates give animals the ability to respond to the environment in a flexible way and generate the ability to learn, rather than just react.{{cite book
| last = Jouvet
| first = M.
| year = 1978
| title = Does a genetic programming of the brain occur during paradoxical sleep? Cerebral Corrlates of Conscious Experience
| publisher = Elsevier
}}
Griffin pointed out that one can see this process when, for example, a baby seeks out and sucks on anything similar – analogous to – a nipple, like a finger or rubber teat. Once an instinct-driven pattern is activated and becomes an expectation, it can normally only be deactivated by the actual carrying out of the programmed behaviour by the central nervous system, and this clearly does not give animals the flexibility needed to survive.
""Letting off steam"" usually dissipates anger, but if animals were to act out their emotions instantly every time they were emotionally aroused, that would be disastrous. So animals needed to evolve the ability to inhibit arousals when necessary and deactivate them later when they could do no harm. Griffin hypothesized that that is why animals evolved to dream. During REM sleep, unfulfilled emotional expectations left over from the day are run out in the form of metaphors, thus deactivating them and freeing up the brain to deal with the new emotionally arousing events of the following day. Without dreams fulfilling animals' expectations by acting them out metaphorically, and thereby dearousing the autonomic nervous system, animals would need a vastly bigger brain.
Griffin's expectation fulfilment theory of dreams states that:
# Dreams are metaphorical translations of waking expectations.
# Expectations which cause emotional arousal that is not acted upon during the day to dearouse the arousal, become dreams during sleep.
# Dreaming deactivates that emotional arousal by completing the expectation pattern metaphorically, freeing the brain to respond afresh to each new day.
[[Arthur J. Deikman]] M. D., Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, University of California, described Griffin's theory as ""A wonderfully fresh and stimulating view of dreaming, evolution and human functioning.""{{cite book
| last = Griffin,
| first = J.
coauthor = Tyrrell, I.
| year = 2003
| title = Human Givens: A new approach to emotional health and clear thinking
HG Publishing
}}","{{ExpertVerify|July 2006}}
Psychologist [[Joe Griffin]], one of the founders of [[human givens]] psychology, has put forward an explanation for why humans dream: The expectation fulfillment theory of dreaming. He reviewed all the available scientific evidence and conducted a 12 year program of research that showed that all dreams are expressed in the form of sensory metaphors.{{cite book
| last = Griffin
| first = J.
| year = 1997
| title = The Origin of Dreams: How and why we evolved to dream
| publisher = The Therapist Ltd
}}{{cite book
| last = Griffin
| first = J.
= Tyrrell, I.
| year = 2004
| title = Dreaming Reality: How dreaming keeps us sane or can drive us mad
| publisher HG Publishing
}} Interviewed by ''New Scientist'' he explained how his findings ""show that ordinarily dream sleep does a great housekeeping job for us. Each night it brings down our autonomic arousal level. Dreams are metaphorical translations of those waking introspections – emotionally arousing feelings and thoughts – that we don’t act upon while we are awake. Once aroused, our brain has to complete that cycle of arousal and, if we don’t complete it in the external world, we do so in our dream sleep. The patterns of arousal are metaphorically acted out and thereby deactivated."" (''New Scientist.'' April 12th pp44-47)
Research by [[Michel Jouvet]] indicated that instinctive behaviors are programmed during the REM state in the fetus and the neonate. This is necessarily in the form of incomplete templates for which the animal later identifies analogous sensory components in the real world. These analogical templates give animals the ability to respond to the environment in a flexible way and generate the ability to learn, rather than just react.{{cite book
| last = Jouvet
| first = M.
| year = 1978
| title = Does a genetic programming of the brain occur during paradoxical sleep? Cerebral Corrlates of Conscious Experience
| publisher = Elsevier
}}
Griffin pointed out that one can see this process when, for example, a baby seeks out and sucks on anything similar – analogous to – a nipple, like a finger or rubber teat. Once an instinct-driven pattern is activated and becomes an expectation, it can normally only be deactivated by the actual carrying out of the programmed behavior by the central nervous system, and this clearly does not give animals the flexibility needed to survive.
""Letting off steam"" usually dissipates anger, but if animals were to act out their emotions instantly every time they were emotionally aroused, that would be disastrous. So animals needed to evolve the ability to inhibit arousals when necessary and deactivate them later when they could do no harm. Griffin hypothesized that that is why animals evolved to dream. During REM sleep, unfulfilled emotional expectations left over from the day are run out in the form of metaphors, thus deactivating them and freeing up the brain to deal with the new emotionally arousing events of the following day. Without dreams fulfilling animals' expectations by acting them out metaphorically, and thereby quelling the autonomic nervous system, animals would need a vastly bigger brain.
Griffin's expectation fulfillment theory of dreams states that:
# Dreams are metaphorical translations of waking expectations.
# Expectations which cause emotional arousal that is not acted upon during the day to quell the arousal, become dreams during sleep.
# Dreaming deactivates that emotional arousal by completing the expectation pattern metaphorically, freeing the brain to respond afresh to each new day.
[[Arthur J. Deikman]] M. D., Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, University of California, described Griffin's theory as ""A wonderfully fresh and stimulating view of dreaming, evolution and human functioning.""{{cite book
| last = Griffin,
| first = J.
coauthor = Tyrrell, I.
| year = 2003
| title = Human Givens: A new approach to emotional health and clear thinking
HG Publishing
}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Notes,74529190,2006-09-08T14:27:18Z,193.50.67.62,"
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]","
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Motor symptoms,74748390,2006-09-09T17:49:26Z,209.56.60.2,"The [[cardinal symptom]]s are:
*''[[tremor]]'': normally 4-7[[Hertz|Hz]] tremor, maximal when the limb is at rest, and decreased with voluntary movement. It is typically unilateral at onset. This is the most apparent and well-known symptom. However, an estimated 30% of patients have little perceptible tremor; these are classified as akinetic-rigid.
*''[[spasticity|rigidity]]'': stiffness; increased muscle tone. In combination with a resting tremor, this produces a ratchety, ""[[cogwheel]]"" rigidity when the limb is passively moved.
*''[[bradykinesia]]/[[akinesia]]'': respectively, slowness or absence of movement. Rapid, repetitive movements produce a [[rhythm|dysrhythmic]] and decremental loss of [[amplitude]].
*''[[postural instability]]'': failure of postural [[reflexes]], which leads to impaired balance and falls.
Other motor symptoms include:
*[[Gait]] and posture disturbances:
**Shuffling: gait is characterized by short steps, with feet barely leaving the ground, producing an audible shuffling noise. Small obstacles tend to trip the patient
**Decreased arm swing: a form of bradykinesia
**Turning ""en bloc"": rather than the usual twisting of the neck and trunk and pivoting on the toes, PD patients keep their neck and trunk rigid, requiring multiple small steps to accomplish a turn.
**Stooped, forward-flexed posture. In severe forms, the head and upper shoulders may be bent at a [[right angle]] relative to the trunk ([[camptocormia]]).
**Festination: a combination of stooped posture, imbalance, and short steps. It leads to a gait that gets progressively faster and faster, often ending in a fall.
**Gait freezing: ""freezing"" is another word for akinesia, the inability to move. Gait freezing is characterized by inability to move the feet, especially in tight, cluttered spaces or when initiating gait.
**[[Dystonia]] (in about 20% of cases): abnormal, sustained, painful twisting muscle contractions, usually affecting the foot and ankle in PD patients. This causes toe flexion and foot inversion, interfering with gait.
*Speech and swallowing disturbances
**Hypophonia: soft speech. Speech quality tends to be soft, hoarse, and monotonous.
**Festinating speech: excessively rapid, soft, poorly-intelligible speech.
**[[Drooling]]: most likely caused by a weak, infrequent swallow and stooped posture.
**Non-motor causes of speech/language disturbance in both expressive and receptive language: these include decreased verbal fluency and cognitive disturbance especially related to comprehension of emotional content of speech and of facial expression{{cite journal | author = Pell M | title = On the receptive prosodic loss in Parkinson's disease. | journal = Cortex | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 693-704 | year = 1996 | id = PMID 8954247}}
**[[Dysphagia]]: impaired ability to swallow. Can lead to [[aspiration]], [[pneumonia]], and ultimately death.
*Other motor symptoms:
**[[fatigue]] (up to 50% of cases);
**masked facies (a mask-like face also known as [[hypomimia]]), with infrequent [[blinking]];{{cite journal |author=Günther Deuschl, Christof Goddemeier | title=Spontaneous and reflex activity of facial muscles in dystonia, Parkinson's disease, and in normal subjects | journal=[[Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry]] | year=1998 | volume=64 | issue=March | pages= 320–324 | url=http://jnnp.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/64/3/320}}
**difficulty rolling in bed or rising from a seated position;
**[[micrographia (handwriting)|micrographia]] (small, cramped handwriting);
**impaired fine motor dexterity and coordination;
**impaired gross motor coordination;
**Poverty of movement: overall loss of accessory movements, such as decreased arm swing when walking, as well as spontaneous movement.","The [[cardinal symptom]]s are:
*''[[tremor]]'': normally 4-7[[Hertz|Hz]] tremor, maximal when the limb is at rest, and decreased with voluntary movement. It is typically unilateral at onset. This is the most apparent and well-known symptom. However, an estimated 30% of patients have little perceptible tremor; these are classified as akinetic-rigid.
*''[[spasticity|rigidity]]'': stiffness; increased muscle tone. In combination with a resting tremor, this produces a ratchety, ""[[cogwheel]]"" rigidity when the limb is passively moved.
*''[[bradykinesia]]/[[akinesia]]'': respectively, slowness or absence of movement. Rapid, repetitive movements produce a [[rhythm|dysrhythmic]] and decremental loss of [[amplitude]]. Also ""dysdiadokinesia"", now more usually simple described as the loss of ability to perform rapid ''alternating'' movements
*''[[postural instability]]'': failure of postural [[reflexes]], which leads to impaired balance and falls.
Other motor symptoms include:
*[[Gait]] and posture disturbances:
**Shuffling: gait is characterized by short steps, with feet barely leaving the ground, producing an audible shuffling noise. Small obstacles tend to trip the patient
**Decreased arm swing: a form of bradykinesia
**Turning ""en bloc"": rather than the usual twisting of the neck and trunk and pivoting on the toes, PD patients keep their neck and trunk rigid, requiring multiple small steps to accomplish a turn.
**Stooped, forward-flexed posture. In severe forms, the head and upper shoulders may be bent at a [[right angle]] relative to the trunk ([[camptocormia]]).
**Festination: a combination of stooped posture, imbalance, and short steps. It leads to a gait that gets progressively faster and faster, often ending in a fall.
**Gait freezing: ""freezing"" is another word for akinesia, the inability to move. Gait freezing is characterized by inability to move the feet, especially in tight, cluttered spaces or when initiating gait.
**[[Dystonia]] (in about 20% of cases): abnormal, sustained, painful twisting muscle contractions, usually affecting the foot and ankle, characterized by toe flexion and foot inversion, interfering with gait. However, dystonia can be quite generalized, involving a majority of skeletal muscles; such episodes are acutely painful and completely disabling.
*Speech and swallowing disturbances
**Hypophonia: soft speech. Speech quality tends to be soft, hoarse, and monotonous.
**Festinating speech: excessively rapid, soft, poorly-intelligible speech.
**[[Drooling]]: most likely caused by a weak, infrequent swallow and stooped posture.
**Non-motor causes of speech/language disturbance in both expressive and receptive language: these include decreased verbal fluency and cognitive disturbance especially related to comprehension of emotional content of speech and of facial expression{{cite journal | author = Pell M | title = On the receptive prosodic loss in Parkinson's disease. | journal = Cortex | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 693-704 | year = 1996 | id = PMID 8954247}}
**[[Dysphagia]]: impaired ability to swallow. Can lead to [[aspiration]], [[pneumonia]], and ultimately death.
*Other motor symptoms:
**[[fatigue]] (up to 50% of cases);
**masked facies (a mask-like face also known as [[hypomimia]]), with infrequent [[blinking]];{{cite journal |author=Günther Deuschl, Christof Goddemeier | title=Spontaneous and reflex activity of facial muscles in dystonia, Parkinson's disease, and in normal subjects | journal=[[Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry]] | year=1998 | volume=64 | issue=March | pages= 320–324 | url=http://jnnp.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/64/3/320}}
**difficulty rolling in bed or rising from a seated position;
**[[micrographia (handwriting)|micrographia]] (small, cramped handwriting);
**impaired fine motor dexterity and coordination;
**impaired gross motor coordination;
**Poverty of movement: overall loss of accessory movements, such as decreased arm swing when walking, as well as spontaneous movement.[COULD THIS BE COMBINED W/ LOSS OF ARM SWING, WHICH IS ONE FORM OF ACCESSORY MOVEMENT?]","[1, 3, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,75343020,2006-09-12T19:03:52Z,132.236.75.64,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synecohococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for eukaryotic organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells to provide protection for replicating DNA, from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during day-time. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for eukaryotic organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Literature,79582332,2006-10-05T03:23:14Z,24.137.200.118,"*Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
*Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751- 13756.
*Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723.
*Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
*Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2004) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
*Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
*Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York
*Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton
*Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
*Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251–254","*Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
*Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751- 13756.
*Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723.
*Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
*Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2004) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
*Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500
*Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York
*Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
*Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton
*Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104–1111
*Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251–254","[1, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,Plant circadian rhythms,79873330,2006-10-06T16:57:15Z,Jclerman,"Plants are [[sessile]] organisms, and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to synchronize with daily changes in temperature and light is of great advantage to plants. For example, the circadian clock makes an essential contribution to [[photosynthesis]], with the outcome that the clock is believed to increase plant growth and survival. As days grow shorter and cooler in the autumn, [[plants]] are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and for winter. At the most fundamental level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s in individual cells. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light and temperature inputs.
The study of circadian rhythms is therefore of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian-controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance, and photosynthesis. A better understanding of these genes could allow the creation of stress-tolerant plants that are better able to survive in cold temperatures and grow with increased vigour. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.
Plants can grow under most day-night light regimes that laboratories can simulate, including ones that differ from the plant's natural 24-hour day environment, such as a 5-hour light cycle or an 82-hour light cycle. However, plant circadian rhythms are governed by the biological clock, rather than solely the environment. This means that a plant with no environmental input (for example, kept in continuous light) will revert to its genetically-programmed 24-hour cycles of clock control even if it was previously grown under a 20-hour or 28-hour day.Roden LC, Song HR, Jackson S, Morris K, Carré IA: ""Floral responses to photoperiod are correlated with the timing of rhythmic expression relative to dawn and dusk in Arabidopsis"", ''Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA'' 2002 99, 13313-13318","Plants are [[sessile]] organisms, and thus they are intimately associated with their environment. This ability to synchronize with daily changes in temperature and light is of great advantage to plants. For example, the circadian clock makes an essential contribution to [[photosynthesis]], with the outcome that the clock is believed to increase plant growth and survival. As days grow shorter and cooler in the autumn, [[plants]] are able to change the expression of their genes to prepare for the end of the growing season and for winter. At the most fundamental level, circadian rhythms are the cyclical expression of [[gene]]s in individual cells. This cyclical expression is controlled by a central clock, which responds to light and temperature inputs.
The study of circadian rhythms is therefore of particular interest for plant biologists. Many of the circadian-controlled genes are involved in chilling and freezing tolerance, and photosynthesis. A better understanding of these genes could allow the creation of stress-tolerant plants that are better able to survive in cold temperatures and grow with increased vigour. This will allow the expansion of both growing seasons and the growth range for many economically important crops.
",[2]
Parkinson's disease,Toxins,81876277,2006-10-16T22:34:01Z,Jfdwolff,"One theory holds that the disease may result in many or even most cases from the combination of a genetically determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with exposure to those toxins.{{cite journal
|author=DA Di Monte, M Lavasani, AB Manning-Bog
|title=Environmental factors in Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Neurotoxicology]] | year=2002 | volume=23 | issue=4–5 | pages=487–502
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12428721
}} This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population: rather, its incidence varies geographically. It would appear that incidence varies by time as well, for although the later stages of untreated PD are distinct and readily recognizable, the disease was not remarked upon until the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, and not long thereafter become a common observation in clinical practice. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and transition-series metals such as manganese or iron, especially those that generate [[reactive oxygen species]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=9613715],[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16787846] and or bind to [[neuromelanin]], as originally suggested by G.C. Cotzias [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=4955707&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=6538948]. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in human beings and other animals, of any age. MPTP was notorious for a string of Parkinson's disease cases in California in 1982 when it contaminated the illicit production of the synthetic opiate [[MPPP]]. Its toxicity likely comes from generation of [[reactive oxygen species]][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=7832434].
Other toxin-based models employ PCBs,{{cite news
|first=Leslie
|last=Orr
|title=PCBs, fungicide open brain cells to Parkinson's assault
|date=February 10, 2005
|publisher=[[Medical News Today]]
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=19791
}} [[paraquat]]{{cite journal
|author=Amy B. Manning-Bog ''et al.''
|title= The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice
|journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] | year=2002 | volume=277 | issue=3 | pages=1641–1644
|url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/3/1641
}} (a herbicide) in combination with maneb (a fungicide) {{cite journal
|author=Mona Thiruchelvam ''et al.''
|title=The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=20 | issue=24 | pages=9207–9214
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9207
}} [[rotenone]]{{cite journal
|author=Ranjita Betarbet ''et al.''
|title=Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=3 | pages=1301–1306
|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n12/abs/nn1200_1301.html
}} (an insecticide), and specific organochlorine pesticides including dieldrin{{cite journal
|author=Masashi Kitazawaa, Vellareddy Anantharama and Anumantha G. Kanthasamy
|title=Dieldrin-induced oxidative stress and neurochemical changes contribute to apoptopic cell death in dopaminergic cells
|journal=[[Free Radical Biology and Medicine]] | year=2001 | volume=31 | issue=11 | pages=1473–1485
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T38-44HSN76-P&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2001&_alid=373422978&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4940&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a104ac89bd7948e14863371142a639a
}} and lindane.{{cite journal
|author=F.M. Corrigan, C.L. Wienburg, R.F. Shore, S.E. Daniel, D. Mann
|title=Organochlorine Insecticides in Substandia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A]] | year=2000 | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=229–234
|url=http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1087-2620&volume=59&issue=4&spage=229
}} Numerous studies have found an increase in Parkinson disease in persons who consume rural well water; researchers theorize that water consumption is a proxy measure of pesticide exposure. In agreement with this hypothesis are studies which have found a dose-dependent an increase in PD in persons exposed to agricultural chemicals.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids (medical)|cybrids]] have found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than nuclear DNA, is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may be the cause of the majority of PD cases.","One theory holds that the disease may result in many or even most cases from the combination of a genetically determined vulnerability to environmental [[toxin]]s along with exposure to those toxins.{{cite journal
|author=DA Di Monte, M Lavasani, AB Manning-Bog
|title=Environmental factors in Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Neurotoxicology]] | year=2002 | volume=23 | issue=4–5 | pages=487–502
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12428721
}} This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that Parkinson's disease is not distributed homogenously throughout the population: rather, its incidence varies geographically. It would appear that incidence varies by time as well, for although the later stages of untreated PD are distinct and readily recognizable, the disease was not remarked upon until the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, and not long thereafter become a common observation in clinical practice. The toxins most strongly suspected at present are certain [[pesticide]]s and transition-series metals such as manganese or iron, especially those that generate [[reactive oxygen species]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=9613715],[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=16787846] and or bind to [[neuromelanin]], as originally suggested by G.C. Cotzias [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=4955707&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=6538948]. [[MPTP]] is used as a model for Parkinson's as it can rapidly induce parkinsonian symptoms in human beings and other animals, of any age. MPTP was notorious for a string of Parkinson's disease cases in California in 1982 when it contaminated the illicit production of the synthetic opiate [[MPPP]]. Its toxicity likely comes from generation of [[reactive oxygen species]][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=7832434].
Other toxin-based models employ PCBs,{{cite news
|first=Leslie
|last=Orr
|title=PCBs, fungicide open brain cells to Parkinson's assault
|date=February 10, 2005
|publisher=[[Medical News Today]]
|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=19791
}} [[paraquat]]{{cite journal
|author=Amy B. Manning-Bog ''et al.''
|title= The Herbicide Paraquat Causes Up-regulation and Aggregation of α-Synuclein in Mice
|journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] | year=2002 | volume=277 | issue=3 | pages=1641–1644
|url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/3/1641
}} (a herbicide) in combination with maneb (a fungicide) {{cite journal
|author=Mona Thiruchelvam ''et al.''
|title=The Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic System as a Preferential Target of Repeated Exposures to Combined Paraquat and Maneb: Implications for Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=20 | issue=24 | pages=9207–9214
|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9207
}} [[rotenone]]{{cite journal
|author=Ranjita Betarbet ''et al.''
|title=Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease
|journal=[[Nature Neuroscience]] | year=2000 | volume=3 | pages=1301–1306
|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n12/abs/nn1200_1301.html
}} (an insecticide), and specific organochlorine pesticides including dieldrin{{cite journal
|author=Masashi Kitazawaa, Vellareddy Anantharama and Anumantha G. Kanthasamy
|title=Dieldrin-induced oxidative stress and neurochemical changes contribute to apoptopic cell death in dopaminergic cells
|journal=[[Free Radical Biology and Medicine]] | year=2001 | volume=31 | issue=11 | pages=1473–1485
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T38-44HSN76-P&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2001&_alid=373422978&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4940&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5a104ac89bd7948e14863371142a639a
}} and lindane.{{cite journal
|author=F.M. Corrigan, C.L. Wienburg, R.F. Shore, S.E. Daniel, D. Mann
|title=Organochlorine Insecticides in Substandia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease
|journal=[[Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A]] | year=2000 | volume=59 | issue=4 | pages=229–234
|url=http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&eissn=1087-2620&volume=59&issue=4&spage=229
}} Numerous studies have found an increase in Parkinson disease in persons who consume rural well water; researchers theorize that water consumption is a proxy measure of pesticide exposure. In agreement with this hypothesis are studies which have found a dose-dependent an increase in PD in persons exposed to agricultural chemicals.
Almost all of the PD-causing toxins act on the [[mitochondrial]] [[NADH dehydrogenase|complex I]] of the [[electron transfer chain]], and sporadic PD cases have been found to have a partial loss of activity of this enzyme complex. Studies in [[cybrids (medical)|cybrids]] have found that [[mitochondrial DNA]], rather than nuclear DNA, is responsible for the dysfunction. Most recently, [[microheteroplasmic]] mutations in one of the mitochondrial complex I genes, ND5, were found to be sufficient to diagnose sporadic PD correctly in 27 out of 28 cases. While additional studies are needed, mitochondrial microheteroplasmic mutations may be the cause of the majority of PD cases.
However, the ubiquity of agricultural chemical exposures makes it difficult to gauge the true extent of the problem. In the current state of knowledge about the origins of the disease, it appears that family history of the disease and (especially) multiple episodes of head-trauma-induced unconsciousness increase individual risk more than does pesticide exposure, but research is continuing.","[1, 3]"
Parkinson's disease,Physical exercise,82239183,2006-10-18T16:54:05Z,VoABot II,"Regular physical exercise and/or therapy, including in forms such as yoga, tai chi, Qijong {{cite journal | author = Schmitz-Hubsch T | title = Qigong exercise for the symptoms of Parkinson's disease: a randomized, controlled pilot study. | journal = Mov Disord | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 543-548 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16229022}}{{cite journal | author = Burini D| title = A randomised controlled cross-over trial of aerobic training versus Qigong in advanced Parkinson's disease. | journal = Eura Medicophys| volume = Epub ahead of print | issue = | pages = | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16971865}} and dance can be beneficial to the patient for maintaining and improving mobility, flexibility, balance and a range of motion.","Regular physical exercise and/or therapy, including in forms such as yoga, tai chi, and dance can be beneficial to the patient for maintaining and improving mobility, flexibility, balance and a range of motion.",[8]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,83081881,2006-10-22T21:56:16Z,208.106.23.60,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not [[entrainment|entrained]] and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a newly-discovered photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. It is interesting to note that, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and [[sleep disorder]] are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a newly-discovered photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. It is interesting to note that, if cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and [[sleep disorder]] are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs of abuse such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].",[11]
Stem cell,Adipose derived adult stem cells,84084158,2006-10-27T17:43:49Z,Lulurascal,,"Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) have also been isolated from human [[Adipose tissue|fat]], usually by method of [[liposuction]]. This cell population seems to be similar in many ways to [[Mesenchymal cell|mesenchymal stem cells]] (MSCs) derived from bone marrow. However, it is possible to isolate many more cells from adipose tissue and the harvest procedure itself is less painful than the harvest of bone marrow. Human ASCs have been shown to differentiate in the lab into [[bone]], [[cartilage]], fat, [[muscle]], and might be able to differentiate into neurons, making them a possible source for future applications in the clinic.{{cite journal| author=Zuk PA, Zhu M, Mizuno H, Huang JI, Chaudhari S, Lorenz HP, Benhaim P and Hedrick MH | title=Mutilineage cells derived from human adipose tissue: a putative source of stem cells for tissue engineering | journal=Tissue Engineering | volume=7 | issue=2 | pages=211-216 | year=2001}}{{cite journal| author=Zuk PA, Zhu M, Ashjian P, De Ugarte DA, Huang JI, Mizuno H, Alfonso ZC, Fraser JK, Benhaim P and Hedrick MH | title=Human adipose tissue is a source of multipotent stem cells | journal=Mol Biol Cell | volume=13 | pages=4279-4295 | year=2002}} In support of this, current studies in animals suggest that ASCs might be able to repair significant bony defects and ASCs have been recently used to successfully repair a large [[brain|cranial]] defect in a human patient [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6727466/].","[1, 4, 7, 9]"
Prion,Dissent,84313259,2006-10-28T22:22:52Z,UberScienceNerd,"Mark Purdy and Doctor David R. Brown have suggested that metal ion interactions with prion protein might be relevant to progression of prion-mediated disease.[http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf 2000-09-22, Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry] Purdy cites epidemiological studies of clusters of prion disease in locales with low soil concentrations of copper as evidence.
There are dissenting views on the nature of infectious particles in spongioform encephalopathies. Nevertheless David Brown actually suggests that the infectious prion particles may influence the course of the disease by altering ionic homeostasis in the brain.[http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf 2000-09-22, Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry] He does not rule out that outlawing cannibalistic feed practices was correct. It remains that there are no credible published works that offer reasonable alternatives to the prion protein theory.
","Mark Purdy and Doctor David R. Brown have suggested that metal ion interactions with prion protein might be relevant to progression of prion-mediated disease.[http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf 2000-09-22, Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry] Purdy cites epidemiological studies of clusters of prion disease in locales with low soil concentrations of copper as evidence.
Nevertheless David Brown actually suggests that the infectious prion particles may influence the course of the disease by altering ionic homeostasis in the brain.[http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf 2000-09-22, Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry]",[2]
Stem cell,Key events in stem cell research,84498349,2006-10-29T22:20:59Z,24.34.175.72,"* '''1960s''' - [[Joseph Altman]] and Gopal Das present evidence of adult [[neurogenesis]], ongoing stem cell activity in the brain; their reports contradict [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]]'s ""no new neurons"" dogma are largely ignored
* '''1963''' - [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] and [[James Till|Till]] illustrate the presence of self-renewing stem cells in mouse bone marrow
* '''1968''' - [[bone marrow]] [[transplant]] between two siblings successfully treats [[SCID]]
* '''1978''' - [[haematopoietic stem cell]]s are discovered in human [[cord blood]]
* '''1981''' - mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s are derived from the [[inner cell mass]]
* '''1992''' - neural stem cells are cultured ''[[in vitro]]'' as neurospheres
* '''1995''' - [[President]] [[Bill Clinton]] signs into law the [[Dickey Amendment]] which makes it illegal for Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.
* '''1997''' - leukemia is shown to originate from a haematopoietic stem cell, the first direct evidence for [[cancer stem cell]]s
* '''1998''' - [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] and coworkers derive the first human embryonic [[stem cell line]] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
* '''2000s''' - several reports of [[adult stem cell]] plasticity are published
* '''2003''' - Dr. Songtao Shi of NIH discovers new source of adult stem cells in children's primary teeth{{cite journal | author=Shostak S | title=(Re)defining stem cells | journal=Bioessays | year=2006 | pages=301-8 | volume=28 | issue=3 | id=PMID 16479584}}
* '''2004-2005''' - [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] claims to have created several human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines from unfertilised human [[oocyte]]s. The lines are later shown to be fabricated
* '''July 19, 2006''' - [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] vetoes a bill which would have allowed Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.","* '''1960s''' - [[Joseph Altman]] and Gopal Das present evidence of adult [[neurogenesis]], ongoing stem cell activity in the brain; their reports contradict [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]]'s ""no new neurons"" dogma are largely ignored
* '''1963''' - [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] and [[James Till|Till]] illustrate the presence of self-renewing stem cells in mouse bone marrow
* '''1968''' - [[bone marrow]] [[transplant]] between two siblings successfully treats [[SCID]]
* '''1978''' - [[haematopoietic stem cell]]s are discovered in human [[cord blood]]
* '''1981''' - mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s are derived from the [[inner cell mass]]
* '''1992''' - neural stem cells are cultured ''[[in vitro]]'' as neurospheres
* '''1995''' - [[President]] [[Bill Clinton]] signs into law the [[Dickey Amendment]] which makes it illegal for Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of the embryo.
* '''1997''' - leukemia is shown to originate from a haematopoietic stem cell, the first direct evidence for [[cancer stem cell]]s
* '''1998''' - [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] and coworkers derive the first human embryonic [[stem cell line]] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
* '''2000s''' - several reports of [[adult stem cell]] plasticity are published
* '''2003''' - Dr. Songtao Shi of NIH discovers new source of adult stem cells in children's primary teeth{{cite journal | author=Shostak S | title=(Re)defining stem cells | journal=Bioessays | year=2006 | pages=301-8 | volume=28 | issue=3 | id=PMID 16479584}}
* '''2004-2005''' - [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] claims to have created several human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines from unfertilised human [[oocyte]]s. The lines are later shown to be fabricated
* '''2001-2006''' - [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] is the first president to provide federal funding for embryonic stem cell research (totally approximately $100 Million.
* '''July 19, 2006''' - [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] vetoes H.R. 810, a bill used Federal money to fund the deliberate destruction of human embryos for the purpose of harvesting stem cells.","[1, 3, 9, 10]"
Context-free grammar,Properties of context-free languages,84740792,2006-10-31T01:02:01Z,65.34.242.227,"* An alternative and equivalent definition of context-free languages employs non-deterministic [[push-down automaton|push-down automata]]: a language is context-free if and only if it can be accepted by such an automaton.
* A language can also be modeled as a set of all sequences of terminals which are accepted by the grammar. This model is helpful in understanding set operations on languages.
* The union and concatenation of two context-free languages is context-free, but the intersection need not be.
* The reverse of a context-free language is context-free, but the complement need not be.
* Every [[regular language]] is context-free because it can be described by a [[regular grammar]].
* The intersection of a context-free language and a regular language is always context-free.
* There exist [[context-sensitive language]]s which are not context-free.
* To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages.
* Another point worth mentioning is that the problem of determining if a [[context-sensitive language|context-sensitive]] grammar describes a context-free language is undecidable.
* The PDA that accepts: anbm for all n[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309092094/html/ NAS Report - Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects (2004) by Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) Institute of Medicine (IOM) Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources (BANR) Board on Life Sciences (BLS)]
[h","Although no major health hazards have come to light since GM food was introduced 12 years ago, and close to 150 studies are published to attest their safety[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309092094/html/ NAS Report - Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects (2004) by Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) Institute of Medicine (IOM) Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources (BANR) Board on Life Sciences (BLS)]
[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(av5nw0qoxzkigdfky53dvhnm)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,1,5;journal,11,29;linkingpublicationresults,1:300196,1 Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects (2004) REVIEW ARTICLE in Archives of Animal Nutrition February 2005; 59(1): 1 – 40 GERHARD FLACHOWSKY1, ANDREW CHESSON2, & KAREN AULRICH3
1Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL), Braunschweig, Germany, 2College of Medical and Life Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK, and 3Institute of Organic Farming, Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL), Trenthorst, Germany]
[http://www.aspajournal.it/archivio/pdf_2004/2_2004/articolo-01.pdf Safety assessment and feeding value for pigs, poultry and ruminant animals of pest protected (Bt) plants and herbicide tolerant (glyphosate, glufosinate) plants: interpretation of experimental results observed worldwide on GM plants ITAL.J.ANIM.SCI. VOL. 3, 107-121, 2004 107
Aimé Aumaitre (2004) INRA. Saint Gilles, France] , consumer rights groups such as the [[Organic Consumers Association]][http://www.organicconsumers.org/] and [[Greenpeace]][http://www.truefoodnow.org/index.html] emphasise the long term health risks which GM could pose, or that the risks of GM have not yet been adequately investigated.
Unnecessary delays to GM crop use by farmers pose another kind of risk. Agricultural scientist and economists express concern about the harm delaying welfare and environmental improvements, for instance by pro-vitamin A enriched [[Golden rice]] which has the potential to prevent much childhood death from infectious disease, and insect protected Bt rice which can reduce exposure of farmers to synthetic insecticides.","[1, 4, 9]"
Asperger syndrome,External links,87379644,2006-11-12T19:13:46Z,Andy M. Wang,"{{wiktionary| Asperger’s syndrome}}
* '''Link directories'''
:* [http://www.futurehorizons-autism.com/links_resources.htm#Autism/Aspergers_Resources Asperger and Autism organizations and services]
:* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum/Asperger%27s_Syndrome/ DMOZ category on Asperger's syndrome]
:* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/aspergerssyndrome.html MedlinePlus Asperger Syndrome Resources]
:* [http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/lib_aspe.htm AS Family Village library]
:* [http://www.wrongplanet.net/asperger.html?name=Web_Links Wrong Planet Link Directory]
* '''Further links'''
:* [http://www.autismasperger.net Stephen Shore's website offering his insight into life with Asperger syndrome]
:*[http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/actearly/autism.html CDC's ""Learn the Signs. Act Early.” campaign] - Information for parents on early childhood development and developmental disabilities
:* [http://isnt.autistics.org/ Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical] - 'Well-known parody of non-autistics by some people from the autism spectrum'
:* [http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&prgDate=5-May-04 ''Fresh Air with Terry Gross''] - 'National Public Radio (NPR) Program on Asperger's ([[May 5]] 2004)'
:* [http://www.asperger.net/ Autism Asperger Publishing Company] Independent Publisher specializing in books on Autism and Asperger syndrome
:* [http://www.autismkey.com/ Autism Key] Run by and for parents of children with autism spectrum disorders
:* {{h2g2|10450694|Autism and Asperger's Syndrome: The 'Little Professors'}}
{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Autism]]
[[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Eponymous medical terms]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Special education]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[ca:Síndrome d'Asperger]]
[[cy:Syndrom Asperger]]
[[da:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[de:Autismus#Asperger-Syndrom]]
[[es:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[fr:Syndrome d'Asperger]]
[[it:Sindrome di Asperger]]
[[he:תסמונת אספרגר]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Asperger]]
[[ja:アスペルガー症候群]]
[[ko:아스퍼거 증후군]]
[[no:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[pl:Zespół Aspergera]]
[[pt:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[ru:Синдром Аспергера]]
[[simple:Asperger's syndrome]]
[[fi:Aspergerin oireyhtymä]]
[[sv:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[zh:亞斯伯格症候群]]
www.IhaveAS.com","{{wiktionary| Asperger’s syndrome}}
* '''Link directories'''
:* [http://www.futurehorizons-autism.com/links_resources.htm#Autism/Aspergers_Resources Asperger and Autism organizations and services]
:* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum/Asperger%27s_Syndrome/ DMOZ category on Asperger's syndrome]
:* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/aspergerssyndrome.html MedlinePlus Asperger Syndrome Resources]
:* [http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/lib_aspe.htm AS Family Village library]
:* [http://www.wrongplanet.net/asperger.html?name=Web_Links Wrong Planet Link Directory]
* '''Further links'''
:* [http://www.autismasperger.net Stephen Shore's website offering his insight into life with Asperger syndrome]
:*[http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/actearly/autism.html CDC's ""Learn the Signs. Act Early.” campaign] - Information for parents on early childhood development and developmental disabilities
:* [http://isnt.autistics.org/ Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical] - 'Well-known parody of non-autistics by some people from the autism spectrum'
:* [http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&prgDate=5-May-04 ''Fresh Air with Terry Gross''] - 'National Public Radio (NPR) Program on Asperger's ([[May 5]] 2004)'
:* [http://www.asperger.net/ Autism Asperger Publishing Company] Independent Publisher specializing in books on Autism and Asperger syndrome
:* [http://www.autismkey.com/ Autism Key] Run by and for parents of children with autism spectrum disorders
:* {{h2g2|10450694|Autism and Asperger's Syndrome: The 'Little Professors'}}
{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Autism]]
[[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Eponymous medical terms]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Special education]]
[[Category:Syndromes]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[ca:Síndrome d'Asperger]]
[[cy:Syndrom Asperger]]
[[da:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[de:Autismus#Asperger-Syndrom]]
[[es:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[fr:Syndrome d'Asperger]]
[[it:Sindrome di Asperger]]
[[he:תסמונת אספרגר]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Asperger]]
[[ja:アスペルガー症候群]]
[[ko:아스퍼거 증후군]]
[[no:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[pl:Zespół Aspergera]]
[[pt:Síndrome de Asperger]]
[[ru:Синдром Аспергера]]
[[simple:Asperger's syndrome]]
[[fi:Aspergerin oireyhtymä]]
[[sv:Aspergers syndrom]]
[[zh:亞斯伯格症候群]]",[11]
Parkinson's disease,References,88266205,2006-11-16T20:00:45Z,Valtasarus,"
* This article contains text released into the public domain from: {{cite web | author=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] | title=Parkinson's Disease: Hope Through Research | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/parkinsons_disease/detail_parkinsons_disease.htm | date=January 2006 | publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]}}
61.{{cite web | title=Glutathione deficiency and Parkinson's disease -- Cause and Treatment | url=http://www.medlounge.org/articles/view/12.html | publisher=[[MedLounge.org]]}}","
* This article contains text released into the public domain from: {{cite web | author=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] | title=Parkinson's Disease: Hope Through Research | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/parkinsons_disease/detail_parkinsons_disease.htm | date=January 2006 | publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]}}
",[11]
Stem cell,Defining properties,89542426,2006-11-22T23:06:17Z,220.157.92.11,"The rigorous definition of a [[stem cell]] requires that it possesses two properties:
* '''''Self-renewal''''' - the ability to go through numerous [[cell cycle|cycles]] of [[cell division]] while maintaining the undifferentiated state.
* '''''Unlimited potency''''' - the capacity to differentiate into any mature cell type. In a strict sense, this makes stem cells either '''[[totipotency|totipotent]]''' or '''[[pluripotency|pluripotent]]''', although some '''[[multipotent]]''' and/or '''[[unipotent cell|unipotent]]''' [[progenitor cell]]s are sometimes referred to as stem cells.
These properties can be illustrated ''[[in vitro]]'', using methods such as [[clonogenic assay]]s, where the progeny of single cell is characterized. However, ''in vitro'' culture conditions can alter the behavior of cells, making it unclear whether the cells will behave in a similar manner ''[[in vivo]]''. Considerable debate exists whether some proposed adult cell populations are truly stem cells.",Stem cells are ugly and not good,[11]
Genetic engineering,Applications,89631457,2006-11-23T10:44:35Z,67.49.183.18,"The first Genetically Engineered drug was human insulin approved by the USA's FDA
in 1982 [http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379]. Another early application of genetic engineering was to create human growth hormone as replacement for a drug that was previously extracted from human cadavers. In 1986 the FDA approved the first genetically engineered vaccine for humans, for hepatitis B[http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379]. Since these early uses of the technology in medicine, the use of GE has expanded to supply many drugs and vaccines.
One of the best known applications of genetic engineering is that you can probilize the outcome of offspring.
There are potentially momentous [[biotechnology|biotechnological]] applications of GM, for example oral [[vaccine]]s produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost.
A radical ambition of some groups is [[human enhancement]] via genetics, eventually by [[molecular engineering]]. ''See also:'' [[transhumanism]].","The first Genetically Engineered drug was human insulin approved by the USA's FDA
in 1982 [http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379]. Another early application of genetic engineering was to create human growth hormone as replacement for a drug that was previously extracted from human cadavers. In 1986 the FDA approved the first genetically engineered vaccine for humans, for hepatitis B[http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379]. Since these early uses of the technology in medicine, the use of GE has expanded to supply many drugs and vaccines.
One of the best known applications of genetic engineering is that you can probilize the outcome of offspring.
There are potentially momentous [[biotechnology|biotechnological]] applications of GM, for example oral [[vaccine]]s produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost.
A radical ambition of some groups is [[human enhancement]] via genetics, eventually by [[molecular engineering]]. ''See also:'' [[transhumanism]].",[11]
Hypnosis,Entertainment,92026955,2006-12-04T17:13:00Z,Dave Runger,,"The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects, eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is [[sleep|asleep]] or, popularly termed, in a [[altered state of consciousness|trance]]. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.","[1, 9]"
Down syndrome,History,92120264,2006-12-05T01:05:30Z,Antandrus,"title=Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots| journal=Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital| volume=3| pages=259-262| url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/down.html| accessdate=2006-07-14}} For a history of the disorder, see {{cite book | title= John Langdon Down, 1828-1896 | author=OC Ward |publisher=Royal Society of Medicine Press | id=ISBN 1-85315-374-5|year = 1998}} or {{cite web| last=Conor| first=Ward |url =http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm| title =John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828 - 1896)| accessdate =2006-06-02}} Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities ([[epicanthal fold]]s) with those of [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach's Mongolian race]], Down used terms such as ''mongolism'' and ''mongolian idiocy''.{{cite journal|Author =Conor, W.O.| year =1999| title =John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message| journal =Down Syndrome Research and Practice| volume =6| issue =1| pages =19-24| url =http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm| accessdate =2006-06-02}} [[Idiot|Idiocy]] was a medical term used at that time to refer to a severe degree of intellectual impairment. Down wrote that mongolism represented ""retrogression,"" the appearance of [[Mongoloid]] traits in the children of allegedly more advanced Caucasian parents.
By the 20th century, ""mongolian idiocy"" had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most people with it were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]]. Few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the [[eugenics]] movement, 33 of the 48 United States and a number of countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the [[Germany|German]] [[euthanasia]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|""Aktion T-4""]] begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after World War II.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown, although the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was due to a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. Other theories focused on injuries sustained during birth.{{cite book| author=Warkany, J.| title=Congenital Malformations| location=Chicago| publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc| date=1971| pages=313-314| id=ISBN 0-8151-9098-0}}
With the discovery of [[karyotype]] techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, [[Jérôme Lejeune|Professor Jérôme Lejeune]] discovered that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.{{cite web|url=http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp |title=Jérôme Lejeune Foundation|accessdate=2006-06-02}} The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
In 1961, a group of nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that ''mongolian idiocy'' had ""misleading connotations,"" had become ""an embarrassing term,"" and should be changed.{{cite journal| author=Allen, Gordon, C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet| year=1961| title=Mongolism (Correspondence)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=775| volume=1| issue=7180}} ''The Lancet'' supported ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) officially dropped references to ''mongolism'' in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones |first=Norman| date=1979 |title=On the diagnostic term ""Down's disease""| journal=Medical History |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=102-104 |id=PMID 153994}}
In 1975, the United States [[National Institute of Health]] convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: ""The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.""A planning meeting was held on [[20 March]] [[1974]], resulting in a letter to ''The Lancet''.{{cite journal| year=1974| title=Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=798| volume=303| issue=7861}} The conference was held [[10 February]]-[[11 February]] [[1975]], and reported to ''The Lancet'' shortly afterward.{{cite journal| year=1975| title=Classification and nomenclature of morphological defects (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=513| volume=305| issue=7905}} While both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, Canada and other countries, while Down's syndrome continues to be used in the United Kingdom and other areas.{{cite web|last=Leshin |first=Len| date=2003 |url=http://www.ds-health.com/name.htm |title=What's in a name|accessdate=2006-05-12}}","{{main|History of Down syndrome}}
English physician [[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental retardation in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866 entitled ""Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots"".{{cite journal| author=Down, J.L.H.| year=1866| title=Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots| journal=Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital| volume=3| pages=259-262| url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/down.html| accessdate=2006-07-14}} For a history of the disorder, see {{cite book | title= John Langdon Down, 1828-1896 | author=OC Ward |publisher=Royal Society of Medicine Press | id=ISBN 1-85315-374-5|year = 1998}} or {{cite web| last=Conor| first=Ward |url =http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm| title =John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828 - 1896)| accessdate =2006-06-02}} Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities ([[epicanthal fold]]s) with those of [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach's Mongolian race]], Down used terms such as ''mongolism'' and ''mongolian idiocy''.{{cite journal|Author =Conor, W.O.| year =1999| title =John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message| journal =Down Syndrome Research and Practice| volume =6| issue =1| pages =19-24| url =http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm| accessdate =2006-06-02}} [[Idiot|Idiocy]] was a medical term used at that time to refer to a severe degree of intellectual impairment. Down wrote that mongolism represented ""retrogression,"" the appearance of [[Mongoloid]] traits in the children of allegedly more advanced Caucasian parents.
By the 20th century, ""mongolian idiocy"" had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most people with it were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]]. Few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the [[eugenics]] movement, 33 of the 48 United States and a number of countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the [[Germany|German]] [[euthanasia]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|""Aktion T-4""]] begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after World War II.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown, although the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was due to a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. Other theories focused on injuries sustained during birth.{{cite book| author=Warkany, J.| title=Congenital Malformations| location=Chicago| publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc| date=1971| pages=313-314| id=ISBN 0-8151-9098-0}}
With the discovery of [[karyotype]] techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, [[Jérôme Lejeune|Professor Jérôme Lejeune]] discovered that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.{{cite web|url=http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp |title=Jérôme Lejeune Foundation|accessdate=2006-06-02}} The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
In 1961, a group of nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that ''mongolian idiocy'' had ""misleading connotations,"" had become ""an embarrassing term,"" and should be changed.{{cite journal| author=Allen, Gordon, C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet| year=1961| title=Mongolism (Correspondence)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=775| volume=1| issue=7180}} ''The Lancet'' supported ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) officially dropped references to ''mongolism'' in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones |first=Norman| date=1979 |title=On the diagnostic term ""Down's disease""| journal=Medical History |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=102-104 |id=PMID 153994}}
In 1975, the United States [[National Institute of Health]] convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: ""The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.""A planning meeting was held on [[20 March]] [[1974]], resulting in a letter to ''The Lancet''.{{cite journal| year=1974| title=Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=798| volume=303| issue=7861}} The conference was held [[10 February]]-[[11 February]] [[1975]], and reported to ''The Lancet'' shortly afterward.{{cite journal| year=1975| title=Classification and nomenclature of morphological defects (Discussion)| journal=[[The Lancet]]| pages=513| volume=305| issue=7905}} While both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, Canada and other countries, while Down's syndrome continues to be used in the United Kingdom and other areas.{{cite web|last=Leshin |first=Len| date=2003 |url=http://www.ds-health.com/name.htm |title=What's in a name|accessdate=2006-05-12}}","[1, 5, 9]"
Hypnosis,Social constructionism,92143708,2006-12-05T03:13:53Z,74.38.250.5,"
This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This relationship depends on how much rapport has been established between the hypnotist and the subject (see [[Hawthorne effect]], [[Pygmalion effect]], and the [[Placebo effect]]).
Generally, under hypnosis people become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. Some psychologists (such as [[Theodore Sarbin|Sarbin]] and [[Nichols P. Spanos|Spanos]]) have suggested that hypnosis is a social construct, so well-known that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a hypnotized person would behave. Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and social nuances. This view is often misunderstood: it does not discount the claim that hypnotized individuals are truly experiencing suggested effects, just that the mechanism by which this has taken place has in part been socially constructed and is not necessarily reliant on the idea of an [[altered state of consciousness]].
[[Nicholas Spanos]] hypothesized that the behaviors associated with hypnosis are acted out knowingly by the person. He alleged that there are two reasons that cause people to misconstrue their state of consciousness as hypnosis. One of the reasons being that people believe that their behavior is caused by an external source instead of the self. The second is related to the way hypnotic rituals are performed. The hypnotist says certain things which are first interpreted as voluntary and then later on in the procedure as involuntary. An example being “relax the muscles in your legs” and then later “your legs feel limp and heavy”.
Spanos’ findings were not to prove that the hypnotic state did not exist at all but to prove that the behaviors exhibited by those individuals are due to “highly motivated” individuals.Hock R. R. (2005). ''Forty studies that changed psychology: explorations into history of psychological research''. Upper Saddle River: Pearson.","
Some psychologists such as [[Robert Baker]] claim that what we call hypnosis are actually a form of learned social behavior, a complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, and suggestibility that can account for many esoteric behavioral manifestations.
Some hypnotized subjects seem 'possessed', because possession involves a similar socio-cognitive context, a similar role-playing arrangement and rapport. Those who subscribe to this theory believe that deep down, hypnotism, hysteria, and demonic possession share the common ground of being social constructs engineered mainly by enthusiastic therapists, showmen, and priests on the one side, and suggestible, imaginative, willing, fantasy-prone players with deep emotional needs or abilities on the other.
The hypnotist and subject learn what is expected of their roles and reinforce each other by their performances. The hypnotist provides the suggestions and the subject responds to the suggestions. The rest of the behavior—the hypnotist’s repetition of sounds or gestures, his soft, relaxing voice, etc., and the trance-like pose or sleep-like repose of the subject, etc. — are just window dressing, part of the drama that makes hypnosis seem mysterious. When one strips away these dramatic dressings what is left is something quite ordinary, even if extraordinarily useful: a self-induced, “psyched-up” state of suggestibility.
This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This relationship depends on how much rapport has been established between the hypnotist and the subject (see [[Hawthorne effect]], [[Pygmalion effect]], and the [[Placebo effect]]).
Generally, under hypnosis people become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. Some psychologists (such as [[Theodore Sarbin|Sarbin]] and [[Nichols P. Spanos|Spanos]]) have suggested that hypnosis is a social construct, so well-known that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a hypnotized person would behave. Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and social nuances. This view is often misunderstood: it does not discount the claim that hypnotized individuals are truly experiencing suggested effects, just that the mechanism by which this has taken place has in part been socially constructed and is not necessarily reliant on the idea of an [[altered state of consciousness]].
[[Nicholas Spanos]] hypothesized that the behaviors associated with hypnosis are acted out knowingly by the person. He alleged that there are two reasons that cause people to misconstrue their state of consciousness as hypnosis. One of the reasons being that people believe that their behavior is caused by an external source instead of the self. The second is related to the way hypnotic rituals are performed. The hypnotist says certain things which are first interpreted as voluntary and then later on in the procedure as involuntary. An example being “relax the muscles in your legs” and then later “your legs feel limp and heavy”.
Spanos’ findings were not to prove that the hypnotic state did not exist at all but to prove that the behaviors exhibited by those individuals are due to “highly motivated” individuals.Hock R. R. (2005). ''Forty studies that changed psychology: explorations into history of psychological research''. Upper Saddle River: Pearson.","[1, 5, 4]"
Down syndrome,(Top),92284219,2006-12-05T19:40:53Z,157.246.2.6,"{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Down syndrome |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}} |
ICDO = |
Image = Drill.jpg |
Caption = A child with Down Syndrome using an electric drill. |
OMIM = 190685 |
OMIM_mult = |
MedlinePlus = 000997 |
eMedicineSubj = ped |
eMedicineTopic = 615 |
DiseasesDB = 3898 |
Cause = Trisomy 21 |
}}
'''Down syndrome''' or '''trisomy 21''' (also '''Down's syndrome''') is a [[genetic disorder]] caused by the presence of all or part of an extra [[chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]]. It is named after [[John Langdon Down]], the British doctor who first described it in [[1866 in science|1866]]. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in body structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome is usually identified at birth.
Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average [[cognitive]] ability, often ranging from mild to moderate [[mental retardation]]. Developmental disabilities often manifest as a tendency toward concrete thinking or [[naïveté]]. A small number suffer from severe to profound mental retardation. The [[Incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1 per 1,000 births.
Many of the common physical features of Down syndrome also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They include a [[single transverse palmar crease]] (a single instead of a double crease across one or both palms), an almond shape to the eyes caused by an [[epicanthic fold]] of the eyelid, shorter limbs, and protruding tongue. Health concerns for individuals with Down syndrome include a higher risk for [[congenital heart defect]]s, gastroesophageal reflux disease, recurrent [[ear infections]], [[obstructive sleep apnea]], and [[thyroid]] dysfunctions.
[[Early Childhood Intervention|Early childhood intervention]], screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, and [[vocational training]] can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Although some of the physical genetic limitations of Down Syndrome cannot be overcome, education and proper care will improve quality of life.Roizen NJ, Patterson D.''Down's syndrome.'' Lancet. 2003 [[12 April]];361(9365):1281-9. Review. PMID 12699967",,"[2, 8]"
Down syndrome,Prenatal screening,93000413,2006-12-08T20:37:49Z,SandyGeorgia,"Pregnant women can be screened for various complications in their pregnancy. Many standard prenatal screens can discover Down syndrome. [[Genetic counseling]] along with [[genetic testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], [[chorionic villus sampling]] (CVS), or percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome, or where normal prenatal exams indicate possible problems. Genetic screens are often performed on pregnant women older than 30 or 35.
Amniocentesis and CVS are considered invasive procedures, in that they involve inserting instruments into the uterus, and therefore carry a small risk of causing fetal injury or miscarriage. There are several common non-invasive screens that can indicate a fetus with Down syndrome. These are normally performed in the late first trimester or early second trimester. Due to the nature of screens, each has a significant chance of a [[Type I and type II errors|false positive]], suggesting a fetus with Down syndrome when, in fact, the fetus does not have this genetic abnormality. Screen positives must be verified before a Down syndrome diagnosis is made. Common screening procedures for Down syndrome are given in Table 1.
{| class=""wikitable""
|+ Table 1: Common first and second trimester Down syndrome screens
|-
!Screen
!When performed (weeks [[gestation]])
!Detection rate
![[Type I and type II errors|False positive]] rate
!Description
|-
|Triple screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|75%
|align=""center""|8.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone).For a current estimate of rates, see {{cite journal| author=Benn, PA, J Ying, T Beazoglou, JFX Egan| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=21| issue=1| pages=46-51| title=Estimates for the sensitivity and false-positive rates for second trimester serum screening for Down syndrome and trisomy 18 with adjustments for cross-identification and double-positive results}} PMID 11180240
|-
|Quad screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|79%
|align=""center""|7.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone), and high [[inhibin]]-Alpha (INHA).
|-
|AFP/free beta screen
|align=""center""|13–22
|align=""center""|80%
|align=""center""|2.8%
|This test measures the [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]], produced by the fetus, and free beta hCG, produced by the [[placenta]].
|-
|Nuchal translucency/free beta/PAPPA screen
|align=""center""|10–13.5
|align=""center""|91%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|align=""center""|5%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|Uses [[ultrasound]] to measure [[Nuchal translucency|Nuchal Translucency]] in addition to the freeBeta [[human chorionic gonadotropin|hCG]] and PAPPA (pregnancy-associate plasma protein A, {{OMIM|176385}}). NIH has confirmed that this first trimester test is more accurate than second trimester screening methods.NIH FASTER study (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):2001). See also J.L. Simplson's editorial (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):19).
|}
[[Image:Vessie T21.JPG|thumb|right|221px|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome and [[megacystis]].]]
Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is 90%–95% and the rate of false positive is 2%–5%. [[Type I and type II errors|False positive]]s can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses (very rare with the ultrasound tests), incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.
Confirmation of screen positive is normally accomplished with [[amniocentesis]]. This is an invasive procedure and involves taking [[amniotic fluid]] from the mother and identifying fetal cells. The lab work can take a couple of weeks but will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems with a very low false positive rate.{{cite web |title=Down syndrome |author=Fackler, A |url=http://health.yahoo.com/topic/children/baby/article/healthwise/hw167989 |accessdate=2006-09-07}}
Due to the low incidence of Down syndrome, a vast majority of early screen positives are false.Assume the false positive rate is 2% (at the low end), the incidence of Down syndrome is 1/500 (on the high side) with 95% detection, and there is no [[ascertainment bias]]. Out of 100,000 screens, 200 will have Down syndrome, and the screen will detect 190 of them. From the 99,800 normal pregnancies, 1996 will be given a positive result. So, among the 2,186 positive test results, 91% will be false positives and 9% will be true positives. Since amniocentesis carries a risk of approximately 1/200 to 1/300 of inducing [[spontaneous abortion]]{{cite web |title=Risk and Recurrence Risk of Down Syndrome |author=Benke, P, V. Carver, R Donahue |url=http://www.nas.com/downsyn/benke.html |accessdate=2006-09-07}}, confirmation presents a risk of spontaneously aborting a healthy fetus (while testing from a false positive).
A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated.{{cite journal| author=Caroline Mansfield, Suellen Hopfer, Theresa M. Marteau| title=Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spina bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: a systematic literature review| year=1999| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=19| issue=9| pages=808-812| url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/65500197/ABSTRACT}} PMID 10521836 This is similar to 90% results found by {{cite journal| title=Determinants of parental decisions after the prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome: Bringing in context| journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics| volume=93| issue=5| pages=410 - 416| year=1999| author=David W. Britt, Samantha T. Risinger, Virginia Miller, Mary K. Mans, Eric L. Krivchenia, Mark I. Evans}} PMID 10951466 Physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications,{{cite journal| author=Glover, NM and Glover, SJ| title=Ethical and legal issues regarding selective abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome| journal=Ment. Retard.| year=1996| volume=34| issue=4| pages=207-214| id=PMID 8828339}} with some commentators calling it ""[[eugenics]] by abortion"".{{cite journal |last=Will |first=George |title=Eugenics By Abortion: Is perfection an entitlement? |date=2005-04-14 |journal=Washington Post |pages=A37 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A51671-2005Apr13.html |accessdate=2006-07-03}} Many members of the disability rights movement ""believe that public support for prenatal diagnosis and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement's basic philosophy and goals.""{{cite journal |author=Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch |title=Disability rights critique of prenatal genetic testing: Reflections and recommendations |year=2003 |journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=40-47 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/102531130/ABSTRACT| accessdate=2006-07-03}} PMID 12587137","Pregnant women can be screened for various complications in their pregnancy, or due to risk factors such as advanced maternal age. There are several common non-invasive screens that can indicate a fetus with Down syndrome, and are normally performed in the late first trimester or early second trimester. Due to the nature of screens, each has a significant chance of a [[Type I and type II errors|false positive]], suggesting a fetus with Down syndrome when, in fact, the fetus does not have this genetic abnormality. Screen positives must be verified before a Down syndrome diagnosis is made. Common screening procedures for Down syndrome are given in Table 1.
{| class=""wikitable""
|+ Table 1: Common first and second trimester Down syndrome screens
|-
!Screen
!When performed (weeks [[gestation]])
!Detection rate
![[Type I and type II errors|False positive]] rate
!Description
|-
|Triple screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|75%
|align=""center""|8.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone).For a current estimate of rates, see {{cite journal| author=Benn, PA, J Ying, T Beazoglou, JFX Egan| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=21| issue=1| pages=46-51| title=Estimates for the sensitivity and false-positive rates for second trimester serum screening for Down syndrome and trisomy 18 with adjustments for cross-identification and double-positive results}} PMID 11180240
|-
|Quad screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|79%
|align=""center""|7.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone), and high [[inhibin]]-Alpha (INHA).
|-
|AFP/free beta screen
|align=""center""|13–22
|align=""center""|80%
|align=""center""|2.8%
|This test measures the [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]], produced by the fetus, and free beta hCG, produced by the [[placenta]].
|-
|Nuchal translucency/free beta/PAPPA screen
|align=""center""|10–13.5
|align=""center""|91%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|align=""center""|5%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|Uses [[ultrasound]] to measure [[Nuchal translucency|Nuchal Translucency]] in addition to the freeBeta [[human chorionic gonadotropin|hCG]] and PAPPA (pregnancy-associate plasma protein A, {{OMIM|176385}}). NIH has confirmed that this first trimester test is more accurate than second trimester screening methods.NIH FASTER study (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):2001). See also J.L. Simplson's editorial (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):19).
|}
[[Image:Vessie T21.JPG|thumb|right|221px|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome and [[megacystis]].]]
Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is 90%–95% and the rate of false positive is 2%–5%. [[Type I and type II errors|False positive]]s can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses (very rare with the ultrasound tests), incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.
Confirmation of screen positive is normally accomplished with [[amniocentesis]]. This is an invasive procedure and involves taking [[amniotic fluid]] from the mother and identifying fetal cells. The lab work can take a couple of weeks but will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems with a very low false positive rate.{{cite web |title=Down syndrome |author=Fackler, A |url=http://health.yahoo.com/topic/children/baby/article/healthwise/hw167989 |accessdate=2006-09-07}}
Due to the low incidence of Down syndrome, a vast majority of early screen positives are false.Assume the false positive rate is 2% (at the low end), the incidence of Down syndrome is 1/500 (on the high side) with 95% detection, and there is no [[ascertainment bias]]. Out of 100,000 screens, 200 will have Down syndrome, and the screen will detect 190 of them. From the 99,800 normal pregnancies, 1996 will be given a positive result. So, among the 2,186 positive test results, 91% will be false positives and 9% will be true positives. Since the risk of [[spontaneous abortion]] is approximately 1/200 to 1/300,{{cite web |title=Risk and Recurrence Risk of Down Syndrome |author=Benke, P, V. Carver, R Donahue |url=http://www.nas.com/downsyn/benke.html |accessdate=2006-09-07}} amniocentesis confirmation presents a risk of spontaneously aborting a healthy fetus (while testing from a false positive).
A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated.{{cite journal| author=Caroline Mansfield, Suellen Hopfer, Theresa M. Marteau| title=Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spina bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: a systematic literature review| year=1999| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=19| issue=9| pages=808-812| url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/65500197/ABSTRACT}} PMID 10521836 This is similar to 90% results found by {{cite journal| title=Determinants of parental decisions after the prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome: Bringing in context| journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics| volume=93| issue=5| pages=410 - 416| year=1999| author=David W. Britt, Samantha T. Risinger, Virginia Miller, Mary K. Mans, Eric L. Krivchenia, Mark I. Evans}} PMID 10951466 Physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications,{{cite journal| author=Glover, NM and Glover, SJ| title=Ethical and legal issues regarding selective abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome| journal=Ment. Retard.| year=1996| volume=34| issue=4| pages=207-214| id=PMID 8828339}} with some commentators calling it ""[[eugenics]] by abortion"".{{cite journal |last=Will |first=George |title=Eugenics By Abortion: Is perfection an entitlement? |date=2005-04-14 |journal=Washington Post |pages=A37 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A51671-2005Apr13.html |accessdate=2006-07-03}} Many members of the disability rights movement ""believe that public support for prenatal diagnosis and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement's basic philosophy and goals.""{{cite journal |author=Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch |title=Disability rights critique of prenatal genetic testing: Reflections and recommendations |year=2003 |journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=40-47 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/102531130/ABSTRACT| accessdate=2006-07-03}} PMID 12587137","[2, 3]"
Methamphetamine,Meth Mouth,96325434,2006-12-24T21:24:18Z,Miserlou,,"Methamphetamine addicts may lose their teeth abnormally quickly, a condition known as ""[[meth mouth]]"". This effect is not caused by the commonly-repeated myth that meth itself has ""corrosive"" effects on teeth. According to the [[American Dental Association]], meth mouth ""is probably caused by a combination of drug-induced psychological and physiological changes resulting in xerostomia (dry mouth), extended periods of poor oral hygiene, frequent consumption of high calorie, carbonated beverages and tooth grinding and clenching.""{{cite web |url=http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp |title=Methamphetamine Use (Meth Mouth) |accessdate=2006-12-16 |publisher=[[American Dental Association]] }} Similar, though far less severe symptoms have been reported in clinical use of other amphetamines, where effects are not exacerbated by a lack of oral hygiene for extended periods.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15460293&query_hl=5&itool=pubmed_docsum
Like other substances which stimulate the [[sympathetic nervous system]], methamphetamine causes decreased production of acid-fighting saliva and increased thirst, resulting in increased risk for tooth decay, especially when thirst is quenched by high-sugar drinks.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12271905 Shaner JW, Caries associated with methamphetamine abuse]
Users may exhibit [[sexual compulsion|sexually compulsive]] behavior and may engage in sexual acts with one or more individuals. This sexual behavior is believed to have created a link between meth use and [[sexually transmitted disease]] (STD) transmission, especially [[HIV]] and [[syphilis]].","[1, 4, 9, 7]"
Hypnosis,Entertainment,97635274,2007-01-01T00:27:48Z,Bejnar,"Professor G.F. Wagstaff, of the [[University of Liverpool]], carried out research (see Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief - ISBN-13: 978-0710800176) around the phonemenon of stage hypnotism or hypnotism for entertainment. He surmised that rather than the subject being in an 'altered state' rather they were affected significantly more by social factors and expectations.
Wagstaff's work explores how a hypnotist carefully chooses volunteers from the audience, puts them into a trance using hypnosis and then plants suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor in all stage hypnosis shows is the choice of enthusiastic and credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act showing a higher than normal succeptibility. Often, the sheer willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they will cooperate with the hypnotist's suggestions during the show, whether or not they ever really become hypnotized in the first place.
For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk, aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked, 6-year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves ""real"" people from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.
Regarding the phenomenon of stage hypnotism, Jon Connelly, Ph.D., a therapeutic hypnotist, writes:{{fact}}
:''How does the stage hypnotist create the illusion of ""taking over"" his subject's minds? It appears they are helpless to refuse whatever he directs them to do under his power and control.''
:''How is this accomplished? It begins with the hypnotist asking for volunteers from an audience already entranced enough with the idea of stage hypnosis that they chose to make attending the show their priority. Naturally, they all have expectations about what they will witness.''
:''The audience is made up of three categories of attendees. The first is prepared, and actually hoping to come up on stage to be subjects despite knowing they will be doing silly things in front of everyone else. The second category is comprised of those who want to prove they can't be hypnotized. These folks are likely to volunteer but only to prove the hypnotist wrong. Finally, the third group is simply interested in watching the show.''
:''The first thing the hypnotist does is to ask for volunteers. On the crowded stage, he ""tests"" their willingness to cooperate by directing them to do something and he observes their reactions. Anyone not cooperating is eliminated. Seeing others dismissed, enhances the willingness of the remaining volunteers to cooperate even more fully.''
:''The task of finding the most cooperative and dramatic volunteers is accomplished as the hypnotist asks those on stage to do even stranger things and eliminates those whose performance isn't up to par. Soon a small number of volunteers remain. These people are willing to dramatically engage in almost anything the hypnotist suggests. The audience has enjoyed the screening process on another level, believing the hypnotist has caused the subjects to become more and more entranced with hypnosis.''
:''The hypnotist tells the small group of remaining subjects to relax even more into the role of ""hypnotized person"" he created for them. There is little difference between a good hypnotic subject and a good actor. The context and the understanding each has of why they are doing what they are doing, is the main difference. They both voluntarily throw themselves into the role created for them since both are stage performers.''
:''The stage hypnotist is like a casting director for a movie. The casting director selects people who can vividly imagine and act on what is written in the script as if it was real. These are the same qualities that would make someone a good hypnotic subject. Both the hypnotist and the film director create the scene and encourage the subject or actor into imagining their role to the extent that it can become real to them. They are often described as ""absorbed"" in the role. Actors know their job is to fool the audience into experiencing the role as real also. The hypnosis subject imagines her role so vividly, it is experienced as real. On some level, both the actor and the hypnotized subject know what is happening. Neither is being ""controlled.""''
:''In stage hypnosis, audience members confuse what is really cooperation with control over the subject's mind. But it is an illusion.''
Sometimes a stage hypnosis begins with an ''induction'' in which the hypnotist asks the entire audience to close their eyes and listen to his words. He lulls everyone participating into a relaxed state with which he may observe who is more susceptible to be hypnotized. Often people are simply unable to relax and ""go with"" the hypnotist's instructions due to inability to relax and allow the mind to follow instructions without conscious thought or simply determination to not be induced.
There are many observations that can be made of those who do ""go under"": slumping in their seat, head lolling to the side, falling into the lap of someone next to them, eye lids flickering, and inability to wake when spoken to or prodded unless done so by the hypnotist himself. For those who are simply watching this show and seeing the person next to them become induced, it can be frightening to witness.
The people whom the hypnotist saw to be easily induced the deepest are approached individually. He will speak briefly to the person and learn their name at which time he may say a few words to them and command them to sleep. For example: ""Are you tired, Jane? Would you like to sleep now? Go ahead - SLEEP."" Normally this action will cause the individual to immediately appear to have fallen asleep, accompanied by the individual falling to the side. The hypnotist will then speak once more to the person and in the same manner command the person to wake. If this person seems to have been deeply hypnotized but can also wake easily seems unaware of what happened, he or she will be asked to go on the stage.
Once several people are assembled, the hypnotist will begin with inducing each of them and testing them to make sure they are perfectly under. If someone is not working well enough they may be asked to leave. Those who remain are the ones who cannot be woken, even by loud audiences and shouts. They only respond to the hypnotist. He will begin with small commands for action and move up to grand requests. For example, the subjects may first be told to act as if they were cold in a relatively warm room, and by the end of the night, they are showing the audience what their first kisses were like.","Professor G.F. Wagstaff, of the [[University of Liverpool]], carried out research (see Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief - ISBN-13: 978-0710800176) around the phonemenon of stage hypnotism or hypnotism for entertainment. He surmised that rather than the subject being in an 'altered state' rather they were affected significantly more by social factors and expectations.
Wagstaff's work explores how a hypnotist carefully chooses volunteers from the audience, puts them into a trance using hypnosis and then plants suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor in all stage hypnosis shows is the choice of enthusiastic and credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act showing a higher than normal succeptibility. Often, the sheer willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they will cooperate with the hypnotist's suggestions during the show, whether or not they ever really become hypnotized in the first place.
For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk, aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked, 6-year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves ""real"" people from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.
Regarding the phenomenon of stage hypnotism, Jon Connelly, Ph.D., a therapeutic hypnotist, writes:[http://www.clearyourmind.net/jonconnelly/articles_FearHypnosis.htm Connelly, Jon (2005) ""Why People Fear Hypnosis""] retrieved 16 September 2005, no longer available [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:rd4mpRPWIEQJ:www.clearyourmind.net/jonconnelly/articles_FearHypnosis.htm Google cache]
:''How does the stage hypnotist create the illusion of ""taking over"" his subject's minds? It appears they are helpless to refuse whatever he directs them to do under his power and control.''
:''How is this accomplished? It begins with the hypnotist asking for volunteers from an audience already entranced enough with the idea of stage hypnosis that they chose to make attending the show their priority. Naturally, they all have expectations about what they will witness.''
:''The audience is made up of three categories of attendees. The first is prepared, and actually hoping to come up on stage to be subjects despite knowing they will be doing silly things in front of everyone else. The second category is comprised of those who want to prove they can't be hypnotized. These folks are likely to volunteer but only to prove the hypnotist wrong. Finally, the third group is simply interested in watching the show.''
:''The first thing the hypnotist does is to ask for volunteers. On the crowded stage, he ""tests"" their willingness to cooperate by directing them to do something and he observes their reactions. Anyone not cooperating is eliminated. Seeing others dismissed, enhances the willingness of the remaining volunteers to cooperate even more fully.''
:''The task of finding the most cooperative and dramatic volunteers is accomplished as the hypnotist asks those on stage to do even stranger things and eliminates those whose performance isn't up to par. Soon a small number of volunteers remain. These people are willing to dramatically engage in almost anything the hypnotist suggests. The audience has enjoyed the screening process on another level, believing the hypnotist has caused the subjects to become more and more entranced with hypnosis.''
:''The hypnotist tells the small group of remaining subjects to relax even more into the role of ""hypnotized person"" he created for them. There is little difference between a good hypnotic subject and a good actor. The context and the understanding each has of why they are doing what they are doing, is the main difference. They both voluntarily throw themselves into the role created for them since both are stage performers.''
:''The stage hypnotist is like a casting director for a movie. The casting director selects people who can vividly imagine and act on what is written in the script as if it was real. These are the same qualities that would make someone a good hypnotic subject. Both the hypnotist and the film director create the scene and encourage the subject or actor into imagining their role to the extent that it can become real to them. They are often described as ""absorbed"" in the role. Actors know their job is to fool the audience into experiencing the role as real also. The hypnosis subject imagines her role so vividly, it is experienced as real. On some level, both the actor and the hypnotized subject know what is happening. Neither is being ""controlled.""''
:''In stage hypnosis, audience members confuse what is really cooperation with control over the subject's mind. But it is an illusion.''
Sometimes a stage hypnosis begins with an ''induction'' in which the hypnotist asks the entire audience to close their eyes and listen to his words. He lulls everyone participating into a relaxed state with which he may observe who is more susceptible to be hypnotized. Often people are simply unable to relax and ""go with"" the hypnotist's instructions due to inability to relax and allow the mind to follow instructions without conscious thought or simply determination to not be induced.
There are many observations that can be made of those who do ""go under"": slumping in their seat, head lolling to the side, falling into the lap of someone next to them, eye lids flickering, and inability to wake when spoken to or prodded unless done so by the hypnotist himself. For those who are simply watching this show and seeing the person next to them become induced, it can be frightening to witness.
The people whom the hypnotist saw to be easily induced the deepest are approached individually. He will speak briefly to the person and learn their name at which time he may say a few words to them and command them to sleep. For example: ""Are you tired, Jane? Would you like to sleep now? Go ahead - SLEEP."" Normally this action will cause the individual to immediately appear to have fallen asleep, accompanied by the individual falling to the side. The hypnotist will then speak once more to the person and in the same manner command the person to wake. If this person seems to have been deeply hypnotized but can also wake easily seems unaware of what happened, he or she will be asked to go on the stage.
Once several people are assembled, the hypnotist will begin with inducing each of them and testing them to make sure they are perfectly under. If someone is not working well enough they may be asked to leave. Those who remain are the ones who cannot be woken, even by loud audiences and shouts. They only respond to the hypnotist. He will begin with small commands for action and move up to grand requests. For example, the subjects may first be told to act as if they were cold in a relatively warm room, and by the end of the night, they are showing the audience what their first kisses were like.",[11]
Hypnosis,Hypnotherapy,97642994,2007-01-01T01:22:31Z,Bejnar,"{{main|Hypnotherapy}}
[[Hypnotherapy]] is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as ""clinical work"". Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). Some of the so called 'incurable' diseases have shown to be treatable with the mind-body (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis).{{Fact|date=December 2006}} Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called [[past life regression|regression]], have been viewed with skepticism. {{Fact|date=December 2006}}
The [[American Medical Association]] and the [[American Psychological Association]] have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that ""it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one"",http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/mem.html] and so the procedure is ""fraught with problems of potential misapplication"".http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~gallaghr/ama.html (See also [[false memory]]). This is why forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems.","{{main|Hypnotherapy}}
[[Hypnotherapy]] is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as ""clinical work"". Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). There is no evidence that 'incurable' diseases are curable with hypnosis (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis), but pain and other body functions related to the diseases are controllable.Spiegel, D. and Moore, R. (1997) ""Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients"" ''Oncology'' 11(8): pp. 1179-1195Garrow, D. and Egede, L. E. (November 2006) ""National patterns and correlates of complementary and alternative medicine use in adults with diabetes"" ''Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine'' 12(9): pp. 895-902 Mascott, C. (2004) ""Hypnotherapy: A complementary therapy with broad applications""
''Diabetes Self Management'' 21(5): pp.15-18Kwekkeboom, K.L. and Gretarsdottir, E. (2006) ""Systematic review of relaxation interventions for pain"" ''Journal of Nursing Scholarship'' 38(3): pp.269-277 Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called [[past life regression|regression]], have been viewed with skepticism.Astin, J.A. ''et al.'' (2003) ""Mind-body medicine: state of the science, implications for practice"" ''Journal of the American Board of Family Practitioners'' 16(2): pp.131-147
The [[American Medical Association]] and the [[American Psychological Association]] have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that ""it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one"",http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/mem.html] and so the procedure is ""fraught with problems of potential misapplication"".http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~gallaghr/ama.html (See also [[false memory]]). This is why forensic hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems.","[1, 2, 7, 6]"
Gene therapy,(Top),99333190,2007-01-08T15:24:31Z,Ju66l3r,"Gene therapy typically aims to supplement a defective [[mutant]] [[allele]] with a functional one. Although the technology is still in ,its infancy, it has been used with some success. [[Antisense therapy]] is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is often lumped together with them.
[[Image:Gene therapy.jpg|right|thumb|340px|Gene therapy using an [[Adenovirus]] vector. A new gene is
inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified [[DNA]] into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional [[protein]].]]","''Gene therapy''' is the insertion of [[gene]]s into an individual's [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s to treat a [[disease]], and [[hereditary disease]]s in particular.
Gene therapy typically aims to supplement a defective [[mutant]] [[allele]] with a functional one. Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success. [[Antisense therapy]] is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is often lumped together with them.
[[Image:Gene therapy.jpg|right|thumb|340px|Gene therapy using an [[Adenovirus]] vector. A new gene is
inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified [[DNA]] into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional [[protein]].]]","[1, 4, 9]"
Bubble sort,Best-case performance,99549785,2007-01-09T13:03:17Z,129.132.3.216,"Bubble sort has worst-case complexity ''[[Big-O notation|O]](n2)'' on lists of size ''n''. To see why, note that each element is moved no more than one step each time. No element can be more than a distance of ''n - 1'' away from its final sorted position, so we use at most ''n - 1 = O(n)'' operations to move an element to its final sorted position, and use no more than ''(n - 1)2 = O(n2)'' operations in the worst case.
However, on a list where the smallest element is at the bottom, each pass through the list will only move it up by one step, so we will take ''n - 1'' passes to move it to its final sorted position. As each pass traverses the whole list a pass will take ''n - 1 = O(n)'' operations. Thus the number of operations in the worst case is also ''o(n2)''. We have a tight worst-case complexity bound of ''O(n2)''.","When a list is already sorted, bubblesort will pass through the list once, and find that it does not need to swap any elements. This means the list is already sorted. Thus bubblesort will take ''O(n)'' time when the list is completely sorted. It will also use considerably less time if the elements in the list are not too far from their sorted places.","[1, 2, 10]"
Stem cell,Controversy surrounding stem cell research,99615090,2007-01-09T20:47:35Z,Freshyill,"{{main|Stem cell controversy}}
There exists a widespread controversy over stem cell research that emanates from the techniques used in the creation and usage of stem cells. [[Embryonic stem cell]] research is particularly controversial because, with the present state of technology, starting a [[stem cell line]] requires the destruction of a [[embryo|human embryo]] and/or [[therapeutic cloning]]. Opponents of the research argue that this practice is a [[slippery slope]] to [[reproductive cloning]] and tantamount to the [[instrumentalization]] of a [[human being]]. Contrarily, medical researchers in the field argue that it is necessary to pursue embryonic stem cell research because the resultant technologies are expected to have significant medical potential, and that the embryos used for research are only those meant for destruction anyway. This however, confilicts with opponents holding a [[pro-life]] stance argue that an embryo is a human being and therefore entitled to dignity even if legally slated for destruction. The ensuing debate has prompted authorities around the world to seek regulatory frameworks and highlighted the fact that stem cell research represents a [[social]] and [[ethical]] challenge.","{{main|Stem cell controversy}}
There exists a widespread controversy over stem cell research that emanates from the techniques used in the creation and usage of stem cells. [[Embryonic stem cell]] research is particularly controversial because, with the present state of technology, starting a [[stem cell line]] requires the destruction of a [[embryo|human embryo]] and/or [[therapeutic cloning]]. Opponents of the research argue that this practice is a [[slippery slope]] to [[reproductive cloning]] and tantamount to the [[instrumentalization]] of a [[human being]]. Contrarily, medical researchers in the field argue that it is necessary to pursue embryonic stem cell research because the resultant technologies are expected to have significant medical potential, and that the embryos used for research are only those meant for destruction anyway. This however, conficts with opponents holding an [[anti-abortion]] stance argue that an embryo is a human being and therefore entitled to dignity even if legally slated for destruction. The ensuing debate has prompted authorities around the world to seek regulatory frameworks and highlighted the fact that stem cell research represents a [[social]] and [[ethical]] challenge.","[3, 9]"
Methamphetamine,Production,101505063,2007-01-18T05:45:39Z,Brant.irons,"[[Image:Méthamphétamine pure.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Methamphetamine Crystals]]
Methamphetamine is most structurally similar to [[methcathinone]] and [[amphetamine]]. In illicit production, it is commonly made by the [[Redox|reduction]] of [[ephedrine]] or [[pseudoephedrine]]. Most of the necessary chemicals are readily available in household products or [[over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter medicine]]s. Synthesis is relatively simple, but most methods involve flammable and corrosive chemicals. As a result, clandestine production is often discovered due to fires caused by amateur chemists working with makeshift laboratory equipment.
Most production methods involve [[hydrogenation]] of the [[hydroxyl]] group on the [[ephedrine]] or [[pseudoephedrine]] molecule. The most common method of production in the United States involves red [[phosphorus]] and [[iodine]] which forms [[hydroiodic acid]]. This is a fairly dangerous process. The red phosphorus production method can create [[phosphine]] gas, which is extremely toxic when inhaled. An increasingly common method utilizes a [[Birch reduction]] process, where metallic [[lithium]] is substituted for metallic [[sodium]] (due to the difficulty in obtaining metallic sodium). The Birch reduction (AKA the ""Nazi method"") is dangerous since the alkali metal and liquid [[anhydrous ammonia]] are both extremely reactive, and because the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added.
[[Image:methjakarta.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Industrial scale methamphetamine/MDMA factory in Cikande, [[Indonesia]]]]
A completely different synthesis procedure involves creating methamphetamine by the [[reductive amination]] of [[phenylacetone]] with [[methylamine]], both of which are currently [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] [[DEA list I chemicals|list I]] chemicals (as are pseudoephedrine and ephedrine). The reaction requires a catalyst that acts as a reducing agent, such as [[mercury-aluminum amalgam]] or platinum dioxide, also known as [[Adams' catalyst]]. This was once the preferred method of production by [[Hell's Angels|motorcycle gangs]] in [[California]], but DEA restrictions on the chemicals have made this an uncommon way to produce the drug today.
Other less-common methods use other means of hydrogenation, such as [[hydrogen]] [[gas]] in the presence of a [[catalyst]].
One of the more obvious signs of a production lab of metamphetamine in operation is the smell of a cat-[[urine]]-like odor. Meth labs can also give off noxious fumes, such as: [[phosphine]] gas, [[mercury (element)|mercury]] vapors, [[lead]], [[methylamine]] gas, solvent fumes; such as [[acetone]] or [[chloroform]], [[iodine]] vapors, white [[phosphorus]], anhydrous [[ammonia]], [[hydrogen chloride]]/[[muriatic acid]], [[hydrogen iodide]], [[lithium]]/[[sodium]] metal, [[ether]], or methamphetamine vapors.
When performed by individuals who are not trained [[chemist]]s, methamphetamine manufacture can lead to extremely dangerous situations. For example, if the red phosphorus reaction is allowed to overheat, [[phosphine]] gas can be produced. When produced in large quantities, it usually [[explode]]s, due to autoignition from diphosphine formation caused by overheating [[phosphorus]].
Until the early 1990s, methamphetamine for the US market was made mostly in labs run by drug traffickers in [[Mexico]] and [[California]]. Since then, however, authorities have discovered increasing numbers of small-scale methamphetamine labs all over the United States, mostly located in rural, suburban, or low-income areas. The [[Indiana]] [[state police]] found 1,260 labs in 2003, compared to just 6 in 1995, although this may only be a result of increased police activity.http://www.in.gov/cji/methfreeindiana/enforce.html Recently, mobile and motel-based methamphetamine labs have caught the attention of both the US news media and [[law enforcement]] agencies. The labs can cause explosions and fires, as well as expose the public to hazardous chemicals. In addition to these issues, individuals who manufacture methamphetamine are often harmed by toxic gases. Many police forces have responded by creating a specialized task force educated in responding to persons involved in methamphetamine production. However, the National Drug Threat Assessment 2006, produced by the [[Department of Justice]], found ""decreased domestic methamphetamine production in both small and large-scale laboratories..."" but also stated that ""decreases in domestic methamphetamine production have been offset by increased production in Mexico."" They concluded: ""methamphetamine availability is not likely to decline in the near term.""http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs11/18862/meth.htm
The amount of methamphetamine actually contributed to the US market by small-scale labs is disputed. Large-scale labs maintained by American criminal organizations continue to exist. In the United States, [[War on Drugs|drug policy critics]] suggest that restriction of over-the-counter medication is more politically than socially motivated, and may in fact shift the balance of supply more in favor of large criminal organizations. This may actually be considered beneficial in terms of decreasing lab accidents and environmental contamination.","[[Image:Méthamphétamine pure.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Methamphetamine Crystals]]
Methamphetamine is most structurally similar to [[methcathinone]] and [[amphetamine]]. In illicit production, it is commonly made by the [[Redox|reduction]] of [[ephedrine]] or [[pseudoephedrine]]. Most of the necessary chemicals are readily available in household products or [[over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter medicine]]s. Synthesis is relatively simple, but most methods involve flammable and corrosive chemicals. As a result, clandestine production is often discovered due to fires caused by amateur chemists working with makeshift laboratory equipment.
Most production methods involve [[hydrogenation]] of the [[hydroxyl]] group on the [[ephedrine]] or [[pseudoephedrine]] molecule. The most common method of production in the United States involves red [[phosphorus]] and [[iodine]] which forms [[hydroiodic acid]]. This is a fairly dangerous process. The red phosphorus production method can create [[phosphine]] gas, which is extremely toxic when inhaled. An increasingly common method utilizes a [[Birch reduction]] process, where metallic [[lithium]] is substituted for metallic [[sodium]] (due to the difficulty in obtaining metallic sodium). The Birch reduction (AKA the ""Nazi method"") is dangerous since the alkali metal and liquid [[anhydrous ammonia]] are both extremely reactive, and because the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added.
[[Image:methjakarta.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Industrial scale methamphetamine/MDMA factory in Cikande, [[Indonesia]]]]
A completely different synthesis procedure involves creating methamphetamine by the [[reductive amination]] of [[phenylacetone]] with [[methylamine]], both of which are currently [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] [[DEA list I chemicals|list I]] chemicals (as are pseudoephedrine and ephedrine). The reaction requires a catalyst that acts as a reducing agent, such as [[mercury-aluminum amalgam]] or platinum dioxide, also known as [[Adams' catalyst]]. This was once the preferred method of production by [[Hell's Angels|motorcycle gangs]] in [[California]], but DEA restrictions on the chemicals have made this an uncommon way to produce the drug today.
Other less-common methods use other means of hydrogenation, such as [[hydrogen]] [[gas]] in the presence of a [[catalyst]].
One of the more obvious signs of a production lab of metamphetamine in operation is the smell of a cat-[[urine]]-like odor. Meth labs can also give off noxious fumes, such as: [[phosphine]] gas, [[mercury (element)|mercury]] vapors, [[lead]], [[methylamine]] gas, solvent fumes; such as [[acetone]] or [[chloroform]], [[iodine]] vapors, white [[phosphorus]], anhydrous [[ammonia]], [[hydrogen chloride]]/[[muriatic acid]], [[hydrogen iodide]], [[lithium]]/[[sodium]] metal, [[ether]], or methamphetamine vapors.
When performed by individuals who are not trained [[chemist]]s, methamphetamine manufacture can lead to extremely dangerous situations. For example, if the red phosphorus reaction is allowed to overheat, [[phosphine]] gas can be produced. When produced in large quantities, it usually [[explode]]s, due to autoignition from diphosphine formation caused by overheating [[phosphorus]].
Until the early 1990s, methamphetamine for the US market was made mostly in labs run by drug traffickers in [[Mexico]] and [[California]]. Since then, however, authorities have discovered increasing numbers of small-scale methamphetamine labs all over the United States, mostly located in rural, suburban, or low-income areas. Simultaneously, clandestine labs throughout Mexico have dwindled. Producing around 88 percent of methamphetamine being used in America circa 1993, these labs have dropped production to around 12 percent. The [[Indiana]] [[state police]] found 1,260 labs in 2003, compared to just 6 in 1995, although this may only be a result of increased police activity.http://www.in.gov/cji/methfreeindiana/enforce.html
Recently, mobile and motel-based methamphetamine labs have caught the attention of both the US news media and [[law enforcement]] agencies. The labs can cause explosions and fires, as well as expose the public to hazardous chemicals. In addition to these issues, individuals who manufacture methamphetamine are often harmed by toxic gases. Many police forces have responded by creating a specialized task force educated in responding to persons involved in methamphetamine production.
The amount of methamphetamine actually contributed to the US market by small-scale labs is disputed. Large-scale labs maintained by American criminal organizations continue to exist. In the United States, [[War on Drugs|drug policy critics]] suggest that restriction of over-the-counter medication is more politically than socially motivated, and may in fact shift the balance of supply more in favor of large criminal organizations. This may actually be considered beneficial in terms of decreasing lab accidents and environmental contamination.","[1, 2, 10]"
K-d tree,Complexity,101537807,2007-01-18T11:28:03Z,83.83.50.37,"* Building a static ''k''d-tree from ''n'' points takes [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') time.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(''sqrt''(n)+k) time, where k is the number of the reported points.","* Building a static ''k''d-tree from ''n'' points takes [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') time.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(''n''1-1/d +''k'') time, where k is the number of the reported points, and d the dimension of the ''k''d-tree.","[3, 10]"
K-d tree,(Top),101734676,2007-01-19T05:44:36Z,User A1,"{{lowercase|title=''k''d-tree}}
[[Image:3dtree.png|thumb|A 3-dimensional ''k''d-tree. The first split (red) cuts the root cell (white) into two subcells, each of which is then split (green) into two subcells. Finally, each of those four is split (blue) into two subcells. Since there is no more splitting, the final eight are called leaf cells. The yellow spheres represent the tree vertices.|400px|right]]
In [[computer science]], a '''''k''d-tree''' (short for ''k-dimensional [[tree data structure|tree]]'') is a [[space partitioning|space-partitioning]] [[data structure]] for organizing [[Point (geometry)|point]]s in a ''k''-dimensional [[Euclidean space|space]]. ''k''d-trees are designed to support searches involving a multidimensional search key (especially range searches of the form ""find all points in such-and-such region""), and they are a special case of [[BSP tree]]s.
A ''k''d-tree uses only splitting [[Plane (mathematics)|plane]]s that are [[perpendicular]] to one of the [[coordinate system]] axes. This differs from BSP trees, in which arbitrary splitting planes can be used. In addition, every [[node (computer science)|node]] of a ''k''d-tree, from the [[root node|root]] to the [[leaf node|leaves]], stores a point. This differs from BSP trees, in which leaves are typically the only nodes that contain points (or other geometric [[primitive (geometry)|primitives]]). As a consequence, each splitting plane must go through one of the points in the ''k''d-tree. [[Kd-trie|''k''d-tries]] are a variant that store data only in leaf nodes.","{{lowercase|title=''k''d-tree}}
[[Image:3dtree.png|thumb|A 3-dimensional ''k''d-tree. The first split (red) cuts the root cell (white) into two subcells, each of which is then split (green) into two subcells. Finally, each of those four is split (blue) into two subcells. Since there is no more splitting, the final eight are called leaf cells. The yellow spheres represent the tree vertices.|400px|right]]
In [[computer science]], a '''''k''d-tree''' (short for ''k-dimensional [[tree data structure|tree]]'') is a [[space partitioning|space-partitioning]] [[data structure]] for organizing [[Point (geometry)|point]]s in a ''k''-dimensional [[Euclidean space|space]]. ''k''d-trees are a useful data structure for several applications, such as searches involving a multidimensional search key (e.g. range searches and [[Nearest neighbour search|nearest neighbour searches]]). ''k''d-trees are a special case of [[BSP tree]]s.
A ''k''d-tree uses only splitting [[Plane (mathematics)|plane]]s that are [[perpendicular]] to one of the [[coordinate system]] axes. This differs from BSP trees, in which arbitrary splitting planes can be used. In addition, every [[node (computer science)|node]] of a ''k''d-tree, from the [[root node|root]] to the [[leaf node|leaves]], stores a point. This differs from BSP trees, in which leaves are typically the only nodes that contain points (or other geometric [[primitive (geometry)|primitives]]). As a consequence, each splitting plane must go through one of the points in the ''k''d-tree. [[Kd-trie|''k''d-tries]] are a variant that store data only in leaf nodes.","[1, 4, 9]"
Human brain,Comparison of the brain and a computer,101808467,2007-01-19T16:34:16Z,207.99.64.28,"Much interest has been focused on comparing the brain with [[computer]]s. A variety of obvious analogies exist: for example, individual neurons can be compared to [[transistor]]s on a [[microchip]], and the specialised parts of the brain can be compared with [[graphics card]]s and other system [[Electronic component|component]]s. However, such comparisons are fraught with difficulties. Perhaps the most fundamental difference between brains and computers is that today's computers operate by performing often sequential instructions from an input program, while no clear analogy of a program appears in human brains. The closest equivalent would be the idea of a [[logic]]al process, but the nature and existence of such entities are subjects of philosophical debate. Given [[Alan Turing|Turing's]] model of computation, the [[Turing machine]], this may be a functional, not fundamental, distinction. However, Maass and Markram have recently argued that ""in contrast to Turing machines, generic computations by neural circuits are not [[digital]], and are not carried out on static inputs, but rather on functions of time"" (the Turing machine computes [[computable function]]s). Ultimately, computers were not designed to be models of the brain, though subjects like neural networks attempt to abstract the behavior of the brain in a way that can be simulated computationally.
In addition to the technical differences, other key differences exist. The brain is massively [[parallel processing|parallel]] and interwoven, whereas programming of this kind is extremely difficult for computer software writers (most parallel systems run semi-independently, for example each working on a small separate 'chunk' of a problem). The human brain is also mediated by chemicals and analog processes, many of which are only understood at a basic level and others of which may not yet have been discovered, so that a full description is not yet available in science. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, the human brain appears hard-wired with certain abilities, such as the ability to learn language (cf. [[Broca's area]]), to interact with experience and unchosen [[emotion]]s, and usually develops within a [[culture]].
Nevertheless, there have been numerous attempts to quantify differences in capability between the human brain and computers. According to [[Hans Moravec]], by extrapolating from known capabilities of the [[retina]] to process image inputs, a brain has a processing capacity of 100 trillion [[instructions per second]], and is likely to be surpassed by computers by 2030. [http://www.transhumanist.com/volume1/moravec.htm]
The computational power of the human brain is hard to measure because the human brain is not a simple number cruncher. For instance, multiplying two large numbers can be done in a fraction of a second on a computer, while the average human may need to take a pen and paper approach to keep track while he or she performs the calculation in 5 or more seconds. Yet while the human brain is ""slowly crunching"" this math problem in an attentive state, it is subconsciously processing data from millions of nerve cells. The brain is handling the visual input of the paper and surrounding area, the aural input from both ears, and the sensory input of millions of cells throughout the body. The brain is regulating the heartbeat, monitoring oxygen levels and breathing accordingly, monitoring thirst, and hundreds of other essential factors throughout the body. The brain is also comparing data from the eyes and the sensory cells in the arms and hands to keep track of the position of the pen and paper as it writes the equation.","Much interest has been focused on comparing the brain with [[computer]]s. A variety of obvious analogies exist: for example, individual neurons can be compared to [[transistor]]s on a [[microchip]], and the specialised parts of the brain can be compared with [[graphics card]]s and other system [[Electronic component|component]]s. However, such comparisons are fraught with difficulties. Perhaps the most fundamental difference between brains and computers is that today's computers operate by performing often sequential instructions from an input program, while no clear analogy of a program appears in human brains. The closest equivalent would be the idea of a [[logic]]al process, but the nature and existence of such entities are subjects of philosophical debate. Given [[Alan Turing|Turing's]] model of computation, the [[Turing machine]], this may be a functional, not fundamental, distinction. However, Maass and Markram have recently argued that ""in contrast to Turing machines, generic computations by neural circuits are not [[digital]], and are not carried out on static inputs, but rather on functions of time"" (the Turing machine computes [[computable function]]s). Ultimately, computers were not designed to be models of the brain, though subjects like neural networks attempt to abstract the behavior of the brain in a way that can be simulated computationally.
In addition to the technical differences, other key differences exist. The brain is massively [[parallel processing|parallel]] and interwoven, whereas programming of this kind is extremely difficult for computer software writers (most parallel systems run semi-independently, for example each working on a small separate 'chunk' of a problem). The human brain is also mediated by chemicals and analog processes, many of which are only understood at a basic level and others of which may not yet have been discovered, so that a full description is not yet available in science. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, the human brain appears hard-wired with certain abilities, such as the ability to learn language (cf. [[Broca's area]]), to interact with experience and unchosen [[emotion]]s, and usually develops within a [[culture]]. - Retort: Computers are hardwired to do some functions like talk on a network or rasterize a scene. These functions like in the brain, can be overwritten in firmware upgrades or software (high level brain).
Nevertheless, there have been numerous attempts to quantify differences in capability between the human brain and computers. According to [[Hans Moravec]], by extrapolating from known capabilities of the [[retina]] to process image inputs, a brain has a processing capacity of 100 trillion [[instructions per second]], and is likely to be surpassed by computers by 2030. [http://www.transhumanist.com/volume1/moravec.htm]
The computational power of the human brain is hard to measure because the human brain is not a simple number cruncher. For instance, multiplying two large numbers can be done in a fraction of a second on a computer, while the average human may need to take a pen and paper approach to keep track while he or she performs the calculation in 5 or more seconds. Yet while the human brain is ""slowly crunching"" this math problem in an attentive state, it is subconsciously processing data from millions of nerve cells. The brain is handling the visual input of the paper and surrounding area, the aural input from both ears, and the sensory input of millions of cells throughout the body. The brain is regulating the heartbeat, monitoring oxygen levels and breathing accordingly, monitoring thirst, and hundreds of other essential factors throughout the body. The brain is also comparing data from the eyes and the sensory cells in the arms and hands to keep track of the position of the pen and paper as it writes the equation.",[1]
Down syndrome,Characteristics,102114716,2007-01-21T00:59:36Z,Jayaprakash parameswaran,"[[Image:Brushfield.jpg|thumb|right|Example of white spots on the [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as ''[[Brushfield spots]]''.]]
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics:{{cite web |url=http://healthlibrary.epnet.com/GetContent.aspx?token=94e729bf-2a24-406f-8083-f1484720ce65&chunkiid=11897 |title=Down syndrome |first=Debra |last=Wood |year=2005 |accessdate = 2006-06-30}} oblique eye fissures with [[epicanthic fold|epicanthic skin folds]] on the inner corner of the eyes, [[muscle hypotonia]] (poor muscle tone), a flat nasal bridge, a [[Single transverse palmar crease|single palmar fold]] (also known as a simian crease), a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils), a short neck, white spots on the [[Eye#Anatomy of the mammalian eye|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive flexibility in joints, [[congenital heart defect]]s, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, and a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger. Most individuals with Down syndrome have [[mental retardation]] in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range,{{cite web |url=http://www.keepkidshealthy.com/welcome/conditions/downsyndrome.html |title=Keep Kids Healthy article on Down syndrome |accessedate=2006-04-10}} with scores of children having Mosaic Down syndrome (explained below) typically 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} In addition, individuals with Down syndrome can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system.","[[Image:Brushfield.jpg|thumb|right|Example of white spots on the [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as ''[[Brushfield spots]]''.]]
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics:{{cite web |url=http://healthlibrary.epnet.com/GetContent.aspx?token=94e729bf-2a24-406f-8083-f1484720ce65&chunkiid=11897 |title=Down syndrome |first=Debra |last=Wood |year=2005 |accessdate = 2006-06-30}} oblique eye fissures with [[epicanthic fold|epicanthic skin folds]] on the inner corner of the eyes, [[muscle hypotonia]] (poor muscle tone), a flat nasal bridge, a [[Single transverse palmar crease|single palmar fold]] (also known as a simian crease), a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils), a short neck, white spots on the [[Eye#Anatomy of the mammalian eye|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive flexibility in joints, [[congenital heart defect]]s, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, and a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger. Most individuals with Down syndrome have [[mental retardation]] in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range,{{cite web |url=http://www.keepkidshealthy.com/welcome/conditions/downsyndrome.html |title=Keep Kids Healthy article on Down syndrome |accessedate=2006-04-10}} with scores of children having Mosaic Down syndrome (explained below) typically 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} In addition, individuals with Down syndrome can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system.
'''clinical features'''
general: hypotonia with tendency to keep mouth open and protrude the tongue,diastasis recti,
central nervous system: mental retardation
craniofacial: brachycephaly[small anterioposterior diameter],mild microcephaly,with upslanting palpebral fissure,smallnose with low nasal bridge and inner epicanthic folds
eyes: speckling of iris[brushfield spots],fine lens field opacities, myopia,nystagmus,squint, blocked tear duct
ear: small,hearing loss
dentition: hypoplasia,periodontal disease
neck :short,chance of atlantoaxial dislocation
hands: single transverse crease[simisn creasr], hypoplasia of middlephalanx of fifth finger with clinodactyly[incurving of finger],distal palmar axial triradius,ulnar loop dermal ridge pattern on all digits
feet: wide gap between first and 2nd toes,plantar crease between 1st and 2nd toes
pelvis:hypoplasia with outward lateral flare of wings, and shallow acetabular angle
cardiac: endocardial cushion defect in 40%,venticular septal defect,patent ductus arteriosus are common
skin:loose skin of posterior neck
hair: often sparse,soft,and fine
genetalia small penis and decreased testicular volume,fertilityis rare but reported in females
hemopoietic system: increased incidence of acute leukaemia,neonate with downs can develop transient abnormalities in blood [TAM],transient abnormal myelopoiesis
references
1.jones:in smiths recognizable pattern of human malformations,pp7-8
2.beherman,kligman, jenson:in nelson text book of pediatrics,pp1696-1697","[1, 4, 10]"
Hypnosis,Hyper–suggestibility theory,102250896,2007-01-21T18:17:02Z,Doc pato,"
Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject's attention is narrowed by certain techniques used by the hypnotist. As attention is narrowed, the hypnotist's words eventually take over the inner voice of the subject. From this theory comes the implication that only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestible. Many people, however, find the narrowing of attention desirable; indeed it is the central tenet of [[meditation]] and at the heart of most [[martial arts]]. [[Milton H. Erickson]] was said to have told his subjects, ""... and my voice will go with you"", meaning that Erickson's voice would be a comforting presence in the face of adversity and trouble.","
Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject focuses attention by responding to the suggestion of the hypnotist. As attention is focused and magnified, the hypnotist's words are gradually accepted without the subject carrying any conscious censorship of what is being said. This is not unlike the athlete listening to the last pieces of advice from a coach minutes before an important sport event: Concentration filters out anything that is unimportant and magnifies what is said about what really matters for the subject.Kroger, William S. (1977) ''Clinical and experimental hypnosis in medicine, dentistry, and psychology'' Lippincott, Philadelphia, ISBN 0-397-50377-6
It would be a complete misinterpretation to conclude from this that only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestible. Hypnotized subjects will go along the suggestions of the hypnotist as long as this does not violate their beliefs and will wake up otherwise.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 6]"
Hypnosis,Research on hypnosis,102250896,2007-01-21T18:17:02Z,Doc pato,"There is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis research which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Much research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the ""state"" of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas of psychological functioning.
Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more). {{Fact|date=December 2006}}","There is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis research which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Much research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the ""state"" of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas of psychological functioning. One of the first scientifically controlled studies in hypnosis was done in 1968 by Harvard University Consultant Dr. Robert W. Habbick, at Syracuse University, in cooperation with Dr. George Estabrooks, Dr. William F. Anderson and Dr. Milton Erickson.
Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more). {{Fact|date=December 2006}}
Recently, there are reports that efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with [[Cognitive therapy|cognitive behavioral therapy]], exercise, and a low-fat diet) may be effective.http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsConditions/Obesitycc.html","[1, 5, 9]"
Methamphetamine,(Top),102417705,2007-01-22T12:15:01Z,Benjiwolf,"{{Drugbox|
|IUPAC_name = ''(S)-N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine''
| image=Methamphetamine-2D-skeletal.png
| width=200
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=1206
| DrugBank=
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.2 g/mol
| bioavailability= Depends on route of administration
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 9-15 hours[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12507968&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Methamphetamine and amphetamine pharmacokinetics in oral fluid and plasma after controlled oral methamphetamine administration to human volunteers.]
| excretion = [[Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_UK =
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status = Class A([[New Zealand|NZ]]) Schedule 5([[South Africa|SA]]) Injectable:Class A, Oral: A([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| routes_of_administration= Medical: Oral Recreational: Oral, [[Intravenous therapy|I.V.]], [[Intramuscular injection|I.M.]], Insufflation, Inhalation, Suppository
}}
'''Methamphetamine''' (sometimes referred to as '''methyl[[amphetamine]]''' or '''desoxyephedrine''') is a [[stimulant|psychostimulant]] [[psychoactive drug|drug]] used primarily for [[recreational drug use|recreational]] purposes (under the street-names '''crystal meth''', '''tina''', '''krank''', '''tweak''', and '''ice'''), but a variant is sometimes prescribed in minute quantities and very short time periods for [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] and [[narcolepsy]] under the brand name [[Desoxyn]].""Crystal meth"" refers specifically to the [[Wiktionary:crystaline|crystaline]], [[pipe smoking|smokeable]] form of the drug and is not used for the drug in pill or powdered form. Therapeutic levels for specific ailments are not recommended for longer than just 6 weeks, and dosage levels may be less than 1% the typical doses for abusers, and generally even at most not more than 10% a typical small recreational dose.
It is considered dangerous and highly toxic to humans.[http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hm/methlabcleanuplevelsupport.pdf] Special procedures have been established to deal with and clean up clandestine meth labs, as the residues are poisonous and can negatively impact children and women especially. It has been reported, however, that meth may shrink the male testicles somewhat, so even entering the room where a meth lab has been, is questionable for anyone without protective gear. Statistics show that the purity level has been increasing and predict greater deleterious effect from this. It is illegal to use and is placed in the greatest threat level of drug category. Users are sometimes referred to as ""tweakers"" as a result of twitching and other behaviors sometimes observed. The american dental association puts out specific guidelines to deal with the negative impact meth has on the mouth [http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp], and a term has been coined long ago to characterize the often horrendous state of a meth users teeth as ""meth mouth"".[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/meth/body/][http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/11meth.htm?ei=50908&en=d2ce61c6670025478ex]
It causes euphoria and excitement by acting directly on the brain's reward mechanisms, thus making it highly [[addictive]]. Methamphetamine rapidly enters the brain and causes a cascading release of [[norepinephrine]] and [[dopamine]] (and to a lesser extent, [[serotonin]]). Users may become obsessed or perform repetitive tasks such as cleaning, hand-washing or assembling and disassembling objects.
Withdrawal is characterized by increased sleeping and eating, and depression-like symptoms, often accompanied by anxiety and drug-craving.{{cite journal | author = McGregor C, Srisurapanont M, Jittiwutikarn J, Laobhripatr S, Wongtan T, White J | title = The nature, time course and severity of methamphetamine withdrawal. | journal = Addiction | volume = 100 | issue = 9 | pages = 1320-9 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16128721}}","{{Drugbox|
|IUPAC_name = ''(S)-N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine''
| image=Methamphetamine-2D-skeletal.png
| width=200
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=1206
| DrugBank=
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.2 g/mol
| bioavailability= Depends on route of administration
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 9-15 hours[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12507968&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Methamphetamine and amphetamine pharmacokinetics in oral fluid and plasma after controlled oral methamphetamine administration to human volunteers.]
| excretion = [[Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_UK =
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status = Class A([[New Zealand|NZ]]) Schedule 5([[South Africa|SA]]) Injectable:Class A, Oral: A([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| routes_of_administration= Medical: Oral Recreational: Oral, [[Intravenous therapy|I.V.]], [[Intramuscular injection|I.M.]], Insufflation, Inhalation, Suppository
}}
'''Methamphetamine''' (sometimes referred to as '''methyl[[amphetamine]]''' or '''desoxyephedrine''') is a [[stimulant|psychostimulant]] [[psychoactive drug|drug]] used primarily for [[recreational drug use|recreational]] purposes (under the street-names '''crystal meth''', '''tina''', '''krank''', '''tweak''', and '''ice'''), but a variant is sometimes prescribed in minute quantities and very short time periods for [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] and [[narcolepsy]] under the brand name [[Desoxyn]].""Crystal meth"" refers specifically to the [[Wiktionary:crystaline|crystaline]], [[pipe smoking|smokeable]] form of the drug and is not used for the drug in pill or powdered form. Therapeutic levels for specific ailments are not recommended for longer than just 6 weeks, and dosage levels may be less than 1% the typical doses for abusers, and generally even at most not more than 10% a typical small recreational dose.
It is considered dangerous and highly toxic to humans.[http://www.medscape.com/medline/abstract/9952424][http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hm/methlabcleanuplevelsupport.pdf] Special procedures have been established to deal with and clean up clandestine meth labs, as the residues are poisonous and can negatively impact children and women especially. It has been reported, however, that meth may shrink the male testicles somewhat, so even entering the room where a meth lab has been, is questionable for anyone without protective gear. Statistics show that the purity level has been increasing and predict greater deleterious effect from this. It is illegal to use and is placed in the greatest threat level of drug category. Users are sometimes referred to as ""tweakers"" as a result of twitching and other behaviors sometimes observed. The american dental association puts out specific guidelines to deal with the negative impact meth has on the mouth [http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp], and a term has been coined long ago to characterize the often horrendous state of a meth users teeth as ""meth mouth"".[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/meth/body/][http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/11meth.htm?ei=50908&en=d2ce61c6670025478ex]
It causes euphoria and excitement by acting directly on the brain's reward mechanisms, thus making it highly [[addictive]]. Methamphetamine rapidly enters the brain and causes a cascading release of [[norepinephrine]] and [[dopamine]] (and to a lesser extent, [[serotonin]]). Users may become obsessed or perform repetitive tasks such as cleaning, hand-washing or assembling and disassembling objects.
Withdrawal is characterized by increased sleeping and eating, and depression-like symptoms, often accompanied by anxiety and drug-craving.{{cite journal | author = McGregor C, Srisurapanont M, Jittiwutikarn J, Laobhripatr S, Wongtan T, White J | title = The nature, time course and severity of methamphetamine withdrawal. | journal = Addiction | volume = 100 | issue = 9 | pages = 1320-9 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16128721}}",[11]
Human cloning,Purposes,102786694,2007-01-23T23:56:06Z,70.232.54.27,"The possible purposes of human cloning can best be explained by referring to two kinds of cloning that would both normally use the [[somatic cell]] [[nuclear transfer]] technique. These are commonly referred to, respectively, as ""reproductive cloning"" and ""therapeutic cloning""{{cite journal | author=Byrne JA et al | title=Commentary on human cloning | journal=Differentiation | year=2002 | pages=154 | volume=69 | id=PMID 11841469 | url=http://www.reproductivecloning.net/cloning.pdf}}.
*In '''[[Cloning#Reproductive Cloning|reproductive cloning]]''', the cloned embryo is implanted in a woman's [[uterus]]. This should develop into a normal baby, its only distinction being that it would be almost genetically identical to the DNA donor. Scientific knowledge of normal and abnormal development could also be found.
*'''[[Therapeutic cloning]]''' could be used to provide replacement organs, or tissue for people who have had theirs damaged. The cloned embryo would contain DNA taken from the transplant patient. After [[nuclear transfer]], the cell would divide to form an embryo and [[stem cell]]s would be removed. Stem cells could develop into any tissue or organ. These cloned organs would be compatible with the person's immune system, so no [[immunosuppressant]] drugs would have to be taken after the operation. However, no therapies have been developed yet from this procedure.","The possible purposes of human cloning can best be explained by referring to two kinds of cloning that would both normally use the [[somatic cell]] [[nuclear transfer]] technique. These are commonly referred to, respectively, as ""reproductive cloning"" and ""therapeutic cloning""{{cite journal | author=Byrne JA et al | title=Commentary on human cloning | journal=Differentiation | year=2002 | pages=154 | volume=69 | id=PMID 11841469 | url=http://www.reproductivecloning.net/cloning.pdf}}.
*Playing dead rising has many benifits, if you type in(hello myself)you will clone your self. This is a good advantage to gain level two rights.
*'''[[Therapeutic cloning]]''' could be used to provide replacement organs, or tissue for people who have had theirs damaged. The cloned embryo would contain DNA taken from the transplant patient. After [[nuclear transfer]], the cell would divide to form an embryo and [[stem cell]]s would be removed. Stem cells could develop into any tissue or organ. These cloned organs would be compatible with the person's immune system, so no [[immunosuppressant]] drugs would have to be taken after the operation. However, no therapies have been developed yet from this procedure.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,102915245,2007-01-24T15:33:26Z,Lestar,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not engrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not engrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].",[9]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,104009240,2007-01-29T04:25:13Z,128.187.0.178,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.","Circadian rhythms adddddddddddddavaewagawergbinmawebhinoware believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during tv asegvaesd
bgah\ehr'nerhe daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''Neurospora'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated rgmechanism.
rg
Thadfe simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Syadbnechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown tbafo sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryoasftic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown vdto be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, althoaugh the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not sdfvhare any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
asdv",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,104013047,2007-01-29T04:49:27Z,Mcamargo,"Circadiaan rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patternssdev of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
erba
Thee rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleebp|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or sebhorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Giverebs""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in abseneadfwce of the external stimuli.
efw
Fweree running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not gewaengrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This res
\
fungus.
gearch has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not engrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].",[11]
Methadone,(Top),104957850,2007-02-01T23:28:53Z,24.252.204.15,"{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-dimethylamino-4,4-diphenyl-heptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.png
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-80(-92)
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 hrs.
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]] and in the treatment of [[narcotic]] addiction. It was developed in [[Germany]] in [[1937]], and in the [[USA]] was first brought to market by the pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company]].","{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-dimethylamino-4,4-diphenyl-heptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.png
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-80(-92)
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 hrs.
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]] and in the treatment of [[narcotic]] addiction. It was developed in [[Germany]] in [[1937]], and in the [[USA]] was first brought to market by the pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company]].
POO
Methadone/dolophine, was first synthesized in [[1937]] by [[Germans|German]] scientists [[Max Bockmühl]] and [[Gustav Ehrhart]] at [[IG Farben]] ([[Höchst (Frankfurt am Main)|Hoechst-Am-Main]], now part of [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]) during their search for an [[analgesic]] that would be easier to use during surgery (and less potentially addictive, post-op) than [[morphine]]. Methadone is a [[Schedule II]] drug under the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].[http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf]
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects. Chemically, methadone is the simplest of the [[opioid]]s.
Methadone was introduced into the [[United States]] in [[1947]] by Eli Lilly and Company as an [[analgesic]] (They gave it the trade name Dolophine®, which is now registered to [[Roxane Laboratories]]). Since then, it has been best known for its use in treating [[narcotic]] addiction, though it is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late [[2004]], the cost of a one-month supply of methadone was $20, as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of [[Demerol]] at $120.
Methadone (as Dolophine) was first manufactured in the USA by [[Mallinckrodt]] pharmaceuticals, a [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]-based subsidiary of the [[Tyco International]] corporation. Mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early [[1990s]]. Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. However, the major producer remains Mallinckrodt. Mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersible tablets and oral concentrate under the name ''Methadose'' in the United States.
Generally, one will only hear ""dolophine"" used by older addicts who used the product in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. Medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone, when actually it is the reverse, may also use the old brand name. A persistent but untrue [[urban legend]] claims that the trade name ""Dolophine"" was coined in tribute to [[Adolf Hitler]] by its German creators, and it is sometimes even claimed that the drug was originally named ""adolphine"" or ""adolophine"". The claim is still presented as fact by [[Church of Scientology]] literatureButtnor, Al. ""[http://www.freedommag.org/english/canada/vol004i1/page13.htm The Drug Problem: How It CAN be Solved]"". ''[[Freedom Magazine]]'' (vol. 4, iss. 1) p. 15. Retrieved Apr. 7, 2006. and was repeated by actor and vocal Scientologist [[Tom Cruise]] in a 2005 ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' interview. However, as the magazine pointed out, this isn't true: the name ""Dolophine"" was in fact created after the war by the American branch of Eli Lilly,http://www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html and the name ""Adolphine"" (never an actual name of the drug) was created in the United States in the early 1970s.http://www.indro-online.de/discovery.pdf ([[PDF]] format) ''Dolophine'' actually comes from the German ''Dolphium''. The name derives from the [[Latin]] ''dolor'' which means ""pain"" and ''phine'' which means ""end"".","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
Hypnosis,External links,105402384,2007-02-03T20:32:02Z,68.81.139.171,"* [http://www.hypnosis-research.org/hypnosis/index.html/American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, Resources for Research and Teaching: Hypnosis and Related States Research Database]
* [http://www.asch.net/ajch.htm American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis]
* [http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary], [[skepticism|skeptical]] review of the veracity of hypnosis.
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0008D31F-BD5B-1C6F-84A9809EC588EF21 Scientific American Article on Hypnosis]
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/hypnosis.htm Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com]
* [http://www.hypnotherapists.org.uk The National Council for Hypnotherapy] The only non-for-profit governing body in the UK
* [http://www.nrah.co.uk The (British) National Register of Advanced Hypnotherapists]
* [http://apmha.com American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association]
* [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]], founded by [[Milton Erickson]] in 1957: ""Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications.""
* [http://www.ngh.net National Guild of Hypnotists] (USA)
* [http://www.ijceh.com International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis]
* [http://www.joes.com/home/hypnosis/ Journey of the Mind]
* [http://www.dangers-of-hypnosis.co.uk/ The Dangers of Hypnosis]
* [http://hypnoticmindtraining.com/ Covert hypnosis audio newsletter] -- A free audio newsletter on covert hypnosis","* [http://www.hypnosis-research.org/hypnosis/index.html/American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, Resources for Research and Teaching: Hypnosis and Related States Research Database]
* [http://www.asch.net/ajch.htm American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis]
* [http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary], [[skepticism|skeptical]] review of the veracity of hypnosis.
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0008D31F-BD5B-1C6F-84A9809EC588EF21 Scientific American Article on Hypnosis]
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/hypnosis.htm Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com]
* [http://www.hypnotherapists.org.uk The National Council for Hypnotherapy] The only non-for-profit governing body in the UK
* [http://www.nrah.co.uk The (British) National Register of Advanced Hypnotherapists]
* [http://apmha.com American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association]
* [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]], founded by [[Milton Erickson]] in 1957: ""Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications.""
* [http://www.ngh.net National Guild of Hypnotists] (USA)
* [http://www.ijceh.com International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis]",[11]
DNA sequencing,Large-scale sequencing strategies,106392708,2007-02-07T20:23:31Z,Loris,"Current methods can directly sequence only short lengths of DNA at a time. For example, modern sequencing machines using the Sanger method can achieve a maximum of around 1000 base pairs [http://www.appliedbiosystems.com/catalog/myab/StoreCatalog/products/CategoryDetails.jsp?hierarchyID=102&category1st=a50&category2nd=a51&category3rd=111907]. This limitation is due to the geometrically decreasing probability of chain termination at increasing lengths, as well as physical limitations on gel size and resolution.
It is often necessary to obtain the sequence of much larger regions. For example, even simple bacterial [[genome]]s contain millions of base pairs, and the [[human genome]] has more than 3 billion. Several strategies have been devised for large-scale DNA sequencing, including [[primer walking]] (see also [[chromosome walking]]) and [[shotgun sequencing]]. These involve taking many small ''reads'' of the DNA through the Sanger method and subsequently assembling them into a contiguous sequence. The different strategies have different tradeoffs in speed and accuracy; for example, the shotgun method is the most practical for sequencing large genomes, but its assembly process is complex and potentially error-prone.
It is easier to obtain high quality sequence data when the desired DNA is purified and amplified from any contaminants that may be in the original sample. This can be achieved through [[PCR]] if it is practical to design primers that cover the entire desired region. Alternatively, the sample can be [[clone (genetics)|cloned]] using a bacterial [[vector (biology)|vector]], harnessing bacteria to ""grow"" copies of the desired DNA a few thousand base pairs at a time. Most large-scale sequencing efforts involve the preparation of a large ''library'' of such clones. The advantage of sequencing clones over PCR-products is that the possibility of the presence of non-specific PCR products that may cause signal noise is virtually eliminated.","Current methods can directly sequence only short lengths of DNA at a time. For example, modern sequencing machines using the Sanger method can achieve a maximum of around 1000 base pairs [http://www.appliedbiosystems.com/catalog/myab/StoreCatalog/products/CategoryDetails.jsp?hierarchyID=102&category1st=a50&category2nd=a51&category3rd=111907]. This limitation is due to the geometrically decreasing probability of chain termination at increasing lengths, as well as physical limitations on gel size and resolution.
It is often necessary to obtain the sequence of much larger regions. For example, even simple bacterial [[genome]]s contain millions of base pairs, and the [[chromosome 1 (human)|human chromosome 1]] has about 246 million. Several strategies have been devised for larger-scale DNA sequencing. [[Primer walking]] (see also [[chromosome walking]]), often with [[clone (genetics)|cloning]] and sub-cloning steps (dependent on the size of the region to be sequenced), used to be the standard method. With the increase in computing power, [[shotgun sequencing]] is now common, or used as part of a hybrid method. These strategies all involve taking many small ''reads'' of the DNA by one of the above methods and subsequently assembling them into a contiguous sequence. The different strategies have different tradeoffs in speed and accuracy; the shotgun method is the most practical for sequencing large genomes, but its assembly process is complex and potentially error-prone - particularly in the presence of repeating sequences.
It is only possible to obtain high quality sequence data when the desired segment of DNA is relatively pure, i.e. free from other contaminants, including all other DNA. This can be achieved through [[PCR]] for shorter regions (several kilobases), if a very short sequence at both ends is known. Alternatively, the sample can be [[clone (genetics)|cloned]] using a ""[[vector (biology)|vector]]"", essentially using bacteria to ""grow"" copies of the desired DNA (less than one to tens of thousands of base-pairs per clone). The vector DNA can then be easily purified away from the cell and the rest of the cell's DNA. Most large-scale sequencing efforts involve the preparation of a large ''library'' of such clones. A disadvantage of sequencing clones is that some areas may be ''un-clonable'' due to deleterious effect of the cloned sequence on the host bacterium. On the other hand, PCR can also generate artifacts, including the creation of non-specific PCR products.","[1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10]"
Asperger syndrome,Social differences,106529374,2007-02-08T08:54:51Z,203.51.185.90,"Although there is no single feature that all people with AS share, difficulties with [[social behavior]] are nearly universal and are one of the most important defining criteria. People with AS lack the natural ability to see the subtexts of social interaction, and may lack the ability to communicate their own emotional state, resulting in well-meaning remarks that may offend, or finding it hard to know what is ""acceptable"". The unwritten rules of social behavior that mystify so many with AS have been termed the ""hidden curriculum"".Myles, Brenda Smith; Trautman, Melissa; and Schelvan, Ronda (2004). The Hidden Curriculum: practical solutions for understanding unstated rules in social situations. Shawnee Mission, Kansas: Autism Asperger Publishing Co., 2004. ISBN 1-931282-60-9. People with AS must learn these social skills intellectually through seemingly contrived, dry, math-like logic rather than intuitively through normal emotional interaction.Levanthal-Belfer, Laurie and Coe, Cassandra (2004). ""Asperger Syndrome in Young Children: A Developmental Approach for Parents and Professionals"". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, p. 161. ISBN 1-84310-748-1
Non-[[autistic]]s are able to gather information about other people's [[cognitive]] and emotional states based on clues gleaned from the [[social environment|environment]] and other people's [[facial expression]] and [[body language]], but, in this respect, people with AS are impaired; this is sometimes called [[mind-blindness]].Romanowski, Patricia; Kirby, Barbara L. The Oasis Guide To Asperger SyndromeLevanthal-Belfer and Coe (2004), pp. 160-161. Mind-blindness is also known as a lack of [[theory of mind]].Baker, L. & Welkowitz, L.A. (eds.) Asperger’s Syndrome: Intervening in Clinics, Schools, and Communities (Erlbaum Assoc, 2005). Without Theory of Mind, AS individuals lack the ability to recognize and understand the thoughts and feelings of others. Deprived of this insightful information, they are unable to interpret or understand the desires or intentions of others and thereby are unable to predict what to expect of others or what others may expect of them. This often leads to social awkwardness and inappropriate behavior. In ''Asperger's Syndrome, Intervening'' ''in Schools, Clinics, and Communities,'' Tony Attwood categorizes the many ways that lack of ""theory of mind"" can negatively impact the social interactions of people with Aspergers:Baker, Linda & Welkowitz, Lawrence A. '' Asperger's Syndrome; Intervening in Schools, Clinics and Communities,'' New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 2005.
#Difficulty reading the social and emotional messages in the eyes - People with AS don't look at eyes often, and when they do, they can't read them.
#Making literal interpretation - AS individuals have trouble interpreting colloquialisms, sarcasm, and metaphors.
#Being considered disrespectful and rude - Prone to egocentric behavior, individuals with Aspergers miss cues and warning signs that this behavior is inappropriate.
#Honesty and deception - Children with Aspergers are often considered ""too honest"" and have difficulty being deceptive, even at the expense of hurting someone's feelings.
#Becoming aware of making social errors - As children with Aspergers mature, and become aware of their mindblindness, their fear of making a social mistake, and their self-criticism when they do so, can lead to social phobia.
#A sense of paranoia - Because of their mindblindness, persons with Aspergers have trouble distinguishing the difference between the deliberate or accidental actions of others, which can in turn lead to a feeling of paranoia.
#Managing conflict - Being unable to understand other points of view can lead to inflexibility and an inability to negotiate conflict resolution. Once the conflict is resolved, remorse may not be evident.
#Awareness of hurting the feelings of others - A lack of empathy often leads to unintentionally offensive or insensitive behaviors.
#Repairing someone's feelings - Lacking intuition about the feelings of others, people with AS have little understanding of how to console someone or how to make them feel better.
#Recognizing signs of boredom - Inability to understand other people's interests can lead AS persons to be inattentive to others. Conversely, people with AS often fail to notice when others are uninterested.
#Introspection and self-consciousness - Individuals with AS have difficulty understanding their own feelings or their impact on the feelings of other people.
#Clothing and personal hygiene - People with AS tend to be less affected by peer pressure than others. As a result, they often do what is comfortable and are unconcerned about their impact on others.
#Reciprocal love and grief - Since people with AS react more practically than emotionally, their expressions of affection and grief are often short and weak.
#Understanding of embarrassment and [[faux pas]] - Although persons with AS have an intellectual understanding of embarrassment and faux pas, they are unable to grasp concepts on an emotional level.
#Coping with criticism - People with AS are compelled to correct mistakes, even when they are made by someone in a position of authority, such as a teacher. For this reason, they can be unwittingly offensive.
#Speed and quality of social processing - Because they respond through reasoning and not intuition, AS individuals tend to process social information more slowly than the norm, leading to uncomfortable pauses or delays in response.
#Exhaustion - As people with AS begin to understand theory of mind, they must make a deliberate effort to process social information. This often leads to mental exhaustion.
A person with AS may have trouble understanding the emotions of other people: the messages that are conveyed by facial expression, eye contact and body language are often missed. They also might have trouble showing [[empathy]] with other people. Thus, people with AS might be seen as egotistical, selfish or uncaring. In most cases, these are unfair labels because affected people are neurologically unable to understand other people's emotional states. They are usually shocked, upset and remorseful when told that their actions are hurtful or inappropriate. It is clear that people with AS do not lack emotions. The concrete nature of emotional attachments they might have (i.e., to objects rather than to people), however, often seems curious or can even be a cause of concern to people who do not share their perspective.Attwood, Tony. ""Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals"". Jessica Kingsley, London, 1997. ISBN 1-85302-577-1, pp. 89-92.
However, the problem may be exacerbated by the responses of those [[neurotypical]] people who interact with AS-affected persons. An Asperger patient's apparent emotional detachment may confuse and upset a neurotypical person, who may in turn react illogically and emotionally — reactions that many Asperger patients find especially irritating. This can often become a vicious cycle and can sometimes cause families with Asperger-affected members to become especially dysfunctional.
Failing to show affection — or failing to do so in conventional ways — does not necessarily mean that people with AS do not feel affection. Understanding this can lead partners or care-givers to feel less rejected and to be more understanding. Increased understanding can also come from learning about AS and any [[comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders.Attwood (1997), pp. 57-66. Sometimes, the opposite problem occurs; the person with AS is unusually affectionate to significant others and misses or misinterprets signals from the other partner, causing the partner stress. Attwood (1997), pp. 165-169.
Another important aspect of the social differences often found in people with Asperger's is a lack of [[Weak central coherence theory|central coherence]].Happe, F. & Frith, U. (2006) The weak central coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36 (1), 5-25. People who have poor central coherence may be so focused on details that they miss ""the big picture"". A person with a central coherence deficit might remember a story or an incident in great detail but be unable to make a statement about what the details mean. Another might understand a set of rules in detail but be unclear how or where they apply. Frith and Happe explore the possibility that attention to details may be a bias rather than a deficit. There certainly appear to be many advantages to being detail oriented particularly in activities and professions that require a high level of meticulousness. One also can see that this would cause problems if most non-autistic (but certainly not all) people are able to move fluidly between detail and big picture orientations.","Although there is no single feature that all people with AS share, difficulties with [[social behavior]] are nearly universal and are one of the most important defining criteria. People with AS lack the natural ability to see the subtexts of social interaction, and may lack the ability to communicate their own emotional state, resulting in well-meaning remarks that may offend, or finding it hard to know what is ""acceptable"". The unwritten rules of social behavior that mystify so many with AS have been termed the ""hidden curriculum"".Myles, Brenda Smith; Trautman, Melissa; and Schelvan, Ronda (2004). The Hidden Curriculum: practical solutions for understanding unstated rules in social situations. Shawnee Mission, Kansas: Autism Asperger Publishing Co., 2004. ISBN 1-931282-60-9. People with AS must learn these social skills intellectually through seemingly contrived, dry, math-like logic rather than intuitively through normal emotional interaction.Levanthal-Belfer, Laurie and Coe, Cassandra (2004). ""Asperger Syndrome in Young Children: A Developmental Approach for Parents and Professionals"". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, p. 161. ISBN 1-84310-748-1
Non-[[autistic]]s are able to gather information about other people's [[cognitive]] and emotional states based on clues gleaned from the [[social environment|environment]] and other people's [[facial expression]] and [[body language]], but, in this respect, people with AS are impaired; this is sometimes called [[mind-blindness]].Romanowski, Patricia; Kirby, Barbara L. The Oasis Guide To Asperger SyndromeLevanthal-Belfer and Coe (2004), pp. 160-161. Mind-blindness is also known as a lack of [[theory of mind]].Baker, L. & Welkowitz, L.A. (eds.) Asperger’s Syndrome: Intervening in Clinics, Schools, and Communities (Erlbaum Assoc, 2005). Without Theory of Mind, AS individuals lack the ability to recognize and understand the thoughts and feelings of others. Deprived of this insightful information, they are unable to interpret or understand the desires or intentions of others and thereby are unable to predict what to expect of others or what others may expect of them. This often leads to social awkwardness and inappropriate behavior. In ''Asperger's Syndrome, Intervening'' ''in Schools, Clinics, and Communities,'' Tony Attwood categorizes the many ways that lack of ""theory of mind"" can negatively impact the social interactions of people with Aspergers:Baker, Linda & Welkowitz, Lawrence A. '' Asperger's Syndrome; Intervening in Schools, Clinics and Communities,'' New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 2005.
#Difficulty reading the social and emotional messages in the eyes - People with AS don't look at eyes often, and when they do, they can't read them.
#Making literal interpretation - AS individuals have trouble interpreting colloquialisms, sarcasm, and metaphors.
#Being considered disrespectful and rude - Prone to egocentric behavior, individuals with Aspergers miss cues and warning signs that this behavior is inappropriate.
#Honesty and deception - Children with Aspergers are often considered ""too honest"" and have difficulty being deceptive, even at the expense of hurting someone's feelings.
#Becoming aware of making social errors - As children with Aspergers mature, and become aware of their mindblindness, their fear of making a social mistake, and their self-criticism when they do so, can lead to social phobia.
#A sense of paranoia - Because of their mindblindness, persons with Aspergers have trouble distinguishing the difference between the deliberate or accidental actions of others, which can in turn lead to a feeling of paranoia.
#Managing conflict - Being unable to understand other points of view can lead to inflexibility and an inability to negotiate conflict resolution. Once the conflict is resolved, remorse may not be evident.
#Awareness of hurting the feelings of others - A lack of empathy often leads to unintentionally offensive or insensitive behaviors.
#Repairing someone's feelings - Lacking intuition about the feelings of others, people with AS have little understanding of how to console someone or how to make them feel better.
#Recognizing signs of boredom - Inability to understand other people's interests can lead AS persons to be inattentive to others. Conversely, people with AS often fail to notice when others are uninterested.
#Introspection and self-consciousness - Individuals with AS have difficulty understanding their own feelings or their impact on the feelings of other people.
#Clothing and personal hygiene - People with AS tend to be less affected by peer pressure than others. As a result, they often do what is comfortable and are unconcerned about their impact on others.
#Reciprocal love and grief - Since people with AS react more practically than emotionally, their expressions of affection and grief are often short and weak.
#Understanding of embarrassment and [[faux pas]] - Although persons with AS have an intellectual understanding of embarrassment and faux pas, they are unable to grasp concepts on an emotional level.
#Coping with criticism - People with AS are compelled to correct mistakes, even when they are made by someone in a position of authority, such as a teacher. For this reason, they can be unwittingly offensive.
#Speed and quality of social processing - Because they respond through reasoning and not intuition, AS individuals tend to process social information more slowly than the norm, leading to uncomfortable pauses or delays in response.
#Exhaustion - As people with AS begin to understand theory of mind, they must make a deliberate effort to process social information. This often leads to mental exhaustion.
A person with AS may have trouble understanding the emotions of other people: the messages that are conveyed by facial expression, eye contact and body language are often missed. They also might have trouble showing [[empathy]] with other people. Thus, people with AS might be seen as egotistical, selfish or uncaring. In most cases, these are unfair labels because affected people are neurologically unable to understand other people's emotional states. They are usually shocked, upset and remorseful when told that their actions are hurtful or inappropriate. It is clear that people with AS do not lack emotions. The concrete nature of emotional attachments they might have (i.e., to objects rather than to people), however, often seems curious or can even be a cause of concern to people who do not share their perspective.Attwood, Tony. ""Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals"". Jessica Kingsley, London, 1997. ISBN 1-85302-577-1, pp. 89-92.
The problem may be exacerbated by the responses of those [[neurotypical]] people who interact with AS-affected persons. An Asperger patient's apparent emotional detachment may confuse and upset a neurotypical person, who may in turn react illogically and emotionally — reactions that many Asperger patients find especially irritating. This can often become a vicious cycle and can sometimes cause families with Asperger-affected members to become especially dysfunctional.
Failing to show affection — or failing to do so in conventional ways — does not necessarily mean that people with AS do not feel affection. Understanding this can lead partners or care-givers to feel less rejected and to be more understanding. Increased understanding can also come from learning about AS and any [[comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders.Attwood (1997), pp. 57-66. Sometimes, the opposite problem occurs; the person with AS is unusually affectionate to significant others and misses or misinterprets signals from the other partner, causing the partner stress. Attwood (1997), pp. 165-169.
Another important aspect of the social differences often found in people with Asperger's is a lack of [[Weak central coherence theory|central coherence]].Happe, F. & Frith, U. (2006) The weak central coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36 (1), 5-25. People who have poor central coherence may be so focused on details that they miss ""the big picture"". A person with a central coherence deficit might remember a story or an incident in great detail but be unable to make a statement about what the details mean. Another might understand a set of rules in detail but be unclear how or where they apply. Frith and Happe explore the possibility that attention to details may be a bias rather than a deficit. There certainly appear to be many advantages to being detail oriented particularly in activities and professions that require a high level of meticulousness. One also can see that this would cause problems if most non-autistic (but certainly not all) people are able to move fluidly between detail and big picture orientations.",[11]
Down syndrome,Health,107135754,2007-02-10T19:28:09Z,Gwernol,"{{main|Health aspects of Down syndrome}}
The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down
to [[
These factors can contribute to a significantly shorter lifespan for people with Down syndrome. One study, carried out in the [[United States]] in 2002, showed an average lifespan of 49 years, with considerable variations between different ethnic and socio-economic groups.{{cite news |first = Emma
|last = Young
|authorlink =
|author =
|coauthors =
|title = Down's syndrome lifespan doubles
|url = http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2073
|format =
|work = New Scientist
|publisher =
|pages =
|page =
|date = 2002-03-22
|accessdate = 2006-10-14
|language = }}
Fertility amongst both males and females is reduced,{{cite journal
| author = Ying-Hui H. Hsiang, Gary D. Berkovitz, Gail L. Bland, Claude J. Migeon, Andrew C. Warren, John M. Opitz, James F. Reynolds
| title = Gonadal function in patients with Down syndrome
| journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics
| volume = 27
| issue = 2
| pages = 449--458
| publisher = Wiley-Liss, Inc.
| date = 1987
| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.1320270223
| id = 10.1002/ajmg.1320270223
| format =
| accessdate = }} with only three recorded instances of males with Down syndrome fathering children.[http://www.ds-health.com]{{check}}","{{main|Health aspects of Down syndrome}}
The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable and may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process. The health aspects of Down syndrome encompass anticipating and preventing effects of the condition, recognizing complications of the disorder, managing individual symptoms, and assisting the individual and his/her family in coping and thriving with any related disability or illnesses.{{cite journal| author=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Genetics| title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Health supervision for children with Down syndrome| journal=Pediatrics| year=2001| month=Feb| volume=107| issue=2| pages=442-449| id=PMID 11158488}}
The most common manifestations of Down syndrome are the characteristic facial features, cognitive impairment, [[congenital heart disease]], hearing deficits, [[short stature]], [[thyroid]] disorders, and [[Alzheimer's disease]]. Other less common serious illnesses include [[leukemia]], [[immune deficiency|immune deficiencies]], and [[epilepsy]]. However, health benefits of Down syndrome include greatly reduced incidence of many common malignancies except leukemia and testicular cancerYang Q, Rasmussen SA, Friedman JM. [http://www.ds-health.com/abst/a0205.htm Mortality associated with Down's syndrome in the USA from 1983 to 1997: a population-based study.] ''Lancet'' 2002 [[23 March]];359(9311):1019-25. PMID 11937181 - although it is, as yet, unclear whether the reduced incidence of various fatal cancers among people with Down syndrome is as a direct result of tumour-suppressor genes on chromosome 21, because of reduced exposure to [[environmental factor]]s that contribute to cancer risk, or some other as-yet unspecified factor. Down syndrome can result from several different genetic mechanisms. This results in a wide variability in individual symptoms due to complex gene and environment interactions. Prior to birth, it is not possible to predict the symptoms that an individual with Down syndrome will develop. Some problems are present at birth, such as certain heart malformations. Others become apparent over time, such as epilepsy.
These factors can contribute to a significantly shorter lifespan for people with Down syndrome. One study, carried out in the [[United States]] in 2002, showed an average lifespan of 49 years, with considerable variations between different ethnic and socio-economic groups.{{cite news |first = Emma
|last = Young
|authorlink =
|author =
|coauthors =
|title = Down's syndrome lifespan doubles
|url = http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2073
|format =
|work = New Scientist
|publisher =
|pages =
|page =
|date = 2002-03-22
|accessdate = 2006-10-14
|language = }}
Fertility amongst both males and females is reduced,{{cite journal
| author = Ying-Hui H. Hsiang, Gary D. Berkovitz, Gail L. Bland, Claude J. Migeon, Andrew C. Warren, John M. Opitz, James F. Reynolds
| title = Gonadal function in patients with Down syndrome
| journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics
| volume = 27
| issue = 2
| pages = 449--458
| publisher = Wiley-Liss, Inc.
| date = 1987
| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.1320270223
| id = 10.1002/ajmg.1320270223
| format =
| accessdate = }} with only three recorded instances of males with Down syndrome fathering children.[http://www.ds-health.com]{{check}}","[1, 7, 9, 4]"
Methadone,Opioid addiction,110873330,2007-02-25T18:36:54Z,Sniggity,"Methadone has traditionally been provided to the addiction population in a highly regulated methadone clinic, generally associated with an [[outpatient]] department of a hospital. Clinics such as these stem from programs set up during the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administration to combat heroin use, first in [[Washington, D.C.]], then nationwide. In addition to obtaining a daily methadone dose, some who go to this type of clinic for addiction treatment may attend some type of psychological counseling for their addiction. Some are required to attend drug addiction programs but many are not.
Methadone is considered to be generally effective in management of heroin addiction and reduction of [[HIV]] rates from needle sharing. At proper dosing, methadone usually reduces the appetite for and need to take heroin. However, most heroin addicts report more difficulty in quitting methadone than heroin. While there is much debate over the treatment schedule and duration required, treatment at a methadone maintenance clinic is intended to be for an indefinite duration. Many factors determine the treatment dose schedule, and some follow the philosophy that methadone maintenance treatment is not curative for heroin addiction.","Methadone has traditionally been provided to the addiction population in a highly regulated methadone clinic, generally associated with an [[outpatient]] department of a hospital. Numerous clinics start addicts at 30mg and raise the dosage 10mg a day until the addict feels they are at a comfortable level of dosage. Clinics such as these stem from programs set up during the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administration to combat heroin use, first in [[Washington, D.C.]], then nationwide. In addition to obtaining a daily methadone dose, some who go to this type of clinic for addiction treatment may attend some type of psychological counseling for their addiction. Some are required to attend drug addiction programs but many are not.
Methadone is considered to be generally effective in management of heroin addiction and reduction of [[HIV]] rates from needle sharing. At proper dosing, methadone usually reduces the appetite for and need to take heroin. However, most heroin addicts report more difficulty in quitting methadone than heroin. While there is much debate over the treatment schedule and duration required, treatment at a methadone maintenance clinic is intended to be for an indefinite duration. Many factors determine the treatment dose schedule, and some follow the philosophy that methadone maintenance treatment is not curative for heroin addiction.","[1, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,111418698,2007-02-27T21:27:26Z,Arcadian,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not engrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm clock genes].
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit left ventricular (reverse) remodeling.
In addition, circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=16]. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18].
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,111418698,2007-02-27T21:27:26Z,Arcadian,,"Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy, and reduce drug toxicity, or adverse reactions. For example, timing treatment of [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure, also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,111418698,2007-02-27T21:27:26Z,Arcadian,,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not engrained and may become out of phase with other [[circadian]], or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the SCN ""master clock""",111418698,2007-02-27T21:27:26Z,Arcadian,,"Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Suprachiasmatic nucleus,111418698,2007-02-27T21:27:26Z,Arcadian,,"The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),111419869,2007-02-27T21:32:34Z,Arcadian,":''For the [[Ted Kirkpatrick]] DVD, refer to [[Circadian Rhythms - The Drumming World of Ted Kirkpatrick]]''
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]], comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are [[endogenous|endogenously]] generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]]. The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",":''For the [[Ted Kirkpatrick]] DVD, refer to [[Circadian Rhythms - The Drumming World of Ted Kirkpatrick]]''
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are [[endogenous|endogenously]] generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]].","[2, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,111419869,2007-02-27T21:32:34Z,Arcadian,,"Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","[1, 4, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,111419869,2007-02-27T21:32:34Z,Arcadian,"*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center] [[Franz Halberg]] coined the word ''circadian''.
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[scn:Rìttimu circadiànu]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[zh:晝夜節律]]","*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[scn:Rìttimu circadiànu]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[zh:晝夜節律]]",[2]
Circadian rhythm,History,111419869,2007-02-27T21:32:34Z,Arcadian,,The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.,"[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Context-free grammar,Example 1,111809323,2007-03-01T12:05:51Z,Smmurphy,"Another example of a context-free language is . This is not a regular language, but it is context free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar:
:S → bSbb | A
:A → aA | ε","A simple context-free grammar is given as:
:S → aSb | ε
where | is used to separate multiple options for the same non-terminal, and ε stands for the empty string. This grammar generates the language
which is not [[regular language|regular]].","[1, 2, 9]"
Down syndrome,(Top),112285989,2007-03-03T08:47:54Z,71.13.157.8,"{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Down syndrome |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}} |
ICDO = |
Image = Drill.jpg |
Caption = Boy with Down syndrome using an electric drill|
OMIM = 190685 |
OMIM_mult = |
MedlinePlus = 000997 |
eMedicineSubj = ped |
eMedicineTopic = 615 |
DiseasesDB = 3898 |
MeshID = D004314 |
}}
'''Down syndrome''' or '''trisomy 21''' is a [[genetic disorder]] caused by the presence of all or part of an extra [[chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]]. It is named after [[John Langdon Down]], the British doctor who first described it in [[1866 in science|1866]]. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in body structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of [[cognition|cognitive]] ability and [[child development|physical growth]] as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome is usually identified at birth.
Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate [[mental retardation]]. Developmental disabilities often manifest as a tendency toward concrete thinking or [[naïveté]]. A small number have severe to profound mental retardation. The [[incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1 per 1,000 births.
Many of the common physical features of Down syndrome also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They include a [[single transverse palmar crease]] (a single instead of a double crease across one or both palms), an almond shape to the eyes caused by an [[epicanthic fold]] of the eyelid, shorter limbs, poor muscle tone, and protruding tongue. Health concerns for individuals with Down syndrome include a higher risk for [[congenital heart defect]]s, [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], recurrent [[otitis|ear infections]], [[obstructive sleep apnea]], and [[thyroid]] dysfunctions.
[[Early Childhood Intervention|Early childhood intervention]], screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, and [[vocational training]] can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Although some of the physical genetic limitations of Down syndrome cannot be overcome, education and proper care will improve quality of life.Roizen NJ, Patterson D.''Down's syndrome.'' Lancet. 2003 [[12 April]];361(9365):1281-9. Review. PMID 12699967","{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Down syndrome |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}} |
ICDO = |
Image = Drill.jpg |
Caption = Boy with Down syndrome using an electric drill|
OMIM = 190685 |
OMIM_mult = |
MedlinePlus = 000997 |
eMedicineSubj = ped |
eMedicineTopic = 615 |
DiseasesDB = 3898 |
MeshID = D004314 |
}}
'''Down syndrome''' or '''trisomy 21''' is a [[genetic disorder]] caused by the presence of all or part of an extra [[chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]]. It is named after [[Edward ""Downie"" Hutchinson]], the British doctor who first described it in [[1866 in science|1866]]. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in body structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of [[cognition|cognitive]] ability and [[child development|physical growth]] as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome is usually identified at birth.
Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate [[mental retardation]]. Developmental disabilities often manifest as a tendency toward concrete thinking or [[naïveté]]. A small number have severe to profound mental retardation. The [[incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1 per 1,000 births.
Many of the common physical features of Down syndrome also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They include a [[single transverse palmar crease]] (a single instead of a double crease across one or both palms), an almond shape to the eyes caused by an [[epicanthic fold]] of the eyelid, shorter limbs, poor muscle tone, and protruding tongue. Health concerns for individuals with Down syndrome include a higher risk for [[congenital heart defect]]s, [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], recurrent [[otitis|ear infections]], [[obstructive sleep apnea]], and [[thyroid]] dysfunctions.
[[Early Childhood Intervention|Early childhood intervention]], screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, and [[vocational training]] can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Although some of the physical genetic limitations of Down syndrome cannot be overcome, education and proper care will improve quality of life.Roizen NJ, Patterson D.''Down's syndrome.'' Lancet. 2003 [[12 April]];361(9365):1281-9. Review. PMID 12699967","[5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,112301391,2007-03-03T11:22:11Z,219.90.149.128,"*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[scn:Rìttimu circadiànu]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[zh:晝夜節律]]","*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[scn:Rìttimu circadiànu]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[zh:晝夜節律]]
im sleepy and tired",[11]
Code injection,Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities - Dynamic Variable Evaluation,113605664,2007-03-08T16:55:50Z,Gtg204y,"The following PHP-examples will execute a function specified by request.
$myfunc = $_GET['myfunc'];
$myfunc();
and:
$myfunc = $_GET['myfunc'];
${""myfunc""}();
","As defined in [http://seclists.org/lists/fulldisclosure/2006/May/0035.html ""Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities in PHP applications""]:
PHP supports ""variable variables,"" which are variables or expressions
that evaluate to the names of other variables [3]. They can be used
to dynamically change which variable is accessed or set during
execution of the program. This powerful and convenient feature is
also dangerous.
A number of applications have code such as the following:
$safevar = ""0"";
$param1 = """";
$param2 = """";
$param3 = """";
# my own ""register globals"" for param[1,2,3]
foreach ($_GET as $key => $value) {
$$key = $value;
}
If the attacker provides ""safevar=bad"" in the query string, then
$safevar will be set to the value ""bad"".","[1, 2, 4]"
Methamphetamine,See also,113960588,2007-03-10T00:50:21Z,69.19.14.35,"* [[Methamphetamine in popular culture]]
* [[Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005]]
* [[Montana Meth Project]]
* [[Meth song]]
* [[Party and Play]]
* [[Phenethylamine]]s
* [[Clandestine chemistry]]
* [[Dextroamphetamine]]
* [[Illegal drug trade]]","* [[Methamphetamine in popular culture]]
* [[Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005]]
* [[Montana Meth Project]]
* [[Meth song]]
* [[Party and Play]]
* [[Phenethylamine]]s
* [[Clandestine chemistry]]
* [[Amphetamine]]
* [[Illegal drug trade]]","[2, 9]"
Medical cannabis,History,114151729,2007-03-10T22:04:30Z,Argos'Dad,"[[Image:Marijuana.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cannabis]] plant]]Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for over 4,800 years.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Surviving texts from [[Ancient India]] confirm that its psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, insomnia, headaches and as a pain reliever, frequently used in childbirth.
Cannabis as a medicine was common throughout most of the world in the [[1800s]]. It was used as the primary pain reliever until the invention of [[aspirin]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/1632726.stm]. Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like [[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy|O'Shaughnessy]] and [[Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours|Moreau de Tours]], who used it to treat [[melancholia]], [[migraine]]s, and as a sleeping aid, [[analgesic]] and [[anticonvulsant]].
By the time the [[United States]] banned cannabis (the third country to do so) with the [[1937 Marijuana Tax Act]], the plant was no longer extremely popular. One of the main opponents to the bill was the representative of the [[American Medical Association]] [http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/AMA_opposes_1937.html].
Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting cannabis intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure.{{Fact|date=March , 2007}} High intraocular pressure causes blindness in [[glaucoma]] patients, so many believed that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients. Many [[Vietnam War]] veterans also believed that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by battle-induced spinal injuries. Later medical use has focused primarily on its role in preventing the wasting syndromes and chronic loss of appetite associated with [[chemotherapy]] and [[AIDS]], along with a variety of rare muscular and skeletal disorders. Less commonly, cannabis has been used in the treatment of [[alcoholism]] and [[addiction]] to other [[drug abuse|drugs]] such as [[heroin]] and the prevention of [[migraine]]s. In recent years, studies have shown or researchers have speculated that the main chemical in the drug, THC, might help prevent [[atherosclerosis]].
In 1972 [[Tod H. Mikuriya, M.D.]] reignited the debate concerning marijuana as medicine when he published ""Marijuana Medical Papers 1839-1972"".
Later, in the [[1970s]], a synthetic version of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]], the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug [[Marinol]]. Users reported several problems with Marinol, however, that led many to abandon the pill and resume smoking the plant. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing pills difficult. The effects of smoked cannabis are felt almost immediately, and is therefore easily dosed; many patients only smoke enough to feel the medical effects — many complained that Marinol was more potent than they needed, and that the mental effects made normal daily functioning impossible. In addition, Marinol was far more expensive, costing upwards of several thousand dollars a year for the same effect as smoking a plant easily grown throughout most of the world. Many users felt Marinol was less effective, and that the mental effects were far more disastrous; some studies have indicated that other chemicals in the plant may have a synergistic effect with THC.
In addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, six US states' health departments performed studies on the use of medical marijuana. These are widely considered some of the most useful and pioneering studies on the subject.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
In [[2003]], the [[American Academy of Ophthalmology]] released a position statement asserting that ""no scientific evidence has been found that demonstrates increased benefits and/or diminished risks of marijuana use to treat glaucoma compared with the wide variety of pharmaceutical agents now available."" American Academy of Ophthalmology. [http://www.aao.org/education/library/cta/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=1216 Complementary Therapy Assessment: Marijuana in the Treatment of Glaucoma.] Retrieved August 2, 2006.","[[Image:Marijuana.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cannabis]] plant]]Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for over 4,800 years.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Surviving texts from [[Ancient India]] confirm that its psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, insomnia, headaches and as a pain reliever, frequently used in childbirth.
Cannabis as a medicine was common throughout most of the world in the [[1800s]]. It was used as the primary pain reliever until the invention of [[aspirin]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/1632726.stm]. Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like [[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy|O'Shaughnessy]] and [[Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours|Moreau de Tours]], who used it to treat [[melancholia]], [[migraine]]s, and as a sleeping aid, [[analgesic]] and [[anticonvulsant]].
By the time the [[United States]] banned cannabis (the third country to do so) with the [[1937 Marijuana Tax Act]], the plant was no longer extremely popular. One of the main opponents to the bill was the representative of the [[American Medical Association]] [http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/AMA_opposes_1937.html].
Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting cannabis intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure.{{Fact|date=March , 2007}} High intraocular pressure causes blindness in [[glaucoma]] patients, so many believed that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients. Many [[Vietnam War]] veterans also believed that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by battle-induced spinal injuries. Later medical use has focused primarily on its role in preventing the wasting syndromes and chronic loss of appetite associated with [[chemotherapy]] and [[AIDS]], along with a variety of rare muscular and skeletal disorders. Less commonly, cannabis has been used in the treatment of [[alcoholism]] and [[addiction]] to other [[drug abuse|drugs]] such as [[heroin]] and the prevention of [[migraine]]s. In recent years, studies have shown or researchers have speculated that the main chemical in the drug, THC, might help prevent [[atherosclerosis]].
In 1972 [[Tod H. Mikuriya, M.D.]] reignited the debate concerning marijuana as medicine when he published ""Marijuana Medical Papers 1839-1972"".
Later, in the [[1970s]], a synthetic version of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]], the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug [[Marinol]]. Users reported several problems with Marinol, however, that led many to abandon the pill and resume smoking the plant. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing pills difficult. The effects of smoked cannabis are felt almost immediately, and is therefore easily dosed{{fact|date=March, 2007}}; many patients only smoke enough to feel the medical effects — many complained that Marinol was more potent than they needed, and that the mental effects made normal daily functioning impossible{{fact|date=March, 2007}}. In addition, Marinol was far more expensive, costing upwards of several thousand dollars a year for the same effect as smoking a plant easily grown throughout most of the world. Many users felt Marinol was less effective, and that the mental effects were far more disastrous; some studies have indicated that other chemicals in the plant may have a synergistic effect with THC.{{fact|date=March, 2007}}
In addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, six US states' health departments performed studies on the use of medical marijuana. These are widely considered some of the most useful and pioneering studies on the subject.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
In [[2003]], the [[American Academy of Ophthalmology]] released a position statement asserting that ""no scientific evidence has been found that demonstrates increased benefits and/or diminished risks of marijuana use to treat glaucoma compared with the wide variety of pharmaceutical agents now available."" American Academy of Ophthalmology. [http://www.aao.org/education/library/cta/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=1216 Complementary Therapy Assessment: Marijuana in the Treatment of Glaucoma.] Retrieved August 2, 2006.",[11]
Human brain,Study of the brain,114340509,2007-03-11T17:58:13Z,MartinBot,"{{Weasel}}
[[image:brain.png|thumb|right|Picture of a human brain generated from [[MRI]] data]]
998hhgvbhhhhhj","{{Weasel}}
[[image:brain.png|thumb|right|Picture of a human brain generated from [[MRI]] data]]
Although [[folklore]] would have it that about 90% of the human brain is dormant, this has proven [[science|scientifically]] unfounded. The fact that ~10% of neurons in the brain fire at any one time is a possible source of this misconception. (If a large percentage of the neurons were to fire at the same time, the result would be a [[grand mal seizure]].)
Grey matter, the thin layer of cells covering the cerebrum, was believed by most scholars to be the primary center of cognitive and conscious processing. White matter, the mass of [[glial cell]]s that support the cerebral grey matter, was assumed to primarily provide nourishment, physical support, and connective pathways for the more functional cells on the cerebral surface. But research fueled by the interest of Dr. Marian Diamond in the glial structure of [[Albert Einstein's brain]] led to a line of research that offered strong evidence that glial cells serve a computational role beyond merely transmitting processed [[signal (information theory)|signals]] between more functional parts of the brain. In 2004, [[Scientific American]] published an article suggesting scientists in the early 21st century are only beginning to study the ""other half of the brain.""
For many millennia the function of the brain was unknown. [[Ancient Egypt]]ians threw the brain away prior to the process of [[mummy|mummification]]. Ancient thinkers such as [[Aristotle]] imagined that mental activity took place in the [[heart]]. [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] scholars assumed correctly that the brain serves a role in cooling the body, but incorrectly presumed the brain to function as a sort of [[radiator]], rather than as a [[thermostat]] as is now understood. The [[Alexandria]]n biologists [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] were among the first to conclude that the brain was the seat of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. [[Galen]]'s theory that the brain's ventricles were the sites of [[thought]] and emotion prevailed until the work of the [[Renaissance]] anatomist [[Vesalius]].
[[Image:User-FastFission-brain-frame44.png|thumb|right|A slice of an [[MRI]] scan of the brain. [[:Image:User-FastFission-brain.gif|See an animation]] of the scan from top to bottom.]]
The modern study of the brain and its functions is known as [[neuroscience]]. [[Psychology]] is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. [[Neurophysiology]] is the study of normal healthy brain activity, while [[neurology]] and [[psychiatry]] are both medical approaches to the study of the mind and its disorders and [[pathology]] or [[mental illness]] respectively.
The brain is now thought to be the primary [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] responsible for the [[phenomenon|phenomena]] of [[consciousness]] and [[thought]]. It also integrates and controls (together with the [[central nervous system]]) [[allostasis|allostatic]] balance and [[autonomic]] functions in the body, regulates as well as directly producing many [[hormone]]s, and performs processing, recognition, cognition and integration related to [[emotion]]. [[Experiment|Studies]] of brain damage resulting from accidents led to the identification of specialized areas of the brain devoted to functions such as the processing of [[visual perception|vision]] and [[hearing (sense)|audition]].
[[Neuroimaging]] has allowed the function of the living brain to be studied in detail without damaging the brain. New imaging techniques allowed [[blood flow]] within the brain to be studied in detail during a wide range of psychological tests. [[Functional neuroimaging]] such as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] and [[positron emission tomography]] allows researchers to monitor activities of the brain as they occur (''see also [[history of neuroimaging]]'').
[[Molecule|Molecular]] analysis of the brain has provided insight into some aspects of what the brain does as an organ, but not how it functions in higher-level processes. Further, the [[molecular biology|molecular]] and [[cell biology|cell biological]] examination of brain pathology is hindered by the scarcity of appropriate samples for study, the (usual) inability to [[biopsy]] the brain from a living person suffering from a malady, and an incomplete description of the brain's microanatomy. With respect to the normal brain, comparative [[transcriptome]] analysis between the human and [[chimpanzee]] brain and between brain and [[liver]] (a common molecular baseline organ) has revealed specific and consistent differences in [[gene expression]] between human and chimpanzee brain and a general increase in the gene expression of many genes in humans as compared to chimpanzees. Furthermore, variations in gene expression in the cerebral cortex between individuals in either species is greater than between sub-regions of the cortex of a single individualKhaitovich, P., et al. 2004. ""Regional patterns of gene expression in human and chimpanzee brains"". ''Genome Research,'' '''14''':1462-1473. refers to four studies of comparative transcriptome analysis prior to publication of the findings in the cited manuscript.
In addition to pathological and imaging studies, the study of [[computational neuroscience|computational network]]s, largely in [[computer science]], provided another means through which to understand neural processes. A body of knowledge developed for the production of [[electronics|electronic]], [[mathematics|mathematical]] computation of systems provided a basis for researchers to develop and refine [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] about the computational function of [[biological neural network]]s. The study of [[neural network]]s now involves study of both biological and [[artificial neural network]]s.
A new discipline of [[cognitive science]] has started to fuse the results of these investigations with observations from psychology, [[philosophy]], [[linguistics]], and computer science.
Recently the brain was used in [[bionics]] by several groups of researchers. In a particular example, a joint team of [[United States Navy]] researchers and [[Russia]]n scientists from [[Nizhny Novgorod]] State University worked to develop an artificial analogue of [[olivary body|olivocerebellar]] circuit, a part of the brain responsible for [[equilibrioception|balance]] and limb movement. The researchers plan to use it to control [[Autonomous Underwater Vehicle]]s.","[1, 5, 9, 4, 7, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,History,115315007,2007-03-15T14:01:47Z,69.157.173.71,The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.,The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimulium poopoo,[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,115315936,2007-03-15T14:07:13Z,Gtg204y,The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimulium poopoo,The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.,[11]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,115316000,2007-03-15T14:07:39Z,Lradrama,"Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated,like getting a cum shot in the eye
meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,115608938,2007-03-16T18:23:57Z,Ruud Koot,"*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Cycle]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]","*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[11]
Down syndrome,Characteristics,116797201,2007-03-21T15:46:10Z,Woodsstock,"small penis because of extreme retardation, absolutely innecesary to the world","[[Image:Brushfield.jpg|thumb|right|Example of white spots on the [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as ''[[Brushfield spots]]'']]
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: oblique eye fissures with [[epicanthic fold|epicanthic skin folds]] on the inner corner of the eyes, [[muscle hypotonia]] (poor muscle tone), a flat nasal bridge, a [[Single transverse palmar crease|single palmar fold]] (also known as a simian crease), a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils), a short neck, white spots on the [[Eye#Anatomy of the mammalian eye|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive flexibility in joints, [[congenital heart defect]]s, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger, and a higher number of ulnar loop [[Dermatoglyphics|dermatoglyphs]]. Most individuals with Down syndrome have [[mental retardation]] in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range,{{cite web |url=http://www.keepkidshealthy.com/welcome/conditions/downsyndrome.html |title=Keep Kids Healthy article on Down syndrome |accessedate=2006-04-10}} with scores of children having Mosaic Down syndrome (explained below) typically 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} In addition, individuals with Down syndrome can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system.","[1, 9, 4, 10]"
DNA sequencing,See also,116861065,2007-03-21T20:20:16Z,Jvbishop,"* [http://www.embarkscientific.com Embark Scientific (company)]-Provides quick turnaround or in-depth sequencing projects.
* [[Genome project]] - how entire genomes are assembled from these short sequences.
* [[Applied Biosystems]] - provided most of the chemistry and equipment for the genome projects. Next-generation technology for very high data generation rates.
* [[454 Life Sciences]] - company specializing in high-throughput DNA sequencing using a sequencing-by-synthesis approach.
* [[Illumina (company)]] - Advancing genetic analysis one billion bases at a time; whole genome sequencing.
* [[Joint Genome Institute]] - sequencing center from the [[United States Department of Energy|US Department of Energy]] whose mission is to provide integrated high-throughput sequencing and computational analysis to enable genomic-scale/systems-based scientific approaches to DOE-relevant challenges in energy and the environment.","* [[Genome project]] - how entire genomes are assembled from these short sequences.
* [[Applied Biosystems]] - provided most of the chemistry and equipment for the genome projects. Next-generation technology for very high data generation rates.
* [[454 Life Sciences]] - company specializing in high-throughput DNA sequencing using a sequencing-by-synthesis approach.
* [[Illumina (company)]] - Advancing genetic analysis one billion bases at a time; whole genome sequencing.
* [[Joint Genome Institute]] - sequencing center from the [[United States Department of Energy|US Department of Energy]] whose mission is to provide integrated high-throughput sequencing and computational analysis to enable genomic-scale/systems-based scientific approaches to DOE-relevant challenges in energy and the environment.",[11]
Methadone,Efficacy,117478997,2007-03-24T07:59:50Z,219.88.116.207,"The efficacy of methadone, whether for heroin addiction or chronic pain, has long been debated. Methadone is a strong opioid that induces analgesia which is indistinguishable from morphine's and other opiate [[agonist]]s. Regarding addiction, a Cochrane review (neutral organization that examines medical treatments) from 2004 noted, ""Methadone is an effective maintenance therapy intervention for the treatment of heroin dependence as it retains patients in treatment and decreases heroin use better than treatments that do not utilize opioid replacement therapy. It does not show statistically significant superior effect on criminal activity."" In other words, opiate-dependent patients stayed in methadone programs, but reduction in criminal activity was no greater than that seen in patients treated without methadone.
These studies of criminal activity, however, ignore the many homeless and extremely impoverished who are in methadone programs. In studies of people with access to housing and jobs, the cessation of illegal opiate use (and continuance of legal opiate use) which methadone's prescription provides reduces criminality. In methadone users who continue to use other drugs and who have access to housing and jobs, the problem lies in use of non-opiate drugs. Since methadone use is not a substitute for non-opiate use, this is to be expected.
Worldwide, there has been an explosion of deaths related to methadone. Methadone has recently come into favor because of its morphine-equivalent analgesia and the longer half-life of methadone which makes blood levels and thus analgesia more stable in patients. [[Germany]] noted that one-half of its drug-related deaths were caused in whole or in part by methadone. In 1996, more than twice as many people died from methadone as died from heroin in England. It should be noted that many overdose deaths involving methadone were caused by concurrent use of [[benzodiazepine]]s or other sedative drugs such as alcohol.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}Relatives of the deceased also report that many who died had solely consumed methadone. Methadone is thought to cause cardiac conduction problems leading to arrest more often than is recorded (Medsafe).","The efficacy of methadone, whether for heroin addiction or chronic pain, has long been debated. Methadone is a strong opioid that induces analgesia which is indistinguishable from morphine's and other opiate [[agonist]]s. Regarding addiction, a Cochrane review (neutral organization that examines medical treatments) from 2004 noted, ""Methadone is an effective maintenance therapy intervention for the treatment of heroin dependence as it retains patients in treatment and decreases heroin use better than treatments that do not utilize opioid replacement therapy. It does not show statistically significant superior effect on criminal activity."" In other words, opiate-dependent patients stayed in methadone programs, but reduction in criminal activity was no greater than that seen in patients treated without methadone.
These studies of criminal activity, however, ignore the many homeless and extremely impoverished who are in methadone programs. In studies of people with access to housing and jobs, the cessation of illegal opiate use (and continuance of legal opiate use) which methadone's prescription provides reduces criminality. In methadone users who continue to use other drugs and who have access to housing and jobs, the problem lies in use of non-opiate drugs. Since methadone use is not a substitute for non-opiate use, this is to be expected.
Worldwide, there has been an explosion of deaths related to methadone. Methadone has recently come into favor because of its morphine-equivalent analgesia and the longer half-life of methadone which makes blood levels and thus analgesia more stable in patients. [[Germany]] noted that one-half of its drug-related deaths were caused in whole or in part by methadone. In 1996, more than twice as many people died from methadone as died from heroin in England. It should be noted that nearly half of all overdose deaths involving methadone in Indiana and Southern Carolina were contributed to by the victim's concurrent use of [[benzodiazepine]]s or other sedative drugs such as alcohol.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}Relatives of the deceased report that many who died had solely consumed low doses of methadone. Methadone is thought to cause cardiac conduction problems leading to arrest more often than is recorded as 6& of people carry a gene that makes such a life threatening effect likely(Medsafe).","[1, 3]"
DNA sequencing,(Top),117614410,2007-03-24T22:21:29Z,Malljaja,"''DNA sequencing''' is the process of determining the [[nucleotide]] order of a given [[DNA]] fragment, called the [[DNA sequence]]. The sequence of DNA encodes the necessary information for living things to survive and reproduce. Determining the sequence is therefore useful in 'pure' research into why and how organisms live, as well as in applied subjects. Because DNA is key to all living things, knowledge of DNA sequence may be useful in almost any biological subject area. For example, in medicine it can be used to identify, diagnose and potentially develop treatments for genetic diseases. Similarly, research into [[pathogens]] may lead to treatments for contagious diseases.
For thirty years a huge fraction of DNA sequencing has been achieved using the chain termination method [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=431765], developed by [[Frederick Sanger]] and [[Howard Chadwell]] (Student) in 1975. This technique uses sequence-specific termination of an ''in vitro'' DNA synthesis reaction using modified nucleotide substrates. DNA Sequencing has revolutionized biological discovery. The speed of development in DNA sequencing technology was astonishing and had facilitated the first ever large-scale biological project. The Human Genome and related projects spanned many continents in an amazing co-operative effort to generate the DNA sequences of many genomes. The focus is now shifting to resequencing in an immense effort to establish a link between genotypic variation and phenotype.
'Next generation' sequencing technologies from [[454 Sequencing]], [[Solexa]], and [[Applied Biosystems]] are beginning to deliver large amounts, too (see below).","''DNA sequencing''' is the process of determining the order of the [[nucleotide]] bases, [[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]], in a [[DNA]] [[oligonucleotide]]. The sequence of DNA constitutes the heritable genetic information in [[nuclei]], [[plasmids]], [[mitochondria]], and [[chloroplasts]] that forms the basis for the developmental programs of all living organisms. Determining the DNA sequence is therefore useful in basic research studying fundamental biological processes, as well as in applied fields such as diagnostic or [[forensic]] research. Because DNA is key to all living organisms, knowledge of the DNA sequence may be useful in almost any biological subject area. For example, in medicine it can be used to identify, diagnose and potentially develop treatments for genetic diseases. Similarly, genetic research into plant or animal [[pathogens]] may lead to treatments of various diseases caused by these pathogens.
For thirty years, a large proportion of DNA sequencing has been carried out with the chain termination method [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=431765], developed by [[Frederick Sanger]] and [[Howard Chadwell]] in 1975. This technique uses sequence-specific termination of an ''in vitro'' DNA synthesis reaction using modified nucleotides as substrate for [[DNA polymerase]]s. The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery. The rapid speed of sequencing attainable with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the large-scale sequencing of the [[human genome]], in the [[Human Genome Project]]. Related projects, often by scientific collaboration across continents, have generated the complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial genomes.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,117944826,2007-03-26T07:40:33Z,24.22.96.82,"*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
*[[CiRCADiAN (5th PROJEKT Album)|CiRCADiAN]], a concept album by [[5th PROJEKT]].","*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]",[11]
DNA sequencing,Automation and sample preparation,119304055,2007-03-31T17:48:53Z,Malljaja,"Modern automated DNA sequencing instruments (called [[DNA sequencers]]) are able to sequence as many as 384 fluoresecently labelled samples in a batch (run) and perform as many as 24 runs a day. These perform only the size separation and peak reading; the actual sequencing reaction(s), cleanup and resuspension in a suitable [[buffer solution]] must be performed separately.
The magnitude of the fluorescent signal is related to the number of strands of DNA that are in the reaction. If the initial amount of DNA is small, the signals will be weak. However, the properties of PCR allow one to increase the signal by increasing the number of cycles in the PCR programme.","Modern automated DNA sequencing instruments ([[DNA sequencers]]) can sequence up to 384 fluorescently labelled samples in a single batch (run) and perform as many as 24 runs a day. However, automated DNA sequencers carry out only DNA size separation by [[capillary chromatography]], detection and recording of dye fluorescence, and data output as fluorescent peak trace [[chromatograms]]. Sequencing reactions by [[thermocycler|thermocycling]], cleanup and re-suspension in a [[buffer solution]] before loading onto the sequencer are performed separately.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Treatment,122812361,2007-04-14T19:28:42Z,74.141.149.159,"Parkinson's disease is a chronic disorder that requires broad-based management including patient and family education, support group services, general wellness maintenance, exercise, and nutrition. At present, there is no cure for PD, but medications or surgery can provide relief from the symptoms.","Parkinson's disease is a chronic disorder that requires broad-based management including patient and family education, support group services, general wellness maintenance, exercise, and nutrition. At present, there is no cure for PD, but medications or surgery can provide relief from the symptoms. Recently, [[Botox]] injections are being investigated as a non-FDA approved possible experimental treatment.","[1, 9]"
Trie,As replacement of other data structures,123163005,2007-04-16T04:06:30Z,24.12.11.31,"As mentioned, a trie has a number of advantages over binary search trees. A trie can also be used to replace a [[hash table]], over which it has the following advantages:
* Looking up data in a trie is faster in the worst case, O(1) time, compared to an imperfect hash table. An imperfect hash table can have key collisions. A key collision is the hash function mapping of different keys to the same position in a hash table. The worst-case lookup speed in an imperfect hash table is O(N) time.
* There are no collisions of different keys in a trie.
* Buckets in a trie which are analogous to hash table buckets that store key collisions are only necessary if a single key is associated with more than one value.
* There is no need to provide a hash function or to change hash functions as more keys are added to a trie.
* A trie can provide an alphabetical ordering of the entries by key.
Tries do have some drawbacks as well:
* Tries can be slower in some cases than hash tables for looking up data, especially if the data is directly accessed on a hard disk drive or some other secondary storage device where the random access time is high compared to main memory.
* It is not easy to represent all keys as strings.
* Tries are frequently less space-efficient than hash tables.
* Unlike hash tables, tries are generally not already available in programming language toolkits.","As mentioned, a trie has a number of advantages over binary search trees. A trie can also be used to replace a [[hash table]], over which it has the following advantages:
* Looking up data in a trie is faster in the worst case, O(1) time, compared to an imperfect hash table. An imperfect hash table can have key collisions. A key collision is the hash function mapping of different keys to the same position in a hash table. The worst-case lookup speed in an imperfect hash table is O(N) time.
* There are no collisions of different keys in a trie.
* Buckets in a trie which are analogous to hash table buckets that store key collisions are only necessary if a single key is associated with more than one value.
* There is no need to provide a hash function or to change hash functions as more keys are added to a trie.
* A trie can provide an alphabetical ordering of the entries by key.
Tries do have some drawbacks as well:
* Tries can be slower in some cases than hash tables for looking up data, especially if the data is directly accessed on a hard disk drive or some other secondary storage device where the random access time is high compared to main memory.
* It is not easy to represent all keys as strings, such as floating point numbers, which can have multiple string representations for the same floating point number, e.g. 1, 1.0 1.00, +1.0, etc.
* Tries are frequently less space-efficient than hash tables.
* Unlike hash tables, tries are generally not already available in programming language toolkits.","[3, 4]"
Prion,neutralizing,123881344,2007-04-18T19:07:09Z,Tim@,"Prion activity is stopped after 1340C steam at 3 bar for 20 minutes[http://vein.library.usyd.edu.au/links/bse.html].
renaturation of a completely denatured prion has not yet been achieved[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/suppl_4/16378].","Prions are denatured after 134 degrees Celsius for 18 minutes in a porous load autoclave
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14723996][http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/suppl_4/16378].
Prion activity destroyed after 1340C steam at 3 bar for 20 minutes[http://vein.library.usyd.edu.au/links/bse.html]
.
Renaturation of a completely denatured prion has not yet been achieved,
partially denatured prions can be renatured but NOT spontaneously.
[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/suppl_4/16378][http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/90/7/2793?ijkey=9e99f3de79e1f8d2930054012e8418f8aae97bc4&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]
.","[1, 3, 4, 7, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,History,123966849,2007-04-19T01:09:22Z,24.207.73.95,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1900s by American George W. Bush who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,124009888,2007-04-19T05:02:53Z,Jclerman,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1900s by American George W. Bush who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","[3, 5, 9]"
Dream,Discovery of REM,124979735,2007-04-22T22:28:54Z,70.226.1.136,"In 1953 [[Eugene Aserinsky]] discovered [[Rapid eye movement|REM sleep]] while working in the lab of his Ph.D advisor [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]. While observing sleepers for Kleitman's sleep lab Aserinsky noticed the eyes beneath the subjects eyelids seemed to be fluttering. He proposed studying these eye movements to Kleitman, who agreed, suggesting that Aserinsky use a [[polygraph]] machine to record changes in the brain. During these sessions observing sleepers Aserinsky began to notice patterns in the [[brain waves]] of the volunteers. During one session he awakened a subject who was crying out in his sleep during REM and confirmed an earlier hunch that dreaming was occurring.{{cite book
| last = Dement
| first = William
| title = The Sleepwatchers
| publisher = [[Springer-Verlag]]
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0964933802 }} In 1953 Kleitman and Aserinsky published the ground breaking study in [[Science (journal)|Science]].{{cite journal
| author = Aserinsky and Kleitman
| date =
| year = 1953
| month = September
| title =
| journal = Science
| volume = 4
| issue =
| pages = 273-274
| doi = 10.1126/science.118.3062.273
| id =
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/118/3062/273.pdf
| language =
| format =
| accessdate =
}}
In 1977 [[J. Allan Hobson]] and Robert McCarly proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held [[Freudian]] view of dreams as subconscious wishes to be interpreted. The [[activation synthesis theory]] asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting [[chaos theory|chaotic]] signals from the [[pons]]. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending [[cholinergic]] [[PGO]] (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher [[midbrain]] and [[forebrain]] cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information","In 1953 [[Eugene Aserinsky]] discovered [[Rapid eye movement|REM sleep]] while working in the lab of his Ph.D advisor [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]. While observing sleepers for Kleitman's sleep lab Aserinsky noticed the eyes beneath the subjects eyelids seemed to be fluttering. He proposed studying these eye movements to Kleitman, who agreed, suggesting that Aserinsky use a [[polygraph]] machine to record changes in the brain. During these sessions observing sleepers Aserinsky began to notice patterns in the [[brain waves]] of the volunteers. During one session he awakened a subject who was crying out in his sleep during REM and confirmed an earlier hunch that dreaming was occurring.{{cite book
| last = Dement
| first = William
| title = The Sleepwatchers
| publisher = [[Springer-Verlag]]
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0964933802 }} In 1953 Kleitman and Aserinsky published the ground breaking study in [[Science (journal)|Science]].{{cite journal
| author = Aserinsky and Kleitman
| date =
| year = 1953
| month = September
| title =
| journal = Science
| volume = 4
| issue =
| pages = 273-274
| doi = 10.1126/science.118.3062.273
| id =
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/118/3062/273.pdf
| language =
| format =
| accessdate =
}}
In 1976 [[J. Allan Hobson]] and Robert McCarly proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held [[Freudian]] view of dreams as subconscious wishes to be interpreted. The [[activation synthesis theory]] asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting [[chaos theory|chaotic]] signals from the [[pons]]. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending [[cholinergic]] [[PGO]] (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher [[midbrain]] and [[forebrain]] cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information",[3]
K-d tree,(Top),126526551,2007-04-28T01:15:15Z,198.182.56.5,"{{lowercase|title=kd-tree}}
[[Image:3dtree.png|thumb|A 3-dimensional ''k''d-tree. The first split (red) cuts the root cell (white) into two subcells, each of which is then split (green) into two subcells. Finally, each of those four is split (blue) into two subcells. Since there is no more splitting, the final eight are called leaf cells. The yellow spheres represent the tree vertices.|400px|right]]
In [[computer science]], a '''''k''d-tree''' (short for ''k-dimensional [[tree data structure|tree]]'') is a [[space partitioning|space-partitioning]] [[data structure]] for organizing [[Point (geometry)|point]]s in a ''k''-dimensional [[Euclidean space|space]]. ''k''d-trees are a useful data structure for several applications, such as searches involving a multidimensional search key (e.g. range searches and [[nearest neighbour search]]es). ''k''d-trees are a special case of [[BSP tree]]s.
A ''k''d-tree uses only splitting [[Plane (mathematics)|plane]]s that are [[perpendicular]] to one of the [[coordinate system]] axes. This differs from BSP trees, in which arbitrary splitting planes can be used. In addition, in the typical definition every [[node (computer science)|node]] of a ''k''d-tree, from the [[root node|root]] to the [[leaf node|leaves]], stores a point. This differs from BSP trees, in which leaves are typically the only nodes that contain points (or other geometric [[primitive (geometry)|primitives]]). As a consequence, each splitting plane must go through one of the points in the ''k''d-tree. [[Kd-trie|''k''d-tries]] are a variant that store data only in leaf nodes. It is worth noting that in an alternative definition of ''k''d-tree the points are stored in its leaf nodes only, although each splitting pane still goes through one of the points.","{{lowercase|title=kd-tree}}
[[Image:3dtree.png|thumb|A 3-dimensional ''k''d-tree. The first split (red) cuts the root cell (white) into two subcells, each of which is then split (green) into two subcells. Finally, each of those four is split (blue) into two subcells. Since there is no more splitting, the final eight are called leaf cells. The yellow spheres represent the tree vertices.|400px|right]]
In [[computer science]], a '''''k''d-tree''' (short for ''k-dimensional [[tree data structure|tree]]'') is a [[space partitioning|space-partitioning]] [[data structure]] for organizing [[Point (geometry)|point]]s in a ''k''-dimensional [[Euclidean space|space]]. ''k''d-trees are a useful data structure for several applications, such as searches involving a multidimensional search key (e.g. range searches and [[nearest neighbour search]]es). ''k''d-trees are a special case of [[BSP tree]]s.
A ''k''d-tree uses only splitting [[Plane (mathematics)|plane]]s that are [[perpendicular]] to one of the [[coordinate system]] axes. This differs from BSP trees, in which arbitrary splitting planes can be used. In addition, in the typical definition every [[node (computer science)|node]] of a ''k''d-tree, from the [[root node|root]] to the [[leaf node|leaves]], stores a point. This differs from BSP trees, in which leaves are typically the only nodes that contain points (or other geometric [[primitive (geometry)|primitives]]). As a consequence, each splitting plane must go through one of the points in the ''k''d-tree. [[Kd-trie|''k''d-tries]] are a variant that store data only in leaf nodes. It is worth noting that in an alternative definition of ''k''d-tree the points are stored in its leaf nodes only, although each splitting pane still goes through one of the points.de Berg, M., van Kreveld, M., Overmars, M., and Schwarzkopf, O. ''Computational Geometry: Algorithms and Applications''. Springer-Verlag, 1997: ISBN 3-540-65620-0",[7]
K-d tree,References,126526904,2007-04-28T01:17:02Z,198.182.56.5,"{{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}}
* Bentley, J. L. 1975. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=361007 Multidimensional binary search trees used for associative searching]. Commun. ACM 18, 9 (Sep. 1975), 509–517.
* Bentley, J. L. 1990. [http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/98524.98564 K-d Trees for Semidynamic Point Sets]. SCG '90: Proc. 6th Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry (1990), 187–197
* H. Samet, ''The Design and Analysis of Spatial Data Structures'', Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1990.
*{{cite book | author=de Berg, M., van Kreveld, M., Overmars, M., and Schwarzkopf, O. | title=Computational Geometry: Algorithms and Applications | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1997 | id=ISBN 3-540-65620-0}}
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[de:K-d-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol kd]]
[[he:עץ kd]]","{{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}}
* Bentley, J. L. 1975. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=361007 Multidimensional binary search trees used for associative searching]. Commun. ACM 18, 9 (Sep. 1975), 509–517.
* Bentley, J. L. 1990. [http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/98524.98564 K-d Trees for Semidynamic Point Sets]. SCG '90: Proc. 6th Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry (1990), 187–197
* H. Samet, ''The Design and Analysis of Spatial Data Structures'', Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1990.
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[de:K-d-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol kd]]
[[he:עץ kd]]",[11]
Hypnosis,Comments on theoretical debate,127471917,2007-05-01T17:55:57Z,Maypole,,"Heap and Dryden (1991:17) considers the theoretical debates on hypnotherapy to have been productive and that hypnosis has benefited from the attentions of those involved in the controversies - people of calibre and intellectual integrity. Heap and Dryden also state that, in contrast, hypnotherapy from the 18th century and animal magnetism down to the new age therapies of the neo-Ericksonians have been characterized by gullibility and fraudulence.","[1, 5, 4]"
Asperger syndrome,Partner and child support,127538850,2007-05-01T22:36:37Z,Soulgany101,In recent years focus has increased on the common problems faced by partners and children of autistic/AS people. Cassandra workshops in UK http://www.maxineaston.co.uk/workshop/HoC_next.shtml,"In recent years focus has increased on the common problems faced by partners and children of autistic/AS people. Cassandra workshops in UK http://www.maxineaston.co.uk/workshop/HoC_next.shtml Anecdotal evidence shows that partners and children of those with AS experience high levels of stress due to their work as unrecognized carers of the AS individual. Due to the long-running and successful campaign to ''positivise'' the profile of Asperger's individuals, those more problematic interpersonal issues experienced by family members have appeared underreported. On this basis it seems that two separate investigations need to be initiated; the one about the positive traits of those with AS along with difficulties they face in interactions with others, and techniques and services which are tailored to improving their quality of life, and secondly a conversation regarding the more disconcerting experiences of family members, with special emphasis on the needs and experiences of children.",[1]
Bubble sort,Worst-case performance,128596770,2007-05-06T07:22:46Z,124.217.56.219,"Bubble sort has best-case complexity ''[[Big-O notation|'''Ω''']](n)''. When a list is already sorted, bubblesort will pass through the list once, and find that it does not need to swap any elements. Thus bubblesort will take only ''О(n)'' time when the list is completely sorted. It will also use considerably less time than ''О(n²)'' if the elements in the unsorted list are not too far from their sorted places.","Bubble sort has worst-case complexity ''[[Big-O notation|'''Ο''']](n2)'' on lists of size ''n''. To see why, consider a list where the largest element is at the bottom. Each pass through the list will only move it up by one step, so we will take ''n - 1'' passes to move it to its final sorted position. As each pass traverses the whole list, every pass will take ''n - 1'' operations. Thus the number of operations in the worst case is (n-1)2 = '''''Ο'''(n2)''.k","[1, 2, 10]"
Alzheimer's disease,Disease mechanism,128716740,2007-05-06T19:21:03Z,Cacycle,"Rare cases of Alzheimer's are caused by dominant genes that run in families. These cases often have an early age of onset. Mutations in presenilin-1 or presenilin-2 genes have been documented in some families. Mutations of presenilin 1 (PS1) lead to the most aggressive form of [[familial Alzheimer's disease]] (FAD).{{cite journal | author = Vetrivel KS, Zhang YW, Xu H, Thinakaran G. | title = Pathological and physiological functions of presenilins. | journal = Mol Neurodegener | volume = 12 | issue = | pages = 1-4 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16930451}} Evidence from rodent studies suggests that the FAD mutation of PS1 results in impaired [[Hippocampus|hippocampal]]-dependent learning which is correlated with reduced [[Adult Neurogenesis|adult neurogenesis]] in the [[Hippocampus|dentate gyrus]].{{cite journal | author = Wang R, Dineley K, Sweatt J, Zheng H | title = Presenilin 1 familial Alzheimer's disease mutation leads to defective associative learning and impaired adult neurogenesis. | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 126 | issue = 2 | pages = 305-12 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15207348}} Mutations in the APP gene on [[chromosome]] 21 can also cause early onset disease. The presenilins have been identified as essential components of the proteolytic processing machinery that produces beta amyloid peptides through cleavage of APP.
Most cases identified are ""sporadic"" with no clear family history. Environmental factors sometimes claimed to increase risk of Alzheimer's include prior head injury,{{cite journal | author = Jellinger KA | title = Head injury and dementia. | journal = Curr Opin Neurol | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 719-23 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 15542981}} particularly repeated trauma,{{cite journal | author = Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, Bailes J, McCrea M, Cantu RC, Randolph C, Jordan BD | title = Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players. | journal = Neurosurgery | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 719-26 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16239884}} previous incidents of [[migraine]] headaches,{{cite journal | author = Tyas SL, Manfreda J, Strain LA, Montgomery PR. | title = Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: a population-based, longitudinal study in Manitoba, Canada. | journal = Int J Epidemiol | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 590-7 | year = 2001 | id = PMID 11416089}} exposure to [[defoliant]]s, and low activity levels during adulthood.{{cite journal | author = Munoz DG, Feldman H. | title = Causes of Alzheimer's disease. | journal = CMAJ | volume = 162 | issue = 1 | pages = 65-72 | year = 2000 | id = PMID 11216203}} However, with the exception of previous concussion, none of these environmental risk factors are widely accepted.
Inheritance of the ε4 allele of the ApoE gene is regarded as a risk factor for development of disease, but large-scale genetic association studies raise the possibility that even this does not indicate susceptibility so much as how early one is likely to develop Alzheimer's. There is speculation among genetic experts that there are other risk and protective factor genes that may influence the development of late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). Researchers are investigating the possibility that the regulatory regions of various Alzheimer's associated genes could be important in sporadic Alzheimer's, especially inflammatory activation of these genes. These hypotheses include the amyloid-β precursor protein (APP),{{cite journal | author = Lahiri D, Ghosh C, Ge Y | title = A proximal gene promoter region for the beta-amyloid precursor protein provides a link between development, apoptosis, and Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 1010 | issue = | pages = 643-7 | year = | id = PMID 15033805}} the beta secretase enzymes{{cite journal | author = Cacabelos R, Fernandez-Novoa L, Lombardi V, Kubota Y, Takeda M | title = Molecular genetics of Alzheimer's disease and aging. | journal = Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol | volume = 27 Suppl A | issue = | pages = 1-573 | year = | id = PMID 16470248}} insulin-degrading enzyme{{cite journal | author = Nowotny P, Hinrichs A, Smemo S, Kauwe J, Maxwell T, Holmans P, Hamshere M, Turic D, Jehu L, Hollingworth P, Moore P, Bryden L, Myers A, Doil L, Tacey K, Gibson A, McKeith I, Perry R, Morris C, Thal L, Morris J, O'Donovan M, Lovestone S, Grupe A, Hardy J, Owen M, Williams J, Goate A | title = Association studies between risk for late-onset Alzheimer's disease and variants in insulin degrading enzyme. | journal = Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet | volume = 136 | issue = 1 | pages = 62-8 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15858813}} endothelin-converting enzymes {{cite journal | author = Funalot B, Ouimet T, Claperon A, Fallet C, Delacourte A, Epelbaum J, Subkowski T, Léonard N, Codron V, David J, Amouyel P, Schwartz J, Helbecque N | title = Endothelin-converting enzyme-1 is expressed in human cerebral cortex and protects against Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Mol Psychiatry | volume = 9 | issue = 12 | pages = 1122-8, 1059 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15340356}} and inflammatory 5-lipoxygenase gene. {{cite journal | author = Manev H, Manev R | title = 5-Lipoxygenase (ALOX5) and FLAP (ALOX5AP) gene polymorphisms as factors in vascular pathology and Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Med Hypotheses | volume = 66 | issue = 3 | pages = 501-3 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16278051}} ","Three major competing hypotheses exist to explain the cause of the disease. The oldest, on which most currently available drug therapies are based, is known as the ""[[cholinergic]] hypothesis"" and suggests that AD is due to reduced biosynthesis of the [[neurotransmitter]] [[acetylcholine]]. The medications that treat acetylcholine deficiency have served to only treat symptoms of the disease and have neither halted nor reversed it.{{cite journal | author = Walker LC, Rosen RF | title = Alzheimer therapeutics: What after the cholinesterase inhibitors? | journal = Age Ageing | volume = 35 | pages = 332-335 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16644763}} The cholinergic hypothesis has not maintained widespread support in the face of this evidence, although cholingeric effects have been proposed to initiate large-scale aggregation{{cite journal | author = Shen Z | title = Brain cholinesterases: II. The molecular and cellular basis of Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Med Hypotheses | volume = 63 | issue = 2 | pages = 308-21 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15236795}} leading to generalized neuroinflammation.
Research after 2000 includes hypotheses centered on the effects of the misfolded and aggregated proteins, amyloid beta and tau. The two positions differ with one stating that the [[tau protein]] abnormalities initiate the disease cascade, while the other believes that [[beta amyloid]] deposits are the causative factor in the disease.{{cite journal | author = Mudher A, Lovestone S | title = Alzheimer's disease-do tauists and baptists finally shake hands? | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 22-6 | year = 2002 | id = PMID 11801334}} The tau hypothesis is supported by the long-standing observation that deposition of amyloid plaques do not correlate well with neuron loss; {{cite journal | author = Schmitz C, Rutten B, Pielen A, Schäfer S, Wirths O, Tremp G, Czech C, Blanchard V, Multhaup G, Rezaie P, Korr H, Steinbusch H, Pradier L, Bayer T | title = Hippocampal neuron loss exceeds amyloid plaque load in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Am J Pathol | volume = 164 | issue = 4 | pages = 1495-502 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15039236}} however, a majority of researchers support the alternative hypothesis that amyloid is the primary causative agent.
The amyloid hypothesis is initially compelling because the gene for the amyloid beta precursor APP is located on [[chromosome 21]], and patients with [[trisomy 21]] - better known as Down syndrome - who thus have an extra [[gene dosage|gene copy]] almost universally exhibit AD-like disorders by 40 years of age.{{cite journal | author =Nistor M, Don M, Parekh M, Sarsoza F, Goodus M, Lopez GE, Kawas C, Leverenz J, Doran E, Lott IT, Hill M, Head E | title = Alpha- and beta-secretase activity as a function of age and beta-amyloid in Down syndrome and normal brain. | journal = Neurobiol Aging | volume = | issue =epub | pages = | year =2006 | id = PMID 16904243}}{{cite journal | author = Lott I, Head E | title = Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome: factors in pathogenesis. | journal = Neurobiol Aging | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 383-9 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15639317}} The traditional formulation of the amyloid hypothesis points to the cytotoxicity of mature aggregated amyloid fibrils, which are believed to be the toxic form of the protein responsible for disrupting the cell's calcium ion homeostasis and thus inducing [[apoptosis]].{{cite journal | author = Yankner B, Duffy L, Kirschner D | title = Neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of amyloid beta protein: reversal by tachykinin neuropeptides. | journal = Science | volume = 250 | issue = 4978 | pages = 279-82 | year = 1990 | id = PMID 2218531}} A more recent and widely supported hypothesis suggests that the cytotoxic species is an intermediate misfolded form of amyloid beta, neither a soluble monomer nor a mature aggregated polymer but an [[oligomer]]ic species.{{cite journal | author =Blanchard BJ, Hiniker AE, Lu CC, Margolin Y, Yu AS, Ingram VM | title = Elimination of Amyloid beta Neurotoxicity. | journal = J Alzheimers Dis | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 137-149 | year = 2000 | id = PMID 12214104}} Relevantly, much early development work on [[lead compound]]s has focused on the inhibition of fibrillization,{{cite journal | author = Blanchard B, Chen A, Rozeboom L, Stafford K, Weigele P, Ingram V | title = Efficient reversal of Alzheimer's disease fibril formation and elimination of neurotoxicity by a small molecule. | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 101 | issue = 40 | pages = 14326-32 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15388848}}{{cite journal | author = Porat Y, Abramowitz A, Gazit E | title = Inhibition of amyloid fibril formation by polyphenols: structural similarity and aromatic interactions as a common inhibition mechanism. | journal = Chem Biol Drug Des | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 27-37 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16492146}}{{cite journal | author = Kanapathipillai M, Lentzen G, Sierks M, Park C | title = Ectoine and hydroxyectoine inhibit aggregation and neurotoxicity of Alzheimer's beta-amyloid. | journal = FEBS Lett | volume = 579 | issue = 21 | pages = 4775-80 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16098972}} but the toxic-oligomer theory would imply that prevention of oligomeric assembly is the more important process{{cite journal | author = Lee K, Shin B, Shin K, Kim D, Yu J | title = A hybrid molecule that prohibits amyloid fibrils and alleviates neuronal toxicity induced by beta-amyloid (1-42). | journal = Biochem Biophys Res Commun | volume = 328 | issue = 4 | pages = 816-23 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15707952}} or that a better target lies upstream, for example in the inhibition of APP processing to amyloid beta.{{cite journal | author = Espeseth A, Xu M, Huang Q, Coburn C, Jones K, Ferrer M, Zuck P, Strulovici B, Price E, Wu G, Wolfe A, Lineberger J, Sardana M, Tugusheva K, Pietrak B, Crouthamel M, Lai M, Dodson E, Bazzo R, Shi X, Simon A, Li Y, Hazuda D | title = Compounds that bind APP and inhibit Abeta processing ''in vitro'' suggest a novel approach to Alzheimer disease therapeutics. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 280 | issue = 18 | pages = 17792-7 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15737955}}
It should be noted further that ApoE4, the major genetic risk factor for AD, leads to excess amyloid build up in the brain before AD symptoms arise. Thus, beta-amyloid deposition precedes clinical AD.{{cite journal | author = Polvikoski T, Sulkava R, Haltia M, Kainulainen K, Vuorio A, Verkkoniemi A, Niinistö L, Halonen P, Kontula K | title = Apolipoprotein E, dementia, and cortical deposition of beta-amyloid protein. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 333 | issue = 19 | pages = 1242-7 | year = 1995 | id = PMID 7566000}} Another strong support for the amyloid hypothesis, which looks at the beta-amyloid as the common initiating factor for the Alzheimer's disease, is that transgenic mice solely expressing a mutant human APP gene develop first diffuse and then fibrillar beta-amyloid plaques, associated with neuronal and microglial damage.{{cite journal | author = Games D, Adams D, Alessandrini R, Barbour R, Berthelette P, Blackwell C, Carr T, Clemens J, Donaldson T, Gillespie F | title = Alzheimer-type neuropathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F beta-amyloid precursor protein. | journal = Nature | volume = 373 | issue = 6514 | pages = 523-7 | year = 1995 | id = PMID 7845465}}{{cite journal | author = Masliah E, Sisk A, Mallory M, Mucke L, Schenk D, Games D | title = Comparison of neurodegenerative pathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F beta-amyloid precursor protein and Alzheimer's disease. | journal = J Neurosci | volume = 16 | issue = 18 | pages = 5795-811 | year = 1996 | id = PMID 8795633}}{{cite journal | author = Hsiao K, Chapman P, Nilsen S, Eckman C, Harigaya Y, Younkin S, Yang F, Cole G | title = Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice. | journal = Science | volume = 274 | issue = 5284 | pages = 99-102 | year = 1996 | id = PMID 8810256}}","[1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10]"
Dream,Dreaming as a skeptical argument,129213270,2007-05-08T11:41:50Z,Aherunar,"{{main|dream argument}}
While one dreams a non-lucid dream, one will not realize one is dreaming. This has led philosophers to the idea that one could be dreaming right now (or at least one cannot be certain that they are not dreaming). First formally introduced by Hindu beliefs,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} the dream argument has become one of the most popular [[skeptical hypothesis|skeptical hypotheses]].","{{main|dream argument}}
While one dreams a non-lucid dream, one will not realize one is dreaming. This has led philosophers to the idea that one could be dreaming right now (or at least one cannot be certain that they are not dreaming). First formally introduced by [[Zhuangzi]] and popularized by Hindu beliefs, the dream argument has become one of the most popular [[skeptical hypothesis|skeptical hypotheses]]. Out of the major religions and philosophies in the world, [[Buddhism]] makes most use of this argument.","[1, 3, 9]"
Hypnosis,Waking hypnosis,129927245,2007-05-10T20:57:42Z,Bobo192,"This phenomenon, is not real, involves altering the behaviour of a subject by suggestion without inducing a trance. Related to the [[placebo effect]], a subject becomes subconsciously convinced that what they are being told is inevitable reality, for example that the air in the room will cause them to swallow. They can be convinced that a completely benign substance is actually a drug that will induce whatever effect is suggested. In order to work, the subject must completely trust the source of the suggestion or be subconsciously convinced by a calm authoritative tone.","This phenomenon, as expounded by [[Melvin Powers]] in [[1955]], involves altering the behaviour of a subject by suggestion without inducing a trance. Related to the [[placebo effect]], a subject becomes subconsciously convinced that what they are being told is inevitable reality, for example that the air in the room will cause them to swallow. They can be convinced that a completely benign substance is actually a drug that will induce whatever effect is suggested. In order to work, the subject must completely trust the source of the suggestion or be subconsciously convinced by a calm authoritative tone.","[5, 9, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,129959620,2007-05-10T23:00:21Z,Mad75,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].
Mark DiNunzio is awesome and has a perfect human clock. Julie Tortorici is an amazing woman also.","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,129960007,2007-05-10T23:01:54Z,Mad75,"Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.
Mark DiNunzio has a perfect human clock and he loves julie tortorici.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,129960505,2007-05-10T23:03:41Z,Mad75,"Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.
Mark DiNunzio has a perfect human clock and he loves julie tortorici.","Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,129969240,2007-05-10T23:45:02Z,Jclerman,"Mark DiNunzio is a human time clock
The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.",[11]
Prion,Prion diseases,130094556,2007-05-11T14:28:36Z,Serephine,"[[Image:Histology_bse.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Microscopic ""holes"" are characteristic in prion-affected tissue sections, causing the tissue to develop a ""spongy"" architecture]]
{{Main|Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy}}
Prions cause neurodegenerative disease by aggregating extracellularly within the [[central nervous system]] and disrupting normal tissue structure. This produces characteristic holes in the tissue with resultant spongy architecture due to the loss of [[neuron]]s.{{cite book | title=Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease| last=Cotran| coauthors=Kumar, Collins| publisher=W.B Saunders Company| location=Philadelphia| id=0-7216-7335-X}} All known prion diseases, collectively called ''transmissible spongiform encephalopathies'', are fatal.{{cite journal | author=Gilch, Sabine, ''et al.''| title=Intracellular re-routing of prion protein prevents propagation of PrPSc and delays onset of prion disease| journal=The EMBO Journal| year=2001| issue=20| page=3957-3966| url=http://www.nature.com/emboj/journal/v20/n15/abs/7593893a.html}} Neurodegenerative symptoms can include [[convulsion]]s, [[dementia]], [[ataxia]] (balance and coordination dysfunction), and behavioural or personality changes.
The following diseases are believed to be caused by prions.
* In '''animals''':
** [[Scrapie]] in [[sheep]]
** [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE) in [[cow]]s (known as ''mad cow disease'')
** [[Transmissible mink encephalopathy]] (TME) in [[mink]]
** [[Chronic wasting disease]] (CWD) in [[elk]] and [[mule deer]]
** [[Feline spongiform encephalopathy]] in [[cats]]
** [[Exotic ungulate encephalopathy]] (EUE) in [[nyala]], [[oryx]] and [[greater kudu]]
* In '''humans''':
** [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) and its varieties: [[iatrogenic]] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (iCJD), variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (fCJD), and sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD)
:* [[Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome]] (GSS)
:* [[Fatal familial insomnia]] (FFI)
:* [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]]
:* [[Alpers' disease|Alpers syndrome]]","[[Image:Histology_bse.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Microscopic ""holes"" are characteristic in prion-affected tissue sections, causing the tissue to develop a ""spongy"" architecture]]
{{Main|Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy}}
Prions cause neurodegenerative disease by aggregating extracellularly within the [[central nervous system]] and disrupting normal tissue structure. This produces characteristic holes in the tissue with resultant spongy architecture due to the loss of [[neuron]]s.{{cite book | title=Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease| last=Cotran| coauthors=Kumar, Collins| publisher=W.B Saunders Company| location=Philadelphia| id=0-7216-7335-X}} Neurodegenerative symptoms can include [[convulsion]]s, [[dementia]], [[ataxia]] (balance and coordination dysfunction), and behavioural or personality changes. Prions are able to affect a variety of different species, however the prions involved are somewhat species-specific: they are similar but not identical.{{cite journal |author=Collinge J |title=Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci |volume=24 |issue= |pages=519-50 |year=2001 |pmid = 11283320}} It should be noted however that overlap may indeed occur; the human ''varient Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease'' is believed to be caused by a prion which infects cattle and is transmitted through infected meat.{{cite journal | author=Ironside, JW| title=Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: risk of transmission by blood transfusion and blood therapies| journal=Haemophilia| year=2006| volume=12| issue=s1| page=8-15| url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2006.01195.x}}
All known prion diseases, collectively called ''transmissible spongiform encephalopathies'', are untreatable and fatal.{{cite journal | author=Gilch, Sabine, ''et al.''| title=Intracellular re-routing of prion protein prevents propagation of PrPSc and delays onset of prion disease| journal=The EMBO Journal| year=2001| issue=20| page=3957-3966| url=http://www.nature.com/emboj/journal/v20/n15/abs/7593893a.html}} However, a vaccine has been developed in mice that may provide insight into providing a vaccine in humans to resist prion infections.{{cite web | author = New York University Medical Center and School of Medicine | title = Active Vaccine Prevents Mice From Developing Prion Disease| work = Science Daily | url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050514111648.htm | date = 2005-05-14 | accessdate = 2007-05-08 }} Additionally, in 2006 scientists announced that they had genetically engineered cattle lacking a necessary gene for prion production - thus theoretically making them immune to BSE,{{cite news |first= Rick|last=Weiss |title=Scientists Announce Mad Cow Breakthrough|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/31/AR2006123100672.html|publisher=The [[Washington Post]]|date=[[2007-01-01]]|accessdate=2007-01-01}} building on research indicating that mice lacking normally-occuring prion protein are resistant to infection by scrapie prion protein.[{{cite journal |author=Büeler H, Aguzzi A, Sailer A, Greiner R, Autenried P, Aguet M, Weissmann C |title=Mice devoid of PrP are resistant to scrapie |journal=Cell |volume=73 |issue=7 |pages=1339-47 |year=1993 |pmid= 8100741}}
The following diseases are believed to be caused by prions.
* In '''animals''':
** [[Scrapie]] in [[sheep]]
** [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE) in [[cow]]s (known as ''mad cow disease'')
** [[Transmissible mink encephalopathy]] (TME) in [[mink]]
** [[Chronic wasting disease]] (CWD) in [[elk]] and [[mule deer]]
** [[Feline spongiform encephalopathy]] in [[cats]]
** [[Exotic ungulate encephalopathy]] (EUE) in [[nyala]], [[oryx]] and [[greater kudu]]
* In '''humans''':
** [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) and its varieties: [[iatrogenic]] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (iCJD), variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (fCJD), and sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD)
** [[Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome]] (GSS)
** [[Fatal familial insomnia]] (FFI)
** [[Sporadic fatal insomnia]]
** [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]]
** [[Alpers' disease|Alpers syndrome]]","[1, 3, 4, 7, 9]"
Prion,Prion diseases,130450038,2007-05-13T02:10:42Z,Serephine,"[[Image:Histology bse.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Microscopic ""holes"" are characteristic in prion-affected tissue sections, causing the tissue to develop a ""spongy"" architecture]]
{{Main|Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy}}
Prions cause neurodegenerative disease by aggregating extracellularly within the [[central nervous system]] and disrupting normal tissue structure. This produces characteristic holes in the tissue with resultant spongy architecture due to the loss of [[neuron]]s.{{cite book | title=Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease| last=Cotran| coauthors=Kumar, Collins| publisher=W.B Saunders Company| location=Philadelphia| id=0-7216-7335-X}} Other histological changes include [[astrogliosis]] and the absence of a [[Inflammation|inflammatory reaction]].{{cite journal | author=Belay E.| title=Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies in Humans| journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol.| year=1999| volume=53| page=283-314}} While the [[incubation period]] for prion diseases is generally quite long, once symptoms appear the disease progresses rapidly, leading to brain damage and death.{{Cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/prions/|title=Prion Diseases|accessdate=[[2007-05-13]]|publisher=US Centers for Disease Control}} Neurodegenerative symptoms can include [[convulsion]]s, [[dementia]], [[ataxia]] (balance and coordination dysfunction), and behavioural or personality changes.
All known prion diseases, collectively called ''transmissible spongiform encephalopathies'', are untreatable and fatal.{{cite journal | author=Gilch, Sabine, ''et al.''| title=Intracellular re-routing of prion protein prevents propagation of PrPSc and delays onset of prion disease| journal=The EMBO Journal| year=2001| issue=20| page=3957-3966| url=http://www.nature.com/emboj/journal/v20/n15/abs/7593893a.html}} However, a vaccine has been developed in mice that may provide insight into providing a vaccine in humans to resist prion infections.{{cite web | author = New York University Medical Center and School of Medicine | title = Active Vaccine Prevents Mice From Developing Prion Disease| work = Science Daily | url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050514111648.htm | date = 2005-05-14 | accessdate = 2007-05-08 }} Additionally, in 2006 scientists announced that they had genetically engineered cattle lacking a necessary gene for prion production - thus theoretically making them immune to BSE,{{cite news |first= Rick|last=Weiss |title=Scientists Announce Mad Cow Breakthrough|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/31/AR2006123100672.html|publisher=The [[Washington Post]]|date=[[2007-01-01]]|accessdate=2007-01-01}} building on research indicating that mice lacking normally-occuring prion protein are resistant to infection by scrapie prion protein.[{{cite journal |author=Büeler H, Aguzzi A, Sailer A, Greiner R, Autenried P, Aguet M, Weissmann C |title=Mice devoid of PrP are resistant to scrapie |journal=Cell |volume=73 |issue=7 |pages=1339-47 |year=1993 |pmid= 8100741}}
Prions are able to affect a variety of different species, however the prions involved are somewhat species-specific: they are similar but not identical.{{cite journal |author=Collinge J |title=Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci |volume=24 |issue= |pages=519-50 |year=2001 |pmid = 11283320}} However overlap may occur; the human ''varient Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease'' is believed to be caused by a prion which infects cattle and is transmitted through infected meat.{{cite journal | author=Ironside, JW| title=Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: risk of transmission by blood transfusion and blood therapies| journal=Haemophilia| year=2006| volume=12| issue=s1| page=8-15| url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2006.01195.x}}
The following diseases are believed to be caused by prions.
* In '''animals''':
** [[Scrapie]] in [[sheep]]
** [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE) in [[cattle]] (known as ''mad cow disease'')
** [[Transmissible mink encephalopathy]] (TME) in [[mink]]
** [[Chronic wasting disease]] (CWD) in [[elk]] and [[mule deer]]
** [[Feline spongiform encephalopathy]] in [[cat]]s
** [[Exotic ungulate encephalopathy]] (EUE) in [[nyala]], [[oryx]] and [[greater kudu]]
* In '''humans''':
** [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) and its varieties: [[iatrogenic]] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (iCJD), variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (fCJD), and sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD)
** [[Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome]] (GSS)
** [[Fatal familial insomnia]] (fFI)
** [[Sporadic fatal insomnia]] (sFI)
** [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]]
** [[Alpers' disease|Alpers syndrome]]","[[Image:Histology bse.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Microscopic ""holes"" are characteristic in prion-affected tissue sections, causing the tissue to develop a ""spongy"" architecture]]
{{Main|Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy}}
Prions cause neurodegenerative disease by aggregating extracellularly within the [[central nervous system]] to form plaques known as [[amyloid]]s, which disrupt the normal [[tissue (biology)|tissue]] structure. This disruption is characterised by holes in the tissue with resultant spongy architecture due to the loss of [[neuron]]s.{{cite book | title=Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease| last=Cotran| coauthors=Kumar, Collins| publisher=W.B Saunders Company| location=Philadelphia| id=0-7216-7335-X}} Other histological changes include [[astrogliosis]] and the absence of a [[Inflammation|inflammatory reaction]].{{cite journal | author=Belay E.| title=Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies in Humans| journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol.| year=1999| volume=53| page=283-314}} While the [[incubation period]] for prion diseases is generally quite long, once symptoms appear the disease progresses rapidly, leading to brain damage and death.{{Cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/prions/|title=Prion Diseases|accessdate=[[2007-05-13]]|publisher=US Centers for Disease Control}} Neurodegenerative symptoms can include [[convulsion]]s, [[dementia]], [[ataxia]] (balance and coordination dysfunction), and behavioural or personality changes.
All known prion diseases, collectively called ''transmissible spongiform encephalopathies'', are untreatable and fatal.{{cite journal | author=Gilch, Sabine, ''et al.''| title=Intracellular re-routing of prion protein prevents propagation of PrPSc and delays onset of prion disease| journal=The EMBO Journal| year=2001| issue=20| page=3957-3966| url=http://www.nature.com/emboj/journal/v20/n15/abs/7593893a.html}} However, a vaccine has been developed in mice that may provide insight into providing a vaccine in humans to resist prion infections.{{cite web | author = New York University Medical Center and School of Medicine | title = Active Vaccine Prevents Mice From Developing Prion Disease| work = Science Daily | url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050514111648.htm | date = 2005-05-14 | accessdate = 2007-05-08 }} Additionally, in 2006 scientists announced that they had genetically engineered cattle lacking a necessary gene for prion production - thus theoretically making them immune to BSE,{{cite news |first= Rick|last=Weiss |title=Scientists Announce Mad Cow Breakthrough|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/31/AR2006123100672.html|publisher=The [[Washington Post]]|date=[[2007-01-01]]|accessdate=2007-01-01}} building on research indicating that mice lacking normally-occuring prion protein are resistant to infection by scrapie prion protein.[{{cite journal |author=Büeler H, Aguzzi A, Sailer A, Greiner R, Autenried P, Aguet M, Weissmann C |title=Mice devoid of PrP are resistant to scrapie |journal=Cell |volume=73 |issue=7 |pages=1339-47 |year=1993 |pmid= 8100741}}
Prions are able to affect a variety of different species, however the prions involved are somewhat species-specific: they are similar but not identical.{{cite journal |author=Collinge J |title=Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci |volume=24 |issue= |pages=519-50 |year=2001 |pmid = 11283320}} However overlap may occur; the human ''varient Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease'' is believed to be caused by a prion which infects cattle and is transmitted through infected meat.{{cite journal | author=Ironside, JW| title=Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: risk of transmission by blood transfusion and blood therapies| journal=Haemophilia| year=2006| volume=12| issue=s1| page=8-15| url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2006.01195.x}}
The following diseases are believed to be caused by prions.
* In '''animals''':
** [[Scrapie]] in [[sheep]]
** [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE) in [[cattle]] (known as ''mad cow disease'')
** [[Transmissible mink encephalopathy]] (TME) in [[mink]]
** [[Chronic wasting disease]] (CWD) in [[elk]] and [[mule deer]]
** [[Feline spongiform encephalopathy]] in [[cat]]s
** [[Exotic ungulate encephalopathy]] (EUE) in [[nyala]], [[oryx]] and [[greater kudu]]
* In '''humans''':
** [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) and its varieties: [[iatrogenic]] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (iCJD), variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (fCJD), and sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD)
** [[Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome]] (GSS)
** [[Fatal familial insomnia]] (fFI)
** [[Sporadic fatal insomnia]] (sFI)
** [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]]
** [[Alpers' disease|Alpers syndrome]]","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,132167221,2007-05-20T06:29:59Z,IvanI,"*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]","*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070518174657.htm Jet Lag, Circadian Clocks Explained]
[[Category:Sleep]][[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Reloj circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[1]
Methamphetamine,World War II,132752477,2007-05-22T19:32:23Z,Drc79,"One of the earliest uses of amphetamine occurred during World War II when the German military dispensed it under the trade name '''Pervitin''' [http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid=271075 SID 271075 PubChem Substance Page on Methamphetamine] It was widely distributed across rank and division, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel. Chocolates dosed with methamphetamine were known as Fliegerschokolade (""flyer's chocolate"") when given to pilots, or Panzerschokolade (""tanker's chocolate"") when given to tank crews. From 1942 until his death in 1945, [[Adolf Hitler]] was given daily intravenous injections of methamphetamine by his personal physician, [[Theodor Morell]],{{cite web | url = http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cmethamphetamine.html | title = Methamphetamine | work = Drugscope | accessdate=2006-12-28}} as a treatment for depression and fatigue. It is possible that the [[Parkinsons disease|Parkinsons]]-like symptoms which developed from 1940 onwards were related to his use of methamphetamine.{{cite journal | last= Doyle | first = D | year= 2005 | title= Hitler's Medical Care | url= http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/articles/journal_35_1/Hitler's_medical_care.pdf | journal = Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh | volume=35 | pages=75-82 | format = PDF | accessdate=2006-12-28}}
After World War II, a large supply of amphetamine, formerly stockpiled by the Japanese military, became available in Japan under the street name shabu (also Philopon (pronounced ヒロポン, or Hiropon), its tradename there.{{cite web | url = http://www.yama-arashi.com/medical/antidepressants.htm | title = 抗うつ薬いろいろ (Various Antidepressants) | accessdate = 2006-07-14 | author = Digital Creators Studio Yama-Arashi | date = 2006-04-16 | work = 医療情報提供サービス | language = Japanese}}) The Japanese Ministry of Health banned it in 1951; and its prohibition is thought to have added to the growing [[yakuza]]-activities related to illicit drug production.{{cite web | url = http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1989-01-01_1_page007.html | title = Japan: stimulant epidemics past and present | accessmonthday = [[14 July]] | accessyear = 2006 | author = M. Tamura | date = 1989-01-01 | work = Bulletin on Narcotics | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | pages = 83-93}} Today, methamphetamine is still associated with the Japanese underworld, but its usage is discouraged by strong social taboos.
condoms were introduced by hitler in wwII","One of the earliest uses of amphetamine occurred during World War II when the German military dispensed it under the trade name '''Pervitin''' [http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid=271075 SID 271075 PubChem Substance Page on Methamphetamine] It was widely distributed across rank and division, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel. Chocolates dosed with methamphetamine were known as Fliegerschokolade (""flyer's chocolate"") when given to pilots, or Panzerschokolade (""tanker's chocolate"") when given to tank crews. From 1942 until his death in 1945, [[Adolf Hitler]] was given daily intravenous injections of methamphetamine by his personal physician, [[Theodor Morell]],{{cite web | url = http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cmethamphetamine.html | title = Methamphetamine | work = Drugscope | accessdate=2006-12-28}} as a treatment for depression and fatigue. It is possible that the [[Parkinsons disease|Parkinsons]]-like symptoms which developed from 1940 onwards were related to his use of methamphetamine.{{cite journal | last= Doyle | first = D | year= 2005 | title= Hitler's Medical Care | url= http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/articles/journal_35_1/Hitler's_medical_care.pdf | journal = Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh | volume=35 | pages=75-82 | format = PDF | accessdate=2006-12-28}}
After World War II, a large supply of amphetamine, formerly stockpiled by the Japanese military, became available in Japan under the street name shabu (also Philopon (pronounced ヒロポン, or Hiropon), its tradename there.{{cite web | url = http://www.yama-arashi.com/medical/antidepressants.htm | title = 抗うつ薬いろいろ (Various Antidepressants) | accessdate = 2006-07-14 | author = Digital Creators Studio Yama-Arashi | date = 2006-04-16 | work = 医療情報提供サービス | language = Japanese}}) The Japanese Ministry of Health banned it in 1951; and its prohibition is thought to have added to the growing [[yakuza]]-activities related to illicit drug production.{{cite web | url = http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1989-01-01_1_page007.html | title = Japan: stimulant epidemics past and present | accessmonthday = [[14 July]] | accessyear = 2006 | author = M. Tamura | date = 1989-01-01 | work = Bulletin on Narcotics | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | pages = 83-93}} Today, methamphetamine is still associated with the Japanese underworld, but its usage is discouraged by strong social taboos.",[11]
DNA sequencing,Early methods,134355222,2007-05-29T17:16:49Z,65.220.64.105,"For thirty years, a large proportion of DNA sequencing has been carried out with the chain-termination method [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=431765], developed by [[Frederick Sanger]] and coworkers in 1975. Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by Sanger in England and Gilbert et al. at Harvard,http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf, a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973 Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 December; 70(12 Pt 1-2): 3581–3584. The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator, Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.","For thirty years, a large proportion of DNA sequencing has been carried out with the chain-termination method [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=431765], developed by [[Frederick Sanger]] and coworkers in 1975. Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by Sanger in England and Gilbert et al. at Harvard,http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf, a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973 Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 December; 70(12 Pt 1-2): 3581–3584. The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator, Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.
It is also fair to note that since RNA can be considered the DNA of RNA genome virus and phage, or that DNA can be copied into RNA via reverse trancriptase, the large amount of RNA sequencing (for technical reasons, RNA was easier to sequence then DNA in the pre Recombinant DNA era) could be considered an early form of DNA sequencing. The landmark in this era is the sequence of hte phage MS2 genome by Walter Fiers and coworkers.","[1, 4, 5]"
Gene therapy,Background,134674806,2007-05-30T22:31:07Z,68.150.112.202,"In the 1980s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for methods of easily producing [[protein]]s — such as [[insulin]], the protein deficient in [[diabetes mellitus type 1]] — investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria]]l DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
On [[September 14]], [[1990]] at the [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Institutes of Health]] Brandon Rogers performed the first approved gene therapy procedure on four-year old Ashanthi DeSilva. Born with a rare genetic disease called [[severe combined immunodeficiency|severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)]], she lacked a healthy immune system, and was vulnerable to every passing germ. Children with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to adulthood; a common childhood illness like chickenpox is life-threatening. Ashanthi led a cloistered existence — avoiding contact with people outside her family, remaining in the sterile environment of her home, and battling frequent illnesses with massive amounts of antibiotics.
In Ashanthi's gene therapy procedure, doctors removed white blood cells from the child's body, let the cells grow in the lab, inserted the missing gene into the cells, and then infused the genetically modified blood cells back into the patient's bloodstream. Laboratory tests have shown that the therapy strengthened Ashanthi's immune system; she no longer has recurrent colds, she has been allowed to attend school, and she was immunized against whooping cough. This procedure was not a cure; the white blood cells treated genetically only work for a few months, after which, the process must be repeated (VII, Thompson [First] 1993).
Although this simplified explanation of a gene therapy procedure sounds like a happy ending, it is little more than an optimistic first chapter in a long story; the road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the comparatively large human genome {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.","In the 1980s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for methods of easily producing [[protein]]s — such as [[insulin]], the protein deficient in [[diabetes mellitus type 1]] — investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria]]l DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.
On [[September 14]], [[1990]] at the [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Institutes of Health]] W. French Anderson, M.D., and his colleagues R. Michael Blaese, M.D., and Kenneth Culver, M.D., performed the first approved gene therapy procedure on four-year old Ashanthi DeSilva. Born with a rare genetic disease called [[severe combined immunodeficiency|severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)]], she lacked a healthy immune system, and was vulnerable to every passing germ. Children with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to adulthood; a common childhood illness like chickenpox is life-threatening. Ashanthi led a cloistered existence — avoiding contact with people outside her family, remaining in the sterile environment of her home, and battling frequent illnesses with massive amounts of antibiotics.
In Ashanthi's gene therapy procedure, doctors removed white blood cells from the child's body, let the cells grow in the lab, inserted the missing gene into the cells, and then infused the genetically modified blood cells back into the patient's bloodstream. Laboratory tests have shown that the therapy strengthened Ashanthi's immune system; she no longer has recurrent colds, she has been allowed to attend school, and she was immunized against whooping cough. This procedure was not a cure; the white blood cells treated genetically only work for a few months, after which, the process must be repeated (VII, Thompson [First] 1993).
Although this simplified explanation of a gene therapy procedure sounds like a happy ending, it is little more than an optimistic first chapter in a long story; the road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the comparatively large human genome {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.",[5]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,134699788,2007-05-31T00:37:46Z,72.79.113.88,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play with themselves LOL",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,134699802,2007-05-31T00:37:51Z,MartinBot,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play with themselves LOL","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","[1, 4, 9]"
Medical cannabis,Proponents,137591919,2007-06-12T02:12:33Z,71.98.65.223,"[[Image:Willie Nelson.jpg|thumb|right|Willie Nelson performing at the Chumash Casino Resort in Santa Ynez, California. Photograph by Dwight McCann.]]
* [[Willie Nelson]] - Singer and songwriter.
* [[Sunny Naik]] - Active Marijuana Smoker
* [[Steve Kubby]] - Key Organizer of California's [[Proposition 215]] [http://www.mapinc.org/images/DennisPeronLetter.gif], Founder and National Director [[American Medical Marijuana Association]].
* [[Marc Emery]] - ''[[Cannabis Culture Magazine]]'', former seed merchant facing extradition to the US.
* [[Rob Kampia]] - Founder of [[Marijuana Policy Project]].
* [https://medicalmarijuanaofamerica.com/content/category/1/1/60/ Vanessa Nelson] - Jornalist specializing in covering medical marijuana cases.
* [[Peter McWilliams]] - Author who used cannabis to relieve pain.
* [[Bill Maher]] - Comedian and host of ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'' on HBO.
* [[Bill Mescher]] - A [[South Carolina]] state senator who proposed legalization of medical cannabis.
* [[Ethan Nadelmann]] - President of [[Drug Policy Alliance]].
* [[Loretta Nall]] - Founder of the [[United States Marijuana party]]
* [[Angel Raich]] - U.S. activist, respondent in ''[[Gonzales v. Raich]]''.
* [[Dana Rohrabacher]] - [[United States]] Congressman who proposed a bill to stop [[Department of Justice]] from arresting medical cannabis patients.
* [[Keith Stroup]] - Founder of [[NORML]].
* [[Sertac Olgunsoylu]] - Founder of [[Middle East Underground Marijuana Society]].
* [[Ed Rosenthal]] - A horitcultarist that fights for the right to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes.","[[Image:Willie Nelson.jpg|thumb|right|Willie Nelson performing at the Chumash Casino Resort in Santa Ynez, California. Photograph by Dwight McCann.]]
* [[Willie Nelson]] - Singer and songwriter.
* [[Sunny Naik]] - Active Marijuana Smoker
* [[Steve Kubby]] - Key Organizer of California's [[Proposition 215]] [http://www.mapinc.org/images/DennisPeronLetter.gif], Founder and National Director [[American Medical Marijuana Association]].
* [[Marc Emery]] - ''[[Cannabis Culture Magazine]]'', former seed merchant facing extradition to the US.
* [[Rob Kampia]] - Founder of [[Marijuana Policy Project]].
* [https://medicalmarijuanaofamerica.com/content/category/1/1/60/ Vanessa Nelson] - Jornalist specializing in covering medical marijuana cases.
* [[Peter McWilliams]] - Author who used cannabis to relieve pain.
* [[Bill Maher]] - Comedian and host of ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'' on HBO.
* [[Bill Mescher]] - A [[South Carolina]] state senator who proposed legalization of medical cannabis.
* [[Ethan Nadelmann]] - President of [[Drug Policy Alliance]].
* [[Loretta Nall]] - Founder of the [[United States Marijuana party]]
* [[Angel Raich]] - U.S. activist, respondent in ''[[Gonzales v. Raich]]''.
* [[Dana Rohrabacher]] - [[United States]] Congressman who proposed a bill to stop [[Department of Justice]] from arresting medical cannabis patients.
* [[Keith Stroup]] - Founder of [[NORML]].
* [[Sertac Olgunsoylu]] - Founder of [[Middle East Underground Marijuana Society]].
* [[Ed Rosenthal]] - A horitcultarist that fights for the right to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes.
*[[Penn Jillette]] - Of Penn and Teller. Strong advodcate even though he has never taken one recreational drug.",[11]
Dream,Discovery of REM,137903395,2007-06-13T14:27:57Z,63.109.43.188,"In 1953 [[Eugene Aserinsky]] discovered [[Rapid eye movement|REM sleep]] while working in the lab of his Ph.D advisor [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]. While observing sleepers for Kleitman's sleep lab Aserinsky noticed the eyes beneath the subjects eyelids seemed to be fluttering. He proposed studying these eye movements to Kleitman, who agreed, suggesting that Aserinsky use a [[polygraph]] machine to record changes in the brain. During these sessions observing sleepers Aserinsky began to notice patterns in the [[brain waves]] of the volunteers. During one session he awakened a subject who was crying out in his sleep during REM and confirmed an earlier hunch that dreaming was occurring. {{cite book
| last = Dement
| first = William
| title = The Sleepwatchers
| publisher = [[Springer-Verlag]]
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0964933802 }} In 1953 Kleitman and Aserinsky published the ground breaking study in [[Science (journal)|''Science'']].{{cite journal
| author = Aserinsky and Kleitman
| date =
| year = 1953
| month = September
| title =
| journal = Science
| volume = 4
| issue =
| pages = 273-274
| doi = 10.1126/science.118.3062.273
| id =
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/118/3062/273.pdf
| language =
| format =
| accessdate =
}}
In 1976 [[J. Allan Hobson]] and Robert McCarly proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held [[Freudian]] view of dreams as subconscious wishes to be interpreted. The [[activation synthesis theory]] asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting [[chaos theory|chaotic]] signals from the [[pons]]. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending [[cholinergic]] [[PGO]] (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher [[midbrain]] and [[forebrain]] cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information.","In 1953 [[Eugene Aserinsky]] discovered [[Rapid eye movement|REM sleep]] while working in the lab of his Ph.D advisor [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]. While observing sleepers for Kleitman's sleep lab Aserinsky noticed the eyes beneath the subjects eyelids seemed to be fluttering. He proposed studying these eye movements to Kleitman, who agreed, suggesting that Aserinsky use a [[polygraph]] machine to record changes in the brain. During these sessions observing sleepers Aserinsky began to notice patterns in the [[brain waves]] of the volunteers. During one session he awakened a subject who was crying out in his sleep during REM and confirmed an earlier hunch that dreaming was occurring. {{cite book
| last = Dement
| first = William
| title = The Sleepwatchers
| publisher = [[Springer-Verlag]]
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0964933802 }} In 1953 Kleitman and Aserinsky published the ground breaking study in [[Science (journal)|''Science'']].{{cite journal
| author = Aserinsky and Kleitman
| date =
| year = 1953
| month = September
| title =
| journal = Science
| volume = 4
| issue =
| pages = 273-274
| doi = 10.1126/science.118.3062.273
| id =
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/118/3062/273.pdf
| language =
| format =
| accessdate =
}}
In 1976 [[J. Allan Hobson]] and Robert McCarly proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held [[Freudian]] view of dreams as subconscious wishes to be interpreted. The [[activation synthesis theory]] asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting [[chaos theory|chaotic]] signals from the [[pons]]. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending [[cholinergic]] [[PGO]] (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher [[midbrain]] and [[forebrain]] cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information.
Then in May of 2007 Bradley Frank Peers came up with the theory that dreams were predictions of the future of the individual that had them, as well as future previews to your next life; if there is life after death. He proposed that there are 3 types of dreams. Good dreams, Bad dreams, and Dajavue dreams; that ultimately every dream you had
was going be classified as such.
Bradley seemed to think that if people could train themself to remember there dreams from the night before, whether they write them down, tell them to somebody, or just remember it, they could in fact predict the future. Bradley thought that dreams were the insite to this being able to take place. He thought that if a singleton could remember the
events of the previous nights sleep, one could actually take hold of the unfolding situation before it happened.
The dream theory, to Bradley, seemed all to clear. That possibly science wasn't going to help us predict the future. Seeing this, he thought humans must come to a realization; that maybe logic will help us solve some of mankinds greatest questions. Bradley thought that if he could overcome the thought process and control it, so could everybody else.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,138351503,2007-06-15T13:58:22Z,131.111.8.97,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of plant leaves continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","[3, 9]"
Instruction cycle,Fetch the Instruction from Main Memory,138550489,2007-06-16T13:16:22Z,81.151.25.199,"The CPU presents the value of the [[program counter]] (PC) on the [[address bus]]. The CPU then fetches the instruction from main memory via the [[computer bus|data bus]] into the Memory Data Register and then into the Current [[Instruction register|Instruction Register]] (CIR), a circuit that holds the instruction so that it can be decoded and executed.","The CPU presents the value of the [[program counter]] (PC) on the [[address bus]]. The CPU then fetches the instruction from main memory via the [[computer bus|data bus]] into the Memory Data Register (MDR). The value from the MDR is then placed into the Current [[Instruction register|Instruction Register]] (CIR), a circuit that holds the instruction so that it can be decoded and executed.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,138808243,2007-06-17T18:19:49Z,76.16.157.11,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].",Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].,[2]
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,138808318,2007-06-17T18:20:13Z,Bobo192,Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","[1, 9]"
Gene therapy,2002 and Earlier,138820214,2007-06-17T19:22:45Z,86.157.62.200,,"New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. Technique has potential to treat the blood disorder [[thalassaemia]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and some cancers. See ''Subtle gene therapy tackles blood disorder'' at NewScientist.com (October 11, 2002).
Researchers at [[Case Western Reserve University]] and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane. See ''DNA nanoballs boost gene therapy'' at NewScientist.com (May 12, 2002).
Sickle cell is successfully treated in mice. See ''Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of [[Sickle Cell Disease]]'' from March 18, 2002, issue of The Scientist.
The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID ([[severe combined immune deficiency]] or ""bubble boy"" disease) held from 2000 and 2002 was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany. (V. Cavazzana-Calvo, Thrasher and Mavilio 2004; see also '''Miracle' gene therapy trial halted'' at NewScientist.com, October 3, 2002).
In 1993 Andrew Gobea was born with a rare, normally fatal genetic disease - [[severe combined immunodeficiency]] ([[SCID]]). Genetic screening before birth showed that he had SCID. Blood was removed from Andre's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, containing stem cells. The allele that codes for [[ADA]] was obtained and was inserted into a retrovirus. Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which they entered and inserted the gene into the stem cells' chromosomes. Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andre's blood system via a vein. For four years T-cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene. After four years more treatment was needed.","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Context-free grammar,See also,139031290,2007-06-18T18:37:54Z,Saccade,"* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Lojban]]
* [[Parsing]]
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]
* [[Stochastic context-free grammar]]","* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Parsing]]
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]
* [[Stochastic context-free grammar]]",[11]
Bubble sort,(Top),139081046,2007-06-18T22:47:52Z,62.172.143.195,"''Bubble sort''' is a simple [[sorting algorithm]]. It works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time and [[swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which means the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top (i.e. the beginning) of the list via the swaps. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. This is the easiest comparison sort to implement.
A simple way to express bubble sort in [[pseudocode]] is as follows:
'''procedure''' bubbleSort( A ''':''' list of sortable items ) '''defined as:'''
'''do'''
swapped := false
'''for each''' i '''in''' 0 '''to''' length( A ) - 2 '''do:'''
'''if''' A[ i ] > A[ i + 1 ] '''then'''
swap( A[ i ], A[ i + 1 ] )
swapped := true
'''end if'''
'''end for'''
'''while''' swapped
'''end procedure'''
The algorithm can also be expressed as:
'''procedure''' bubbleSort( A ''':''' list of sortable items ) '''defined as:'''
'''for each''' i '''in''' 1 '''to''' length(A) '''do:'''
'''for each''' j '''in''' length(A) '''downto''' i + 1 '''do:'''
'''if''' A[ j ] < A[ j - 1 ] '''then'''
swap( A[ j ], A[ j - 1 ] )
'''end if'''
'''end for'''
'''end for'''
'''end procedure'''
This difference between this and the first pseudocode implementation is discussed [[#Alternative implementations|later in the article]].
a C-language program to do bubble sort.
#include
void main()
{
int x[10];
int i,j;
printf(""\nEnter 10 elements\n"");
/* accepting 10 elements from the user for sorting */
for(i = 0; i<10 ; i++)
scanf(""%d"",&x[i]);
/* End of input */
/* bubble sort */
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<10-i;j++)
{
/*Condition to handle i=0 & j = 9. j+1 tries to access x[10] which is not there in zero based array*/
if(j+1 == 10)
continue;
if(x[j]>x[j+1])
{
temp = x[j];
x[j]=x[j+1];
x[j+1] = temp;
}
}
}
/* printing sorted array */
for(i=0; i<10;i++)
printf(""\n %d"",x[i]);
/*end of program */
}
","''Bubble sort''' is a simple [[sorting monkey]]. It works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time and [[swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which means the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top (i.e. the beginning) of the list via the swaps. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. This is the easiest comparison sort to implement.
A simple way to express bubble sort in [[pseudocode]] is as follows:
'''procedure''' bubbleSort( A ''':''' list of sortable items ) '''defined as:'''
'''do'''
swapped := false
'''for each''' i '''in''' 0 '''to''' length( A ) - 2 '''do:'''
'''if''' A[ i ] > A[ i + 1 ] '''then'''
swap( A[ i ], A[ i + 1 ] )
swapped := true
'''end if'''
'''end for'''
'''while''' swapped
'''end procedure'''
The algorithm can also be expressed as:
'''procedure''' bubbleSort( A ''':''' list of sortable items ) '''defined as:'''
'''for each''' i '''in''' 1 '''to''' length(A) '''do:'''
'''for each''' j '''in''' length(A) '''downto''' i + 1 '''do:'''
'''if''' A[ j ] < A[ j - 1 ] '''then'''
swap( A[ j ], A[ j - 1 ] )
'''end if'''
'''end for'''
'''end for'''
'''end procedure'''
This difference between this and the first pseudocode implementation is discussed [[#Alternative implementations|later in the article]].
a C-language program to do bubble sort.
#include
void main()
{
int x[10];
int i,j;
printf(""\nEnter 10 elements\n"");
/* accepting 10 elements from the user for sorting */
for(i = 0; i<10 ; i++)
scanf(""%d"",&x[i]);
/* End of input */
/* bubble sort */
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<10-i;j++)
{
/*Condition to handle i=0 & j = 9. j+1 tries to access x[10] which is not there in zero based array*/
if(j+1 == 10)
continue;
if(x[j]>x[j+1])
{
temp = x[j];
x[j]=x[j+1];
x[j+1] = temp;
}
}
}
/* printing sorted array */
for(i=0; i<10;i++)
printf(""\n %d"",x[i]);
/*end of program */
}
",[11]
Context-free grammar,Linguistic applications,139082667,2007-06-18T22:57:19Z,Jonsafari,"Context-free grammars were used by [[Noam Chomsky]] to describe the grammars of natural languages. However, Chomsky argued that context-free grammars alone were not powerful enough and had to be supplemented by [[Transformational grammar|transformations]]. This argument was challenged by [[Gerald Gazdar]] in the late [[1970s]] (see [[Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar]]), but it is now generally accepted that there are some grammatical constructions which context-free grammars are not powerful enough to describe.","Context-free grammars were used by [[Noam Chomsky]] to describe the grammars of natural languages. However, Chomsky argued that context-free grammars alone were not powerful enough and had to be supplemented by [[Transformational grammar|transformations]].
His general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then{{cite journal | title=Evidence against the context-freeness of natural language | year=1985 | last=Shieber | first=Stuart | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=333-343}}, although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of CFGs in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproven.{{cite journal | title=Natural languages and context-free languages | year=1982 | last=Pullum | first=Geoffrey K. | coauthors=Gerald Gazdar | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=4 | pages=471-504}}
[[Gerald Gazdar]] and [[Geoffrey Pullum]] have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as [[cross-serial dependencies]] in [[Swiss German]] and [[reduplication]] in [[Bambara language|Bambara]]), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.","[1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the SCN ""master clock""",139265828,2007-06-19T19:22:24Z,192.83.232.85,"Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.","Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have ""free-running"" rhythms.
Cells in the body that have their own rhythms are called peripheral oscillators. These tissues include the esophagus, lung, liver, spleen and thymus. There is some evidence the olfactory bulb and prostate may also experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting these structures may also be weak oscillators.","[1, 4]"
Hypnosis,Views on theoretical debate,140894488,2007-06-27T05:44:20Z,McHanara,"Heap and Dryden (1991:17) considers the theoretical debates on hypnotherapy to have been productive and that hypnosis has benefited from the attentions of those involved in the controversies - people of calibre and intellectual integrity. Heap and Dryden also state that, in contrast, hypnotherapy from the 18th century and [[Animal_magnetism|animal magnetism]] down to the new age therapies of the neo-[[Milton_H._Erickson|Erickson]]ians have been characterized by gullibility and fraudulence.
Ambrose and Newbold (1980) consider the theoretical debate surrounding hypnosis theories to have been productive, especially in relation to distinguishing evidence based research from conjecture.","Though various myths have been spread by unfounded conjecture about hypnosis, the field has received significant support from the science oriented psychology community due to the rigorous research of hypnotic phenomena conducted by some practitioners and theorists (Sala 1999). Heap and Dryden (1991:17) considers the theoretical debates on hypnotherapy to have been productive and that hypnosis has benefited from the attentions of those involved in the controversies - people of calibre and intellectual integrity. Heap and Dryden also state that, in contrast, hypnotherapy from the 18th century and [[Animal_magnetism|animal magnetism]] down to the new age therapies of the neo-[[Milton_H._Erickson|Erickson]]ians have been characterized by gullibility and fraudulence.
Ambrose and Newbold (1980) consider the theoretical debate surrounding hypnosis theories to have been productive, especially in relation to distinguishing evidence based research from conjecture.","[1, 4, 5]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,142381045,2007-07-04T03:18:38Z,Jclerman,"*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human","*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
*[[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]","[4, 9]"
Alzheimer's disease,Risk reducers,143006552,2007-07-07T00:32:13Z,Igoruha,"*Intellectual stimulation (e.g., playing [[chess]] or doing [[crosswords]]) {{cite journal | author = Verghese J, Lipton R, Katz M, Hall C, Derby C, Kuslansky G, Ambrose A, Sliwinski M, Buschke H | title = Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 348 | issue = 25 | pages = 2508-16 | year = 2003 | id = PMID 12815136}}
*Regular physical exercise{{cite journal | author = Larson E, Wang L, Bowen J, McCormick W, Teri L, Crane P, Kukull W | title = Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older. | journal = Ann Intern Med | volume = 144 | issue = 2 | pages = 73-81 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16418406}}
*Regular social interaction [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6332883.stm]
*A [[Mediterranean diet]] with fruits and vegetables and low in saturated fat, {{cite journal | author = Scarmeas N, Stern Y, Mayeux R, Luchsinger J | title = Mediterranean diet, Alzheimer disease, and vascular mediation. | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 63 | issue = 12 | pages = 1709-17 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 17030648}} supplemented in particular with:
**[[B vitamins]] {{cite journal | author = Morris M, Schneider J, Tangney C | title = Thoughts on B-vitamins and dementia. | journal = J Alzheimers Dis | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 429-33 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16917152}}
**[[Omega-3 fatty acids]], especially [[Docosahexaenoic acid]]{{cite journal | author = Lim W, Gammack J, Van Niekerk J, Dangour A | title = Omega 3 fatty acid for the prevention of dementia. | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = | pages = CD005379 | year = | id = PMID 16437528}}{{cite journal | author = Morris M, Evans D, Tangney C, Bienias J, Wilson R | title = Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in a large community study. | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 62 | issue = 12 | pages = 1849-53 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16216930}}
**Fruit and vegetable juice {{cite journal | author = Dai Q, Borenstein A, Wu Y, Jackson J, Larson E | title = Fruit and vegetable juices and Alzheimer's disease: the Kame Project. | journal = Am J Med | volume = 119 | issue = 9 | pages = 751-9 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16945610}}{{cite journal | author = Joseph J, Fisher D, Carey A | title = Fruit extracts antagonize Abeta- or DA-induced deficits in Ca2+ flux in M1-transfected COS-7 cells. | journal = J Alzheimers Dis | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 403-11; discussion 443-9 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15345811}}
**High doses of the [[antioxidant]] [[Vitamin E]] (in combination with [[vitamin C]]) seem to reduce Alzheimer's risk in cross sectional studies but not in a randomized trial and so are not currently a recommended [[preventative medicine|preventive measure]] because of observed increases in overall mortality{{cite journal | author = Petersen R, Thomas R, Grundman M, Bennett D, Doody R, Ferris S, Galasko D, Jin S, Kaye J, Levey A, Pfeiffer E, Sano M, van Dyck C, Thal L | title = Vitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairment. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 352 | issue = 23 | pages = 2379-88 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15829527}}{{cite journal | author = Zandi P, Anthony J, Khachaturian A, Stone S, Gustafson D, Tschanz J, Norton M, Welsh-Bohmer K, Breitner J | title = Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache County Study. | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 82-8 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 14732624}}
**The heavy consumption of alcohol (beer, wine or distilled spirits) Scarmeas, N., et al. Mediterranean diet and risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of Neurology, 2006 (published online April 18, 2006). Other research is consistent with the finding that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with lower risk of Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia: Mulkamal, K.J., et al. Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of dementia in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 2003 (March 19), 289, 1405-1413; Ganguli, M., et al. Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in late life: A longitudinal community study. Neurology, 2005, 65, 1210-12-17; Huang, W., et al. Alcohol consumption and incidence of dementia in a community sample aged 75 years and older. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 2002, 55(10), 959-964; Rodgers, B., et al. Non-linear relationships between cognitive function and alcohol consumption in young, middle-aged and older adults: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1280-1290; Anstey, K. J., et al. Lower cognitive test scores observed in alcohol are associated with demographic, personality, and biological factors: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1291-1301; Espeland, M., et al. Association between alcohol intake and domain-specific cognitive function in older women. Neuroepidemiology, 2006, 1(27), 1-12; Stampfer, M.J., et al. Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 2005, 352, 245-253; Ruitenberg, A., et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Lancet, 2002, 359(9303), 281-286.
*[[Cholesterol]]-lowering drugs ([[statins]]) reduce Alzheimer's risk in observational studies but so far not in randomized controlled trials{{cite journal | author = Rockwood K | title = Epidemiological and clinical trials evidence about a preventive role for statins in Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Acta Neurol Scand Suppl | volume = 185 | issue = | pages = 71-7 | year = | id = PMID 16866914}}
*Female [[Hormone replacement therapy]] is no longer thought to prevent dementia based on data from the [[Women's Health Initiative]]
*Long-term usage of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), used to reduce joint inflammation and pain, are associated with a reduced likelihood of developing AD, according to some observational studies. {{cite journal |author=Zandi P, Anthony J, Hayden K, Mehta K, Mayer L, Breitner J |title=Reduced incidence of AD with NSAID but not H2 receptor antagonists: the Cache County Study |journal=Neurology |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=880-6 |year=2002 |id=PMID 12297571}} {{cite journal |author=in t' Veld B, Ruitenberg A, Hofman A, Launer L, van Duijn C, Stijnen T, Breteler M, Stricker B |title=Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and the risk of Alzheimer's disease |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=345 |issue=21 |pages=1515-21 |year=2001 |id=PMID 11794217}} The risks appear to outweigh the drugs' benefit as a method of [[primary prevention]]. {{cite journal | author = Lyketsos C, Colenda C, Beck C, Blank K, Doraiswamy M, Kalunian D, Yaffe K | title = Position statement of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry (AAGP) regarding principles of care for patients with dementia resulting from Alzheimer disease. | journal = Am J Geriatr Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 561-72 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16816009}} [http://ajgp.org/cgi/content/full/14/7/561]","*Intellectual stimulation (e.g., playing [[chess]] or doing [[crosswords]]) {{cite journal | author = Verghese J, Lipton R, Katz M, Hall C, Derby C, Kuslansky G, Ambrose A, Sliwinski M, Buschke H | title = Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 348 | issue = 25 | pages = 2508-16 | year = 2003 | id = PMID 12815136}}
*Regular physical exercise{{cite journal | author = Larson E, Wang L, Bowen J, McCormick W, Teri L, Crane P, Kukull W | title = Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older. | journal = Ann Intern Med | volume = 144 | issue = 2 | pages = 73-81 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16418406}}
*Regular social interaction [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6332883.stm]. Lonely individuals may be twice as likely to develop the type of dementia linked to Alzheimer’s disease in late life as those who are not lonely.
*A [[Mediterranean diet]] with fruits and vegetables and low in saturated fat, {{cite journal | author = Scarmeas N, Stern Y, Mayeux R, Luchsinger J | title = Mediterranean diet, Alzheimer disease, and vascular mediation. | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 63 | issue = 12 | pages = 1709-17 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 17030648}} supplemented in particular with:
**[[B vitamins]] {{cite journal | author = Morris M, Schneider J, Tangney C | title = Thoughts on B-vitamins and dementia. | journal = J Alzheimers Dis | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 429-33 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16917152}}
**[[Omega-3 fatty acids]], especially [[Docosahexaenoic acid]]{{cite journal | author = Lim W, Gammack J, Van Niekerk J, Dangour A | title = Omega 3 fatty acid for the prevention of dementia. | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = | pages = CD005379 | year = | id = PMID 16437528}}{{cite journal | author = Morris M, Evans D, Tangney C, Bienias J, Wilson R | title = Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in a large community study. | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 62 | issue = 12 | pages = 1849-53 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16216930}}
**Fruit and vegetable juice {{cite journal | author = Dai Q, Borenstein A, Wu Y, Jackson J, Larson E | title = Fruit and vegetable juices and Alzheimer's disease: the Kame Project. | journal = Am J Med | volume = 119 | issue = 9 | pages = 751-9 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16945610}}{{cite journal | author = Joseph J, Fisher D, Carey A | title = Fruit extracts antagonize Abeta- or DA-induced deficits in Ca2+ flux in M1-transfected COS-7 cells. | journal = J Alzheimers Dis | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 403-11; discussion 443-9 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15345811}}
**High doses of the [[antioxidant]] [[Vitamin E]] (in combination with [[vitamin C]]) seem to reduce Alzheimer's risk in cross sectional studies but not in a randomized trial and so are not currently a recommended [[preventative medicine|preventive measure]] because of observed increases in overall mortality{{cite journal | author = Petersen R, Thomas R, Grundman M, Bennett D, Doody R, Ferris S, Galasko D, Jin S, Kaye J, Levey A, Pfeiffer E, Sano M, van Dyck C, Thal L | title = Vitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairment. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 352 | issue = 23 | pages = 2379-88 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 15829527}}{{cite journal | author = Zandi P, Anthony J, Khachaturian A, Stone S, Gustafson D, Tschanz J, Norton M, Welsh-Bohmer K, Breitner J | title = Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache County Study. | journal = Arch Neurol | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 82-8 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 14732624}}
**The heavy consumption of alcohol (beer, wine or distilled spirits) Scarmeas, N., et al. Mediterranean diet and risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of Neurology, 2006 (published online April 18, 2006). Other research is consistent with the finding that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with lower risk of Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia: Mulkamal, K.J., et al. Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of dementia in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 2003 (March 19), 289, 1405-1413; Ganguli, M., et al. Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in late life: A longitudinal community study. Neurology, 2005, 65, 1210-12-17; Huang, W., et al. Alcohol consumption and incidence of dementia in a community sample aged 75 years and older. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 2002, 55(10), 959-964; Rodgers, B., et al. Non-linear relationships between cognitive function and alcohol consumption in young, middle-aged and older adults: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1280-1290; Anstey, K. J., et al. Lower cognitive test scores observed in alcohol are associated with demographic, personality, and biological factors: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1291-1301; Espeland, M., et al. Association between alcohol intake and domain-specific cognitive function in older women. Neuroepidemiology, 2006, 1(27), 1-12; Stampfer, M.J., et al. Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 2005, 352, 245-253; Ruitenberg, A., et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Lancet, 2002, 359(9303), 281-286.
*[[Cholesterol]]-lowering drugs ([[statins]]) reduce Alzheimer's risk in observational studies but so far not in randomized controlled trials{{cite journal | author = Rockwood K | title = Epidemiological and clinical trials evidence about a preventive role for statins in Alzheimer's disease. | journal = Acta Neurol Scand Suppl | volume = 185 | issue = | pages = 71-7 | year = | id = PMID 16866914}}
*Female [[Hormone replacement therapy]] is no longer thought to prevent dementia based on data from the [[Women's Health Initiative]]
*Long-term usage of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), used to reduce joint inflammation and pain, are associated with a reduced likelihood of developing AD, according to some observational studies. {{cite journal |author=Zandi P, Anthony J, Hayden K, Mehta K, Mayer L, Breitner J |title=Reduced incidence of AD with NSAID but not H2 receptor antagonists: the Cache County Study |journal=Neurology |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=880-6 |year=2002 |id=PMID 12297571}} {{cite journal |author=in t' Veld B, Ruitenberg A, Hofman A, Launer L, van Duijn C, Stijnen T, Breteler M, Stricker B |title=Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and the risk of Alzheimer's disease |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=345 |issue=21 |pages=1515-21 |year=2001 |id=PMID 11794217}} The risks appear to outweigh the drugs' benefit as a method of [[primary prevention]]. {{cite journal | author = Lyketsos C, Colenda C, Beck C, Blank K, Doraiswamy M, Kalunian D, Yaffe K | title = Position statement of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry (AAGP) regarding principles of care for patients with dementia resulting from Alzheimer disease. | journal = Am J Geriatr Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 561-72 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16816009}} [http://ajgp.org/cgi/content/full/14/7/561]","[1, 10]"
Trie,"Advantages and drawbacks, relative to binary search tree",143856764,2007-07-11T00:14:10Z,Micahcowan,"The following are the main advantages of '''trie'''s over [[binary search tree]]s (BSTs):
* Looking up keys is faster. Looking up a key of length ''m'' takes worst case [[Big-O notation|O]](''m'') time. A BST takes O([[Logarithm|log]] ''n'') time, where ''n'' is the number of elements in the tree, because lookups depend on the depth of the tree, which is logarithmic in the number of keys. Also, the simple operations '''trie'''s use during lookup, such as array indexing using a character, are fast on real machines.
* '''Trie'''s can require less space when they contain a large number of short strings, because the keys are not stored explicitly and nodes are shared between keys.
* '''Trie'''s help with [[Longest prefix match|longest-prefix matching]], where we wish to find the key sharing the longest possible prefix of characters all unique.","The following are the main advantages of '''trie'''s over [[binary search tree]]s (BSTs):
* Looking up keys is faster. Looking up a key of length ''m'' takes worst case [[Big-O notation|O]](''m'') time. A BST takes O([[Logarithm|log]] ''n'') time, where ''n'' is the number of elements in the tree, because lookups depend on the depth of the tree, which is logarithmic in the number of keys. Also, the simple operations '''trie'''s use during lookup, such as array indexing using a character, are fast on real machines.
* '''Trie'''s can require less space when they contain a large number of short strings, because the keys are not stored explicitly and nodes are shared between keys with common initial subsequences.
* '''Trie'''s help with [[Longest prefix match|longest-prefix matching]], where we wish to find the key sharing the longest possible prefix of characters all unique.",[3]
Context-free grammar,Formal Definition,145821154,2007-07-20T02:46:45Z,CBKAtTopsails,"Just as any [[formal grammar]], a context-free grammar ''G'' can be defined as a 4-[[tuple]]:
where
* is a finite set of terminals
* is a finite set of non-terminals
* is a finite set of production rules
* is an element of , the distinguished starting non-terminal.
*elements of are of the form
::
A language L is said to be a context-free language (CFL) if its grammar is context-free. More precisely, it is a language whose words, sentences and phrases are made of symbols and words from a context-free grammar. Usually, CFL is of the form L=L(G). Given below are examples for CFG but not for CFL.","A context-free grammar ''G'' is a 4-[[tuple]]:
where
1. is a finite set of variables (non-terminals)
2. is a finite set of terminals where
3. is the start variable
4. is a relation from to satisfying thr following conditions:
:(a) such that
:(b) For any and
is called the set of rules and the ordered-pair , usually written as , is called a rule of the grammar.
Note that condition 4(a) is equivalent to saying that there must be at least one rule in involving the Start variable whereas condition 4(b) is equivalent to saying that each rule must have at least one variable (non-terminal) on the left side.
'''''Additional Definition 1'''''
For any a production mapping such that
The ordered pair is called a production of , usually written as
'''''Additional Definition 2'''''
For any , we say yields , written as if such that and
'''''Additional Definition 3'''''
For any (or in some textbooks) if such that
A language L is said to be a context-free language (CFL) if its grammar is context-free. Usually, CFL is of the form L=L(G). Given below are examples for CFG but not for CFL.","[1, 3, 4]"
Context-free grammar,Linguistic applications,146764952,2007-07-24T14:22:29Z,Rp,"Context-free grammars were used by [[Noam Chomsky]] to describe the grammars of natural languages. However, Chomsky argued that context-free grammars alone were not powerful enough and had to be supplemented by [[Transformational grammar|transformations]].
His general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then{{cite journal | title=Evidence against the context-freeness of natural language | year=1985 | last=Shieber | first=Stuart | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=333–343 | url=http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~shieber/Biblio/Papers/shieber85.pdf}}, although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of CFGs in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproven.{{cite journal | title=Natural languages and context-free languages | year=1982 | last=Pullum | first=Geoffrey K. | coauthors=Gerald Gazdar | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=4 | pages=471–504}}
[[Gerald Gazdar]] and [[Geoffrey Pullum]] have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as [[cross-serial dependencies]] in [[Swiss German]] and [[reduplication]] in [[Bambara language|Bambara]]{{cite journal | title=The Complexity of the Vocabulary of Bambara | year=1985 | last=Culy | first=Christopher | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=345–351}}), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.","[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] himself initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding [[transformational grammar|transformation rules]].
Such rules are another standard device in traditional linguistics; e.g. [[grammatical voice|passivization]] in English. However, arbitrary transformations must be disallowed, since they are much too powerful ([[Turing complete]]). Much of [[generative grammar]] has been devoted to finding ways of refining the descriptive mechanisms of phrase-structure grammar and transformation rules such that exactly the kinds of things can be expressed that natural language actually allows.
His general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then{{cite journal | title=Evidence against the context-freeness of natural language | year=1985 | last=Shieber | first=Stuart | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=333–343 | url=http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~shieber/Biblio/Papers/shieber85.pdf}}, although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of CFGs in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproven.{{cite journal | title=Natural languages and context-free languages | year=1982 | last=Pullum | first=Geoffrey K. | coauthors=Gerald Gazdar | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=4 | pages=471–504}}
[[Gerald Gazdar]] and [[Geoffrey Pullum]] have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as [[cross-serial dependencies]] in [[Swiss German]] and [[reduplication]] in [[Bambara language|Bambara]]{{cite journal | title=The Complexity of the Vocabulary of Bambara | year=1985 | last=Culy | first=Christopher | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=345–351}}), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Asperger syndrome,(Top),146817089,2007-07-24T18:50:06Z,WLU,"{{Infobox_Disease |
Name = Asperger's syndrome |
Image = |
Caption = |
DiseasesDB = 31268 |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|5|f|80}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.8}} |
ICDO = |
OMIM = 608638 |
MedlinePlus = 001549 |
eMedicineSubj = ped |
eMedicineTopic = 147 |
}}
'''Asperger syndrome''' (also referred to as '''Asperger's syndrome''', '''Asperger's disorder''', ''''Aspergers''', or '''AS''') is a condition on the [[autistic spectrum]]. It manifests in individual ways and can have both positiveTony Attwood, ''The Complete Guide to Asperger's'', Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, UK., 2007, Page 12. ""... the unusual profile of abilities that we define as Asperger's Syndrome has probably been an important and valuable characteristic of our species throughout evolution.""[[Simon_Baron_Cohen|Simon Baron-Cohen]], Sally Wheelwright, Richard Skinner, Joanne Martin and Emma Clubley [http://www.springerlink.com/content/k872618310261272 The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians], ''Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,'' Vol 31-1, February 2001Hans Asperger ''Die ‘autischen Psychopathen’ Kindesalter.'' Arch Psychiatrie Nervenkrankheiten 1944;17: 76-136. Pertinent quotations translated to English, in ''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=539373 Singular Scientists'']; Ioan James, ''Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine'', v.96(1); Jan 2003Brasic, JR. [http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic147.htm Pervasive Developmental Disorder: Asperger Syndrome]. eMedicine.com (April 10, 2006). Retrieved 15 July 2007.
Treffert, DA. [http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/savant_syndrome/ Asperger's Disorder and Savant Syndrome]. Wisconsin Medical Society. Retrieved
on 15 July 2007. and negative effects on a person's life. Like other autistic spectrum disorders, Asperger's includes repetitive behavior patterns and impairment in social interaction. However, Asperger's differs from 'classic' [[autism]] in that non-social aspects of intellectual development generally proceed at a normal or accelerated rate.BehaveNet® Clinical Capsule™. DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR: [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm Asperger's Disorder (AD)]. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
The disorder affects people in various ways, but individuals with Asperger's commonly share characteristics such as an ability to focus intensely on areas of interest, hyposensitivity/hypersensitivity to certain stimuli and sensory integration problems, self-stimulating ('stimming') behaviors such as rocking back and forth or verbal utterances, and difficulty interpreting facial expressions and other social cues. Some positive characteristics include things such as enhanced mental focus, excellent memory abilities, superior [[Spatial-temporal_reasoning|spatial skills]], and an intuitive understanding of logical systems. These characteristics can often lead to fulfilling careers in mathematics, engineering, the sciences,, music, art, or language.Fred Volkmar, M.D., director of the Yale Child Study Center.
Psychiatric News October 6, 2006 Volume 41, Number 19, page 21 [http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/41/19/21 ""These are kids who talk before they can walk.""]
There is significant controversy over the difference between AS and the broader category of [[high-functioning autism]] (HFA). While neither AS nor HFA has a universally accepted definition,Patricia Howlin, PhD, Fred Volkmar, M.D, Sadie Dingfelder, [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec04/definition.html A Dilemma of Definition], American Psychology Association Volume 35, No. 11 December 2004, page 48 most diagnostic manuals distinguish the two according to speech development. Delayed speech indicates HFA; normal onset of speech indicates Asperger's. However, at least one diagnostic guide takes the opposite position; that delayed onset of speech favors a diagnosis of AS.''[http://web.syr.edu/~rjkopp/data/as_diag_list.html Diagnostic Criteria for Asperger's Disorder]'' (Gillberg, 1991)
Some clinicians deny that AS is differentiated from other autistic spectrum disorders at all. Instead they refer to Asperger's as HFA, or treat the diagnoses interchangeably, arguing that language delay is a difference in degree and not kind.{{cite journal |author=Mayes SD, Calhoun SL, Crites DL |title=Does DSM-IV Asperger's disorder exist? |journal=Journal of abnormal child psychology |volume=29
|issue=3 |pages=263-71 |year=2001 |pmid=11411788 |doi=}} Even among those who feel that the differences between AS and HFA are significant, it is common for diagnoses to be influenced by non-technical issues, such as availability of government benefits for one condition but not the other.Attwood, Tony; ''Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals,'' pp. 150-151, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, UK. 1997Attwood, Tony; ''[http://www.sacramentoasis.com/docs/8-22-03/as_&_hfa.pdf Asperger's and High Functioning Autism]'' (PDF) Due to the mixed nature of its effects, and continued debate over its definition, Asperger's remains controversial among researchers, clinicians, and people with the diagnosis.","{{Infobox_Disease |
Name = Asperger's syndrome |
Image = |
Caption = |
DiseasesDB = 31268 |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|5|f|80}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.8}} |
ICDO = |
OMIM = 608638 |
MedlinePlus = 001549 |
eMedicineSubj = ped |
eMedicineTopic = 147 |
}}
'''Asperger syndrome''' (also referred to as '''Asperger's syndrome''', '''Asperger's disorder''', ''''Aspergers''', or '''AS''') is a condition on the [[autistic spectrum]]. It manifests in individual ways and can have both positiveTony Attwood, ''The Complete Guide to Asperger's'', Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, UK., 2007, Page 12. ""... the unusual profile of abilities that we define as Asperger's Syndrome has probably been an important and valuable characteristic of our species throughout evolution.""[[Simon_Baron_Cohen|Simon Baron-Cohen]], Sally Wheelwright, Richard Skinner, Joanne Martin and Emma Clubley [http://www.springerlink.com/content/k872618310261272 The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians], ''Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,'' Vol 31-1, February 2001Hans Asperger ''Die ‘autischen Psychopathen’ Kindesalter.'' Arch Psychiatrie Nervenkrankheiten 1944;17: 76-136. Pertinent quotations translated to English, in ''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=539373 Singular Scientists'']; Ioan James, ''Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine'', v.96(1); Jan 2003Brasic, JR. [http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic147.htm Pervasive Developmental Disorder: Asperger Syndrome]. eMedicine.com (April 10, 2006). Retrieved 15 July 2007.
Treffert, DA. [http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/savant_syndrome/ Asperger's Disorder and Savant Syndrome]. Wisconsin Medical Society. Retrieved
on 15 July 2007. and negative effects on a person's life. Like other autistic spectrum disorders, Asperger's includes repetitive behavior patterns and impairment in social interaction. However, Asperger's differs from 'classic' [[autism]] in that non-social aspects of intellectual development generally proceed at a normal or accelerated rate.BehaveNet® Clinical Capsule™. DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR: [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm Asperger's Disorder (AD)]. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
The disorder affects people in various ways, but individuals with Asperger's commonly share characteristics such as an ability to focus intensely on areas of interest, hyposensitivity/hypersensitivity to certain stimuli and sensory integration problems, self-stimulating ('stimming') behaviors such as rocking back and forth or verbal utterances, and difficulty interpreting facial expressions and other social cues. Some positive characteristics include things such as enhanced mental focus, excellent memory abilities, superior [[Spatial-temporal_reasoning|spatial skills]], and an intuitive understanding of logical systems. These characteristics can often lead to fulfilling careers in mathematics, engineering, the sciences,, music, art, or language.Fred Volkmar, M.D., director of the Yale Child Study Center.
Psychiatric News October 6, 2006 Volume 41, Number 19, page 21 [http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/41/19/21 ""These are kids who talk before they can walk.""]
There is significant controversy over the difference between AS and the broader category of [[high-functioning autism]] (HFA). While neither AS nor HFA have universally accepted definitions,Patricia Howlin, PhD, Fred Volkmar, M.D, Sadie Dingfelder, [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec04/definition.html A Dilemma of Definition], American Psychology Association Volume 35, No. 11 December 2004, page 48 most diagnostic manuals distinguish the two according to speech development. Delayed speech indicates HFA; normal onset of speech indicates Asperger's. However, at least one diagnostic guide takes the opposite position; that delayed onset of speech favors a diagnosis of AS.''[http://web.syr.edu/~rjkopp/data/as_diag_list.html Diagnostic Criteria for Asperger's Disorder]'' (Gillberg, 1991)
Some clinicians deny that AS is differentiated from other autistic spectrum disorders at all. Instead they refer to Asperger's as HFA, or treat the diagnoses interchangeably, arguing that language delay is a difference in degree and not kind.{{cite journal |author=Mayes SD, Calhoun SL, Crites DL |title=Does DSM-IV Asperger's disorder exist? |journal=Journal of abnormal child psychology |volume=29
|issue=3 |pages=263-71 |year=2001 |pmid=11411788 |doi=}} Even among those who feel that the differences between AS and HFA are significant, it is common for diagnoses to be influenced by non-technical issues, such as availability of government benefits for one condition but not the other.Attwood, Tony; ''Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals,'' pp. 150-151, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, UK. 1997Attwood, Tony; ''[http://www.sacramentoasis.com/docs/8-22-03/as_&_hfa.pdf Asperger's and High Functioning Autism]'' (PDF) Due to the mixed nature of its effects, and continued debate over its definition, Asperger's remains controversial among researchers, clinicians, and people with the diagnosis.",[11]
Dream,Ascension Dreams,147705069,2007-07-28T18:49:14Z,64.57.160.1,,"Ascension Dreams, still under study, are a series of dreams before awakening in which the individual dreams that they have already awaken several times but are otherwise constricted and unable to move, much like a begetable state, vividly, in their own beds. The experience can be very traumatizing to the individual because for some time after awakening they are disoriented and question reality, wondering if they will awake once again. The phrase ""Ascension Dreams"" was coined by James Paoli who described the series of dreams to be a gradual climb out of dream-state. At this time there is no telling how long this series of dreams can last, and it is believed that this phenomena could be linked to comatose. This brings to question whether or not the time that it takes for one to come out of a coma depends on the actual individual and the obstacles they may face in their Ascension Dreams which may depict actual damage to the brain.
{{cite web
| url = http://www.webmd.com/dreams/acension.html
| title = Acension Dreams & Comatose - A Study
| accessdate = 11 July
| accessyear = 2007
| author = Paoli, J
| year = 1991
}}","[1, 5, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,History,150893372,2007-08-13T04:13:53Z,Yamaguchi先生,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of Stupid retarded butt-head circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.",[11]
Dream,Recurring dreams,151126711,2007-08-14T07:42:07Z,Hkescape31,"According to Craig Hamilton-Parker, http://www.psychics.co.uk author of ''Fantasy Dreaming'', many humans find certain dreams extremely difficult to recall. According to David Koulack in ""To Catch A Dream,"" researchers refer to these types of dreams as ""no content dream reports."" It is thought that such dreams are characterized by relatively little [[affect (psychology)|affect]]. According to Koulack, factors such as salience, arousal and interference play a role in dream recall and dream recall failure. According to Henry Reed, author of ''Dream Medicine'', a useful technique to improve dream recall is to keep a [[dream journal]]. [[Stephen LaBerge]], author of ''Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming'', also suggests that one must lie perfectly still upon awaking from a dream, not letting concerns of the day occupy the mind. It is quite common to not remember much of what has just been dreamed, but LaBerge maintains that with sufficient concentration, the entire dream may be recalled.
Another sufficient method to recall a dream is to wake at least 5 minutes after dreaming.","While the content of most dreams is dreamt only once, many people experience recurring dreams—that is, the same dream narrative is experienced over different occasions of sleep. Up to 70% of females and 65% of males report recurrent dreams.Van de Castle, p. 340.","[1, 10, 2]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,151437220,2007-08-15T18:31:06Z,63.196.132.64,"Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm period can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse
# The rhythm is temperature compensated, meaning that it proceeds at the same rate within a range of temperatures.","Circadian rhythms may be defined by three criteria:
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm can be reset by exposure to a light or dark pulse",[2]
Asperger syndrome,References,151664228,2007-08-16T19:31:32Z,SandyGeorgia,{{reflist|2}},"*Attwood, Tony (1997). ''Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals''. Jessica Kingsley Pub., London. ISBN 1-85302-577-1
{{reflist|2}}",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Surgical interventions,152584169,2007-08-21T00:15:25Z,Jfdwolff,"[[Image:Parkinson surgery.jpg|thumb|200px|Illustration showing an electrode placed deep seated in the brain]]
Treating Parkinson's disease with surgery was once a common practice. But after the discovery of levodopa, surgery was restricted to only a few cases. Studies in the past few decades have led to great improvements in surgical techniques, and surgery is again being used in people with advanced PD for whom drug therapy is no longer sufficient. [[Deep brain stimulation]] is presently the most used surgical means of treatment, but other surgical therapies that have shown promise include surgical lesion of the [[subthalamic nucleus]]{{cite journal |author=Guridi J, Obeso JA |title=The subthalamic nucleus, hemiballismus and Parkinson's disease: reappraisal of a neurosurgical dogma |journal=Brain |volume=124 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=5-19 |year=2001 |pmid=11133783 | url=http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/124/1/5}} and of the internal segment of the [[globus pallidus]], a procedure known as [[pallidotomy]].{{cite journal |author=Fukuda M, Kameyama S, Yoshino M, Tanaka R, Narabayashi H |title=Neuropsychological outcome following pallidotomy and thalamotomy for Parkinson's disease |journal=Stereotactic and functional neurosurgery |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=11-20 |year=2000 |pmid=11124660 |doi=}}
Researchers have implanted mature [[dopamine]]-producing [[neuron]]s into the brains of a few Parkinson's patients, but in some cases, these cells have produced too much [[dopamine]], resulting in [[spasm]]s.{{cite journal |author=Vastag B |title=Brain stem cells help Parkinson's monkeys |journal=Science News |volume=172 |issue=3 |pages=45 |year=2007}} Research in African [[green monkey]]s suggests that the use of [[stem cell]]s might in future provide a similar benefit without inducing [[spasm]]s.{{cite journal |author=Redmond E et al |title=Behavioral improvement in a primate Parkinson's model is associated with multiple homeostatic effects of human neural stem cells |journal=Procedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=29 |year=2007}}","[[Image:Parkinson surgery.jpg|thumb|200px|Illustration showing an electrode placed deep seated in the brain]]
Treating Parkinson's disease with surgery was once a common practice. But after the discovery of levodopa, surgery was restricted to only a few cases. Studies in the past few decades have led to great improvements in surgical techniques, and surgery is again being used in people with advanced PD for whom drug therapy is no longer sufficient. [[Deep brain stimulation]] is presently the most used surgical means of treatment, but other surgical therapies that have shown promise include surgical lesion of the [[subthalamic nucleus]]{{cite journal |author=Guridi J, Obeso JA |title=The subthalamic nucleus, hemiballismus and Parkinson's disease: reappraisal of a neurosurgical dogma |journal=Brain |volume=124 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=5-19 |year=2001 |pmid=11133783 | url=http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/124/1/5}} and of the internal segment of the [[globus pallidus]], a procedure known as [[pallidotomy]].{{cite journal |author=Fukuda M, Kameyama S, Yoshino M, Tanaka R, Narabayashi H |title=Neuropsychological outcome following pallidotomy and thalamotomy for Parkinson's disease |journal=Stereotactic and functional neurosurgery |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=11-20 |year=2000 |pmid=11124660 |doi=}}
Researchers have implanted mature [[dopamine]]-producing [[neuron]]s into the brains of a few Parkinson's patients, but in some cases, these cells have produced too much [[dopamine]], resulting in [[dystonia]]s.{{cite journal |author=Redmond DE |title=Cellular replacement therapy for Parkinson's disease--where we are today? |journal=The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=457-88 |year=2002 |pmid=12374430 |doi=}} Research in African [[green monkey]]s suggests that the use of [[stem cell]]s might in future provide a similar benefit without inducing [[spasm]]s.{{cite journal |author=Redmond E et al |title=Behavioral improvement in a primate Parkinson's model is associated with multiple homeostatic effects of human neural stem cells |journal=Procedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=29 |year=2007}}","[3, 4, 7, 8, 9]"
Asperger syndrome,Cultural aspects,152808463,2007-08-22T00:23:48Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{seealso|Autistic culture}}
People with AS may refer to themselves in casual conversation as ""aspies"", coined by [[Liane Holliday Willey]] in 1999,Willey, LH. ''Pretending to be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome''. Jessica Kingsley, London, 1999. ISBN 1-85302-749-9 or as an ""Aspergian"".[http://www.aspergianpride.com/ Bringing Children Together.] Aspergian Pride. Retrieved [[2 July]] [[2006]]. The term ""[[neurotypical]]"" (NT) describes a person whose neurological development and state are typical, and is often used to refer to people who are non-autistic.
A [[Wired magazine|''Wired'' magazine]] article, ""The Geek Syndrome"",Silberman, S (2001). [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers.html The Geek Syndrome.] Wired.com Retrieved [[31 May]] [[2006]]. suggested that AS is more common in [[Silicon Valley]], a haven for [[computer scientist]]s and mathematicians. It posited that AS may be the result of [[assortative mating]] by [[geek]]s in mathematical and technological areas. AS can be found in all occupations, however, and is not limited to those in the math and science fields.{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020506/scautism.html|author=Nash, J. Madeleine|title=The Secrets of Autism|publisher=[[Time Magazine]]|date=[[2002-05-06]]|accessdate=2006-07-04}}
The popularization of the [[Internet]] has allowed individuals with AS to communicate with each other in a way that was not previously possible due to the rarity and the geographic dispersal of individuals with AS. As a result of increasing ability to connect with one another, a subculture of ""Aspies"" has formed. Internet sites like [[Wrong Planet]] have made it easier for individuals to connect with each other.Dekker, Martijn. [http://www.autisticculture.com/index.php?page=articles On our own terms: Emerging autistic culture.] AutisticCulture.com. Retrieved on [[2007-08-15]]. ","{{seealso|Autistic culture}}
Autism researcher [[Simon Baron-Cohen]] challenges the received view that autism is a 'psychiatric condition', a 'disorder', a 'disability' or a 'handicap' and suggests a subtle but important shift of emphasis to characterization of autism as a different cognitive style. He says this shift from being told that a child has a severe, life-long illness akin to diabetes or haemophilia to receiving the diagnosis as interesting information, like being told a child is right or left-handed, can alter the family perception that a diagnosis of autism is a tragedy. People with Aspergers, according to Baron-Cohen, ""might not necessarily be disabled in an environment in which an exact mind, attracted to detecting small details, is an advantage"".
People with AS may refer to themselves in casual conversation as ""aspies"", coined by [[Liane Holliday Willey]] in 1999,Willey, LH. ''Pretending to be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome''. Jessica Kingsley, London, 1999. ISBN 1-85302-749-9 or as an ""Aspergian"".[http://www.aspergianpride.com/ Bringing Children Together.] Aspergian Pride. Retrieved [[2 July]] [[2006]]. The term ""[[neurotypical]]"" (NT) describes a person whose neurological development and state are typical, and is often used to refer to people who are non-autistic.
A [[Wired magazine|''Wired'' magazine]] article, ""The Geek Syndrome"",Silberman, S (2001). [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers.html The Geek Syndrome.] Wired.com Retrieved [[31 May]] [[2006]]. suggested that AS is more common in [[Silicon Valley]], a haven for [[computer scientist]]s and mathematicians. It posited that AS may be the result of [[assortative mating]] by [[geek]]s in mathematical and technological areas. AS can be found in all occupations, however, and is not limited to those in the math and science fields.{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020506/scautism.html|author=Nash, J. Madeleine|title=The Secrets of Autism|publisher=[[Time Magazine]]|date=[[2002-05-06]]|accessdate=2006-07-04}}
The popularization of the [[Internet]] has allowed individuals with AS to communicate with each other in a way that was not previously possible due to the rarity and the geographic dispersal of individuals with AS. As a result of increasing ability to connect with one another, a subculture of ""Aspies"" has formed. Internet sites like [[Wrong Planet]] have made it easier for individuals to connect with each other.Dekker, Martijn. [http://www.autisticculture.com/index.php?page=articles On our own terms: Emerging autistic culture.] AutisticCulture.com. Retrieved on [[2007-08-15]]. ","[1, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,153663191,2007-08-26T02:15:31Z,Bangalos,"General criteria of circadian rhythms
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours
# The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus","General criteria of circadian rhythms
# The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent rhythms"" that merely respond to external periodic cues. For instance, you would not want the ""wears sunglasses"" behavior to be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
# The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e. it is temperature compensated): The ratioanle for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance Kreb's cycle in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental and not by design.
# The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24 hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Your wrist watch has no means of determining the local time - but your biological clock does.","[1, 3, 4, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,153666985,2007-08-26T02:43:16Z,Bangalos,"Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.","Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All the three mutations mapped to the same gene and was baptised ''period''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome)in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions results in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctions that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ""Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator"". We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell - i.e. it is cell autonomous. At the same time, different cells may talk to each other resulting in a synchronized and democratic output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks (such as those present in the liver). Thus, the information of the time of the day as determined by the eyes may travel to the clock in the brain and through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how many behavior such as drinking water, sleep/wake and body temperature are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","[1, 4, 5]"
Down syndrome,History,153859433,2007-08-27T01:52:19Z,Fvasconcellos,"{{main|History of Down syndrome}}
English physician [[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental retardation in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866 entitled ""Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots"".{{cite journal| author=Down, J.L.H.| year=1866| title=Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots| journal=Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital| volume=3| pages=259–262| url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/down.html| accessdate = 2006-07-14}} For a history of the disorder, see {{cite book | title= John Langdon Down, 1828–1896 | author=OC Ward |publisher=Royal Society of Medicine Press | id=ISBN 1-85315-374-5|year = 1998}} or {{cite web| last=Conor| first=Ward |url =http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm| title =John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828–1896)| accessdate = 2006-06-02}} Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities ([[epicanthal fold]]s) with those of [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach's Mongoloid race]], Down used terms such as ''mongolism'' and ''Mongolian idiocy''.{{cite journal|Author =Conor, W.O.| year =1999| title =John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message| journal =Down Syndrome Research and Practice| volume =6| issue =1| pages =19–24| accessdate = 2006-06-02}} Down wrote that this syndrome represented ""retrogression,"" the appearance of [[Mongoloid]] traits in the children of allegedly more advanced Caucasian parents.
By the 20th century, Down's sydrome had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most individuals with Down syndrome were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]], few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the [[eugenics]] movement, 33 of the (then) 48 [[U.S. state]]s and several countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[euthanasia]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|""Action T-4""]], begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after [[World War II]].
Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown. However, the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. Other theories focused on injuries sustained during birth.{{cite book |author=Warkany, J. |title=Congenital Malformations |location=Chicago |publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc |date=1971 |pages=313–314 |id=ISBN 0-8151-9098-0}}
With the discovery of [[karyotype]] techniques in the 1950s, it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, [[Jérôme Lejeune|Professor Jérôme Lejeune]] discovered that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.{{cite web |url=http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp |title=Jérôme Lejeune Foundation |accessdate = 2006-06-02}} The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
In 1961, nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that ''Down's sydrome'' had ""misleading connotations,"" had become ""an embarrassing term,"" and should be changed.{{cite journal |first=Allen |last=Gordon |coauthors=C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet |year=1961 |title=Mongolism (Correspondence) |journal=[[The Lancet]] |pages=775 |volume=1 |issue=7180}} ''The Lancet'' supported ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) officially dropped references to ''mongolism'' in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones |first=Norman| date=1979 |title=On the diagnostic term ""Down's disease""| journal=Medical History |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=102–104 |id=PMID 153994}} However, almost 40 years later, the term ‘mongolism’ still appears in leading medical texts such as ''Review of Medical Physiology'', 22nd Edition, 2005, by [[William Francis Ganong (physiologist)|Professor William Ganong]] and ''General and Systematic Pathology'', 4th Edition, 2004, edited by [[James Underwood|Professor Sir James Underwood]].
In 1975, the United States [[National Institutes of Health]] convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: ""The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.""A planning meeting was held on [[20 March]] [[1974]], resulting in a letter to ''The Lancet''.{{cite journal |year=1974 |title=Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion) |journal=[[The Lancet]] |pages=798 |volume=303 |issue=7861}} The conference was held [[10 February]]-[[11 February]] [[1975]], and reported to ''The Lancet'' shortly afterward.{{cite journal |year=1975 |title=Classification and nomenclature of morphological defects (Discussion) |journal=[[The Lancet]] |pages=513 |volume=305 |issue=7905}} Although both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, [[Canada]] and other countries; Down's syndrome is still used in the [[United Kingdom]] and other areas.{{cite web |last=Leshin |first=Len| date=2003 |url=http://www.ds-health.com/name.htm |title=What's in a name |accessdate = 2006-05-12}}","{{main|History of Down syndrome}}
English physician [[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental retardation in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866 entitled ""Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots"".{{cite journal| author=Down, J.L.H.| year=1866| title=Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots| journal=Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital| volume=3| pages=259–262| url=http://www.neonatology.org/classics/down.html| accessdate = 2006-07-14}} For a history of the disorder, see {{cite book | title= John Langdon Down, 1828–1896 | author=OC Ward |publisher=Royal Society of Medicine Press | id=ISBN 1-85315-374-5|year = 1998}} or {{cite web| last=Conor| first=Ward |url =http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm| title =John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828–1896)| accessdate = 2006-06-02}} Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities ([[epicanthal fold]]s) with those of [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach's Mongolian race]], Down used terms such as ''mongolism'' and ''Mongolian idiocy''.{{cite journal|Author =Conor, W.O.| year =1999| title =John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message| journal =Down Syndrome Research and Practice| volume =6| issue =1| pages =19–24| accessdate = 2006-06-02}} Down wrote that mongolism represented ""retrogression,"" the appearance of [[Mongoloid]] traits in the children of allegedly more advanced Caucasian parents.
By the 20th century, ""Mongolian idiocy"" had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most individuals with Down syndrome were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]], few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the [[eugenics]] movement, 33 of the (then) 48 [[U.S. state]]s and several countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[euthanasia]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|""Action T-4""]], begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after [[World War II]].
Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown. However, the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. Other theories focused on injuries sustained during birth.{{cite book |author=Warkany, J. |title=Congenital Malformations |location=Chicago |publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc |date=1971 |pages=313–314 |id=ISBN 0-8151-9098-0}}
With the discovery of [[karyotype]] techniques in the 1950s, it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, [[Jérôme Lejeune|Professor Jérôme Lejeune]] discovered that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.{{cite web |url=http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp |title=Jérôme Lejeune Foundation |accessdate = 2006-06-02}} The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
In 1961, nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that ''Mongolian idiocy'' had ""misleading connotations,"" had become ""an embarrassing term,"" and should be changed.{{cite journal |first=Allen |last=Gordon |coauthors=C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet |year=1961 |title=Mongolism (Correspondence) |journal=[[The Lancet]] |pages=775 |volume=1 |issue=7180}} ''The Lancet'' supported ''Down's Syndrome''. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) officially dropped references to ''mongolism'' in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones |first=Norman| date=1979 |title=On the diagnostic term ""Down's disease""| journal=Medical History |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=102–104 |id=PMID 153994}} However, almost 40 years later, the term ‘mongolism’ still appears in leading medical texts such as ''Review of Medical Physiology'', 22nd Edition, 2005, by [[William Francis Ganong (physiologist)|Professor William Ganong]] and ''General and Systematic Pathology'', 4th Edition, 2004, edited by [[James Underwood|Professor Sir James Underwood]].
In 1975, the United States [[National Institutes of Health]] convened a conference to standardize the nomenclature of malformations. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: ""The possessive use of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.""A planning meeting was held on [[20 March]] [[1974]], resulting in a letter to ''The Lancet''.{{cite journal |year=1974 |title=Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion) |journal=[[The Lancet]] |pages=798 |volume=303 |issue=7861}} The conference was held [[10 February]]-[[11 February]] [[1975]], and reported to ''The Lancet'' shortly afterward.{{cite journal |year=1975 |title=Classification and nomenclature of morphological defects (Discussion) |journal=[[The Lancet]] |pages=513 |volume=305 |issue=7905}} Although both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, [[Canada]] and other countries; Down's syndrome is still used in the [[United Kingdom]] and other areas.{{cite web |last=Leshin |first=Len| date=2003 |url=http://www.ds-health.com/name.htm |title=What's in a name |accessdate = 2006-05-12}}",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,153896060,2007-08-27T06:04:20Z,75.162.87.179,"General criteria of circadian rhythms
1 The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent rhythms"" that merely respond to external periodic cues. For instance, you would not want the ""wears sunglasses"" behavior to be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
2 The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e. it is temperature compensated): The ratioanle for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance Kreb's cycle in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental and not by design.
3 The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24 hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Your wrist watch has no means of determining the local time - but your biological clock does.","General criteria of circadian rhythms
1 The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent rhythms"" that merely respond to external periodic cues. For instance, you would not want the ""wears sunglasses"" behavior to be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
2 The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e. it is temperature compensated): The ratioanle for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental and not by design.
3 The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24 hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Your wrist watch has no means of determining the local time - but your biological clock does.",[9]
Asperger syndrome,See also,156793417,2007-09-09T22:07:33Z,Eubulides,"{{portal|Pervasive Developmental Disorders}}
* [[Asperger syndrome and interpersonal relationships]]
* [[List of further reading on Asperger syndrome]]
* [[Autistic community]]
* [[Autistic Pride Day]]
* [[Picture thinking]]
* [[Critique of the DSM etiology for Asperger Syndrome]]","{{portal|Pervasive Developmental Disorders}}
* [[Asperger syndrome and interpersonal relationships]]
* [[List of further reading on Asperger syndrome]]
* [[Autistic community]]
* [[Autistic Pride Day]]
* [[Picture thinking]]",[2]
Hypnosis,Other uses,157009862,2007-09-10T21:17:57Z,Wowest,"Michael R. Nash writes, in a 2001 article for ''Scientific American'' titled ""The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis"", ""using hypnosis, scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions, certain types of memory loss, false memories, and delusions in the laboratory so that these phenomena can be studied in a controlled environment.""
Hypnotism has also received publicity about its use in [[Forensics]], [[Sports]], [[Education]], and [[physical therapy]] and [[rehabilitation]]. André M. Weitzenbhoffer. ''The Practice of Hypnotism'' 2nd ed, Toronto, John Wiley & Son Inc, Chapter 16, p583-587, 2000 ISBN 0-471-29790-9 ","Michael R. Nash writes, in a 2001 article for ''Scientific American'' titled ""The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis"", ""using hypnosis, scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions, certain types of memory loss, false memories, and delusions in the laboratory so that these phenomena can be studied in a controlled environment.""
In his book The Hidden Persuaders (1957) [[Vance Packard]] describes research involving behavior of housewives in supermarkets in the 1950's. Cameras were hidden to measure a shopper's eye-blink rate as she compared items. It was assumed that her eye-blink rate would increase as she performed mental calculations to determine which product was the best value. In fact, the cameras recorded an eye-blink rate which indicated that the housewife was, according to Packard, usually in a hypnotic state while shopping. This led manufacturers to produce new brands of laundry detergent in competition with their own, existing brands, where the primary differences were in the product names, colors and shapes of designs on the packages, which were designed to appeal to women at different times of their [[menstrual cycle]]s. The effects of this research can be noted today by visiting the laundry detergent section of any American supermarket.
Hypnotism has also received publicity about its use in [[Forensics]], [[Sports]], [[Education]], and [[physical therapy]] and [[rehabilitation]]. André M. Weitzenbhoffer. ''The Practice of Hypnotism'' 2nd ed, Toronto, John Wiley & Son Inc, Chapter 16, p583-587, 2000 ISBN 0-471-29790-9 ","[1, 5, 9]"
Instruction cycle,Execute the instruction,157349554,2007-09-12T10:36:15Z,MER-C,,"From the instruction register, the data forming the instruction is decoded by the [[control unit]]. It then passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the [[Arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU) to add them together and writing the result back to a register. A condition signal is sent back to the control unit by the ALU if it is involved.","[1, 4, 9]"
Medical cannabis,Indications,158249622,2007-09-16T10:29:36Z,Dala11a,"According to a survey on the recommendation of cannabis in CaliforniaDale Gieringer, ""Medical Use of Cannabis in California,"" in Franjo Grotenhermen, M.D. & Ethan Russo, M.D., ed., Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential, Haworth Press, 2002
[http://www.canorml.org/prop/MMJIndications.htm], cannabis is indicated for over 250 conditions. Cannabis is most importantly indicated as an [[antiemetic]] for the treatment of [[nausea]] and [[anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]] associated with treatments for [[cancer]], [[AIDS]], and [[hepatitis]].
Cannabis also acts as an antispasmodic and anticonvulsant and is indicated for neurological conditions such as [[epilepsy]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[spasms]]. As an analgesic and an immunomodulator it is indicated for conditions such as [[migraine]], [[arthritis]], spinal and [[skeletal disorders]]. As a [[bronchodilator]] it is beneficial for [[asthma]]. It also reduces the [[intraocular pressure]] and is indicated for [[glaucoma]]. Cannabis is also used to treat some [[mood disorders]] such as [[post traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]], [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], [[panic disorder]], and [[bipolar disorder]]. It is also indicated for [[premenstrual syndrome]], [[hypertension]], and [[insomnia]].
In the United States, the [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] makes the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) the sole government entity responsible for ensuring the safety and efficacy of new prescription and over-the-counter drugs, overseeing the labeling and marketing of drugs, and regulating the manufacturing and packaging of drugs. [http://www.fda.gov/cder/regulatory/applications/default.htm] The FDA defines a drug as safe and effective for a specific indication if the clinical benefits to the patient are felt to outweigh any health risks the drug might pose. The FDA has not approved smoked cannabis as a legitimate medicine for any disease. [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01362.html] Cannabis remains illegal throughout the United States and is not approved for prescription as medicine, although 12 states - Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington - approve and regulate its medical use. (The federal government continues to enforce its prohibition in these states.) However, there are also 2 states, Arizona and Maryland, whose drug laws are favourable towards the medicinal use of marijuana,{{huh}} but which still explicitly ban it.","According to a survey on the recommendation of cannabis in CaliforniaDale Gieringer, ""Medical Use of Cannabis in California,"" in Franjo Grotenhermen, M.D. & Ethan Russo, M.D., ed., Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential, Haworth Press, 2002
[http://www.canorml.org/prop/MMJIndications.htm], cannabis is indicated for over 250 conditions. Cannabis is most importantly indicated as an [[antiemetic]] for the treatment of [[nausea]] and [[anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]] associated with treatments for [[cancer]], [[AIDS]], and [[hepatitis]].
Cannabis also acts as an antispasmodic and anticonvulsant and is indicated for neurological conditions such as [[epilepsy]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[spasms]]. As an analgesic and an immunomodulator it is indicated for conditions such as [[migraine]], [[arthritis]], spinal and [[skeletal disorders]]. As a [[bronchodilator]] it is beneficial for [[asthma]]. It also reduces the [[intraocular pressure]] and is indicated for [[glaucoma]]. Cannabis is also used to treat some [[mood disorders]] such as [[post traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]], [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], [[panic disorder]], and [[bipolar disorder]]. It is also indicated for [[premenstrual syndrome]], [[hypertension]], and [[insomnia]].
In the United States, the [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] makes the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) the sole government entity responsible for ensuring the safety and efficacy of new prescription and over-the-counter drugs, overseeing the labeling and marketing of drugs, and regulating the manufacturing and packaging of drugs. [http://www.fda.gov/cder/regulatory/applications/default.htm] The FDA defines a drug as safe and effective for a specific indication if the clinical benefits to the patient are felt to outweigh any health risks the drug might pose. [[FDA]] and comparable authorities in Western Europe in including the [[Netherlands]], have not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease. A common view is that if there is any future of marijuana as a medicine, it lies in its isolated components, the cannabinoids and their synthetic derivatives. {{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title=Testimony before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform|author=Meyer, Robert J.|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=2007-09-15}}[http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01362.html] Cannabis remains illegal throughout the United States and is not approved for prescription as medicine, although 12 states - Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington - approve and regulate its medical use. (The federal government continues to enforce its prohibition in these states.) However, there are also 2 states, Arizona and Maryland, whose drug laws are favourable towards the medicinal use of marijuana,{{huh}} but which still explicitly ban it.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,159067458,2007-09-20T00:23:14Z,Dr.AB,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the sleep circadian rhythm. These can be temporary or due to a lack in the circadian rhythm in the body. These include [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD) where the rhythm is disturbed due to the change in length of day, delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) which is caused by a circadian rhythm abnormality causing the sufferers body to want to sleep later than normal {{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Suprachiasmatic nucleus,159067458,2007-09-20T00:23:14Z,Dr.AB,"The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.","The circadian system can be divided into three major components: the central oscillator or pacemaker; the afferent pathways which carry entraining environmental information to the oscillator; and the efferent pathways that communicate the rhythmicity of the oscillator to the physiology and behavior of the organism.{{cite web | Gary Richardson and Barbara Tate | title =Hormonal and Pharmacological Manipulation of the Circadian Clock: Recent Developments and Future Strategies | publisher=Worldwide project on sleep and health | url=http://www.websciences.org/sleepandhealth/richardson.html | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.","[1, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,159822722,2007-09-23T16:29:54Z,Lababidi,"The ability of light to reset the biological clock depends on the [[phase response curve]] (to light). Depending on the phase of sleep, the light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. The required [[illuminance]] varies from species to species, much lower light levels being required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of light and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle rather than a 24-hour one. But because sunlight or other bright lights can reset the SCN, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the sun, rather than our innate cycle. Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of your alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of your meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}","The ability of light to reset the biological clock depends on the [[phase response curve]] (to light). Depending on the phase of sleep, the light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. The required [[illuminance]] varies from species to species, much lower light levels being required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of light and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle rather than a 24-hour one. But because sunlight or other bright lights can reset the SCN, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the sun, rather than our innate cycle. Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of your alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of your meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
Some researchers have discovered that the cycle is actually closer to 24 hours and 11 minutes {{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}}","[1, 7, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),160075127,2007-09-24T18:45:59Z,Jclerman,"A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''diem'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]].","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as [[sunlight]] and [[temperature]].",[11]
K-d tree,Instead of points,161689480,2007-10-02T00:43:51Z,Yumf,,"Instead of points, a ''k''d-tree can also contain [[rectangle]]s or hyperrectangles. A 2D rectangle is considered a 4d object (xlow, xhigh, ylow, yhigh). The tree is constructed the usual way with all the rectangles at the leaves. In an [[orthogonal range search]], the ''opposite'' coordinate is used when comparing against the median. For example, if the current level is split along xhigh, we check the xlow coordinate of the search rectangle. If the median is less than the xlow coordinate of the search rectangle, then no rectangle in the left branch can ever intersect with the search rectangle and so can be pruned. Otherwise both branches should be traversed.","[1, 4, 9]"
Dream,Dreaming as a skeptical argument,162827424,2007-10-07T08:25:11Z,Larklight,"{{main|dream argument}}
While one dreams a non-lucid dream, one will not realize one is dreaming (one classic example is a child dreaming that they are using the toilet and end up wetting the bed because they don't realize that they are in a dream). This has led philosophers to the idea that one could be dreaming right now (or at least one cannot be certain that one is not dreaming). First formally introduced by [[Zhuangzi]] and popularized by Hindu beliefs, the dream argument has become one of the most popular [[skeptical hypothesis|skeptical hypotheses]]. [[Buddhism]], one of the major religions and philosophies in the world, makes most use of this argument{{Fact|date=August 2007}}.","{{main|dream argument}}
While one dreams a non-lucid dream, one will not realize one is dreaming (one classic example is a child dreaming that they are using the toilet and end up wetting the bed because they don't realize that they are in a dream). This has led philosophers to the idea that one could be dreaming right now (or at least one cannot be certain that one is not dreaming). First formally introduced by [[Zhuangzi]] and popularized by Hindu beliefs, the dream argument has become one of the most popular [[skeptical hypothesis|skeptical hypotheses]]. [[Buddhism]], one of the major religions and philosophies in the world, makes most use of this argument{{Fact|date=August 2007}}. It was formally introduced to western philosophy by [[Descartes]] in the 17th century in his [[Meditations on First Philosophy]]","[1, 9, 5]"
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,163024895,2007-10-08T05:18:30Z,Hordaland,"The ability of light to reset the biological clock depends on the [[phase response curve]] (to light). Depending on the phase of sleep, the light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. The required [[illuminance]] varies from species to species, much lower light levels being required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of light and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle rather than a 24-hour one. But because sunlight or other bright lights can reset the SCN, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the sun, rather than our innate cycle. Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of your alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of your meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
Some researchers have discovered that the cycle is actually closer to 24 hours and 11 minutes {{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}}","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]], the PRC, (to light). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of daylight and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle when subjects are allowed to use electric light at will. But because daylight or other lighting can reset circadian rhythms, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation, rather than our innate cycle which averages 24 hours and 11 minutes for adults.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}} Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of an alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}","[1, 3, 4, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,164575501,2007-10-14T21:23:18Z,75.36.191.224,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]], the PRC, (to light). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of daylight and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle when subjects are allowed to use electric light at will. But because daylight or other lighting can reset circadian rhythms, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation, rather than our innate cycle which averages 24 hours and 11 minutes for adults.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}} Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of an alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}","forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of daylight and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle when subjects are allowed to use electric light at will. But because daylight or other lighting can reset circadian rhythms, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation, rather than our innate cycle which averages 24 hours and 11 minutes for adults.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}} Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of an alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
www.myspace.com/signup","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,164575609,2007-10-14T21:23:47Z,Domthedude001,"forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of daylight and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle when subjects are allowed to use electric light at will. But because daylight or other lighting can reset circadian rhythms, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation, rather than our innate cycle which averages 24 hours and 11 minutes for adults.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}} Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of an alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
www.myspace.com/signup","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]], the PRC, (to light). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light (420-440 nm).Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
By depriving people of daylight and other external time cues, scientists have learned that most people's biological clocks work on a 25-hour cycle when subjects are allowed to use electric light at will. But because daylight or other lighting can reset circadian rhythms, our biological cycles normally follow the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation, rather than our innate cycle which averages 24 hours and 11 minutes for adults.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23}} Circadian rhythms can be affected to some degree by almost any kind of external time cue, such as the beeping of an alarm clock, the clatter of a garbage truck, or the timing of meals. Scientists call external time cues zeitgebers (German for ""time givers"").{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Asperger syndrome,Epidemiology,165050554,2007-10-16T22:04:21Z,Eubulides,"{{see|Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders}}
[[Prevalence]] estimates vary enormously. A 2003 review of [[Epidemiological study|epidemiological]] studies found [[prevalence]] rates ranging from 0.03 to 4.84 per 1,000, with the ratio of autism to Asperger syndrome averaging 5:1;{{cite journal |journal= Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am |year=2003 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=15–21 |title= Epidemiologic data on Asperger disorder |author= Fombonne E, Tidmarsh L |pmid=12512396 |url=http://www.childpsych.theclinics.com/article/PIIS1056499302000500/fulltext}} combining this with a conservative prevalence estimate for autism of 1.3 per 1,000 suggests indirectly that the prevalence of AS might be around 0.26 per 1,000.{{cite book |chapter= Epidemiological surveys of pervasive developmental disorders |author= Fombonne E |pages=33–68 |title= Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition = 2nd ed |editor= Volkmar FR |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=0521549574}} Part of the variance in estimates arises from [[Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome#Multiple sets of diagnostic criteria|differences in diagnostic criteria]]. For example, a relatively small 2007 study of 5,484 eight-year-old children in Finland found 2.9 children per 1,000 met the ICD-10 criteria for an AS diagnosis, 2.7 per 1,000 for Gillberg and Gillberg criteria, 2.5 for DSM-IV, 1.6 for Szatmari ''et al.'', and 4.3 per 1,000 for the union of the four criteria. Boys seem to be at higher risk for AS than girls; estimates of the sex ratio range from 1.6:1 to 4:1, using the Gillberg and Gillberg criteria.
[[Anxiety]] and [[Clinical depression|depression]] are the most common other conditions seen at the same time; [[comorbidity]] of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65%. Depression is common in adolescents and adults; children are likely to present with [[ADHD]].{{cite journal |author=Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N |title=Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report |journal= J Intellect Disabil Res |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=279–83 |year=1998 |pmid=9786442}} Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as [[aminoaciduria]] and [[ligamentous laxity]], but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. One study of males with AS found an increased rate of [[epilepsy]] and a high rate (51%) of [[nonverbal learning disability]].{{cite journal |author=Cederlund M, Gillberg C |title=One hundred males with Asperger syndrome: a clinical study of background and associated factors |journal= Dev Med Child Neurol |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=652–60 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8749.2004.tb00977.x |pmid=15473168}} Individuals with AS may also be diagnosed with [[oppositional defiant disorder]], [[antisocial personality disorder]], [[tic disorder]]s and [[Tourette syndrome]], [[general anxiety disorder]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] or [[obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]].{{cite journal |author=Gillberg C, Billstedt E |title=Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders |journal= Acta Psychiatr Scand |volume=102 |issue=5 |pages=321–30 |year=2000 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102005321.x |pmid=11098802}}","{{see|Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders}}
[[Prevalence]] estimates vary enormously. A 2003 review of [[Epidemiological study|epidemiological]] studies found [[prevalence]] rates ranging from 0.03 to 4.84 per 1,000, with the ratio of autism to Asperger syndrome averaging 5:1;{{cite journal |journal= Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am |year=2003 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=15–21 |title= Epidemiologic data on Asperger disorder |author= Fombonne E, Tidmarsh L |pmid=12512396 |url=http://www.childpsych.theclinics.com/article/PIIS1056499302000500/fulltext}} combining this with a conservative prevalence estimate for autism of 1.3 per 1,000 suggests indirectly that the prevalence of AS might be around 0.26 per 1,000.{{cite book |chapter= Epidemiological surveys of pervasive developmental disorders |author= Fombonne E |pages=33–68 |title= Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition = 2nd ed |editor= Volkmar FR |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=0521549574}} Part of the variance in estimates arises from [[Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome#Multiple sets of diagnostic criteria|differences in diagnostic criteria]]. For example, a relatively small 2007 study of 5,484 eight-year-old children in Finland found 2.9 children per 1,000 met the ICD-10 criteria for an AS diagnosis, 2.7 per 1,000 for Gillberg and Gillberg criteria, 2.5 for DSM-IV, 1.6 for Szatmari ''et al.'', and 4.3 per 1,000 for the union of the four criteria. Boys seem to be at higher risk for AS than girls; estimates of the sex ratio range from 1.6:1 to 4:1, using the Gillberg and Gillberg criteria.
[[Anxiety]] and [[Clinical depression|depression]] are the most common other conditions seen at the same time; [[comorbidity]] of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65%. Depression is common in adolescents and adults; children are likely to present with [[ADHD]].{{cite journal |author=Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N |title=Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report |journal= J Intellect Disabil Res |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=279–83 |year=1998 |pmid=9786442}} Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as [[aminoaciduria]] and [[ligamentous laxity]], but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. One study of males with AS found an increased rate of [[epilepsy]] and a high rate (51%) of [[nonverbal learning disability]].{{cite journal |author=Cederlund M, Gillberg C |title=One hundred males with Asperger syndrome: a clinical study of background and associated factors |journal= Dev Med Child Neurol |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=652–60 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8749.2004.tb00977.x |pmid=15473168}} AS is associated with [[tic]]s, [[Tourette syndrome]], and [[bipolar disorder]], and the repetitive behaviors of AS have many similarities with the symptoms of [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] and [[obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]].{{cite journal |author=Gillberg C, Billstedt E |title=Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders |journal= Acta Psychiatr Scand |volume=102 |issue=5 |pages=321–30 |year=2000 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102005321.x |pmid=11098802}}","[2, 9]"
Down syndrome,Prenatal screening,165075165,2007-10-17T00:07:52Z,Vector Potential,"Pregnant women can be screened for various complications during pregnancy. Many standard prenatal screens can discover Down syndrome. [[Genetic counseling]] along with [[genetic testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], [[chorionic villus sampling]] (CVS), or percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome, or where normal prenatal exams indicate possible problems. Genetic screens are often performed on pregnant women older than 30 or 35.
Amniocentesis and CVS are considered invasive procedures, in that they involve inserting instruments into the uterus, and therefore carry a small risk of causing fetal injury or miscarriage. There are several common non-invasive screens that can indicate a fetus with Down syndrome. These are normally performed in the late firsBrian Madison: Remember that spelling bee you won in the first grade? Rock: r-o-k?
Billy Madison: Yeah, so what's your point?
Brian Madison: r-o-C-k!
Billy Madison: Ohhh yeh! The c is silent.
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Brian Madison: You remember that spelling bee you won in the 1st grade?
Billy Madison: Oh no, you didn't.
Brian Madison: Rock? ""r-o-k""?
Billy Madison: Yea, so what's your point?
Brian Madison: r-o-C-k!
Billy Madison: Ohh! The ""C"" is silent.
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Brian Madison: You were brought up with every advantage, I bought you everything. Toys, cars, vacations, clothes...
Billy Madison: Actually I, uh, stole this shirt from Frank.
[Lifts his shirt to show ""FRANK"" written on the inside]
Brian Madison: Yea, well whatever, it's all my fault. I made a mistake.
[Looks up to see Billy lifting his shirt]
Brian Madison: What? Are you some damned moron?
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Billy Madison: Dad, I think Crazy Carl is right.
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O'Doyle: [Throws the dodgeball at Billy as he walks on to the playground]
Billy Madison: [Catches the ball one-handed] Now you're all in big, BIG trouble.
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Billy Madison: No I will not make out with you. Did ya hear that? this girl wants to make out with me in the middle of class. You got Chlorophyll Man up there talking about God knows what and all she can talk about is making out with me. I'm here to learn, everybody, not to make out with you. Go on with the chlorophyll.
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Juanita: Ooh that boy's a fine piece of work all right. He's a fine piece of ass though, too.
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Lunch Lady: Have some more sloppy joes. I made 'em extra sloppy for yous. I know how yous kids like 'em sloppy.
Billy Madison: Lady, you're scaring us.
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Frank: I think Billy and his girlfriend are playing water polo.
Jack: Maybe they're playing Marco Polo. Marco.
Frank: Polo. Man, that was a great game.
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Frank: Who would you rather bone, Meg Ryan or Jack Nicholson?
Billy Madison: Jack Nicholson now, or 1974?
Frank: '74.
Billy Madison: Meg Ryan.
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Principal: Mr. Madison, what you've just said is one of the most insanely idiotic things I have ever heard. At no point in your rambling, incoherent response were you even close to anything that could be considered a rational thought. Everyone in this room is now dumber for having listened to it. I award you no points, and may God have mercy on your soul.
Billy Madison: Okay, a simple ""wrong"" would've done just fine.
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Billy Madison: I swear to God I'm sick. I can't go to school.
Juanita: If you're gonna stay home today, you can help me shave my armpits.
Billy Madison: Oh my God. I'll go to school.
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Billy Madison: Sometimes I feel like an idiot. But I am an idiot, so it kinda works out.
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Billy Madison: Back to school. Back to school, to prove to Dad that I'm not a fool. I got my lunch packed up, my boots tied tight, I hope I don't get in a fight. Ohhhh, back to school. Back to school. Back to school. Well, here goes nothing.
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Frank: When I graduated from first grade, all my dad did was tell me to get a job.
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[after putting dog poop in a paper bag and lighting it on fire on Old Man Clemens' porch]
Billy Madison: Oh my God, Old Man Clemens hates shit.
Frank: Shh, here he comes.
Old Man Clemens: Who the hell is it? What do you want? Judas Priest, Barbara, it's one of those flaming bags again.
Barbara: Don't put it out with your boots, Ted.
Old Man Clemens: Don't tell me my business, Devil Woman. Call the fire department, this one's outta control.
[Old Man Clemens steps on the bag, then lifts up his boot and smells]
Old Man Clemens: Eck, poop again.
Billy Madison: He called the shit ""poop"".
[Billy, Jack, and Frank laugh hysterically]
Frank: This is the best night of my life.
[They continue laughing]
Old Man Clemens: I'll get you damn kids for this. You're all gonna die.
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Veronica Vaughn: No milk will ever be our milk.
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Knibb High Principal: Any attempt to cheat, especially with my wife, who is a dirty, dirty, tramp, and I am just gonna snap.
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Carl: I ate some Triscuit crackers in the car, you should have had some.
Eric: Well, maybe if you told me they were delicious Triscuit crackers I could have enjoyed them with you.
Carl: I'm sorry.
Eric: Well, ""sorry"" doesn't put the Triscuit crackers in my stomach now, does it Karl?
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Brian Madison: Oh Billy Billy boy, when are you going to find what you are looking for?
Billy Madison: [the camera cuts to the street, where Billy and his friends find a piece of shit] There’s a nice piece of shit!
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3rd Grader: Hey look everybody, Billy peed his pants.
Billy Madison: Of course I peed my pants, everyone my age pees their pants. It's the coolest.
3rd Grader: Really?
Billy Madison: YES. You ain't cool, unless you pee your pants.
3rd Grader: Hey look, Ernie peed his pants too. Alright!
Old Farm Lady: If peeing in your pants is cool, consider me Miles Davis.
Billy Madison: OOH. That is the grossest thing I've ever heard in my life. Let's Go.
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Old Farm Lady: If peeing your pants is cool, consider me Miles Davis.
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Billy Madison: Shampoo is better. I go on first and clean the hair. Conditioner is better. I leave the hair silky and smooth. Oh, really, fool? Really.
[Notices gold swan on edge of tub]
Billy Madison: Stop looking at me, swan.
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Bus Driver: That Veronica Vaughn is one hot piece of ace, I know from experience dude. If you know what I mean.
Billy Madison: No, you don't.
Bus Driver: Well, not me personally but a guy I know. Him and her *got it on*. Wooo-eee!
Billy Madison: No, they didn't.
Bus Driver: No, No, they didn't. But you could imagine what it'd be like if they, eh, eh... everybody on, good, great, grand, wonderful.
[shouts]
Bus Driver: No yelling on the bus!
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Clown: Hey, kids, it's me. I bet you thought that I was dead. But when I fell over I just broke my leg and got a hemorrhage in my head. HA HA HA.
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Billy Madison: [shouting] Where's my snack pack?
Juanita: You got a banana, you don't need no snack pack.
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Billy Madison: Billy-Whoa whoa whoa, Miss Lippy. The part of the story I don't like is that the little boy gave up looking for Happy after an hour. He didn't put posters up or anything, he just sat on the porch like a goon and waited. That little boy's gotta think 'You got a pet. You got a responsibility.' If your dog is lost you don't look for an hour then call it quits. You get your ass out there and you find that fucking dog.
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Billy Madison: [drunk, he sees a fake a penguin] It's too damn hot for a penguin to be just walkin' around. I gotta send you back to the South Pole.
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O'Doyle (Grade 12): O'Doyle rules.
Billy Madison: O'Doyle, I've got a feeling your whole family's going down.
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Old Farm Lady: I'll tell you who it was, it was that damned Sasquatch
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3rd Grader: How's high school Billy?
Billy Madison: High school is great. I'm learning new things and everyone is really nice.
3rd Grader: Gee, I can't wait till I get to ""hike"" school.
Billy Madison: [grabs 3rd grader's face and whispers] Don't you say that. Don't you ever say that. Stay here. Stay here as long as you can. For the love of God, cherish it. You have to cherish it.
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Juanita: I thought I was your snack pack.
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Billy Madison: Hey I'm trying to score points with the teacher today. DON'T SCREW IT UP.
3rd Grader: I dare you to touch her boobs.
Billy Madison: Touch her boobs? That's assault brotha. You double dare me?
Billy Madison: [walks down the bus to the teacher] Uhhh Miss Vaughn, I was wondering how long there's to get there, I need to go to the bathroom.
Veronica Vaughn: Not too long now...
[Billy pretends to fall on her, while groping her]
Billy Madison: Oh, I'm sorry! Damn bus driver drives like an animal!
Veronica Vaughn: That's okay Billy, why don't you go back to your seat now?
[smiling]
Veronica Vaughn: I double dare you.
Billy Madison: [Stuttering] That... tit... accident...
Veronica Vaughn: Go back to your seat now.
Billy Madison: ...I... Yes...
[looking embarrassed now]
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Teacher: Spell ""couch"".
Little girl: Couch. C-O-W...
Billy Madison: No!
Teacher: [to little girl] No, I'm sorry, that is incorrect
[to Billy]
Teacher: Billy, if you spell this correctly you pass second grade.
Billy Madison: Couch. C-O-R, uh, are you going to the mall today?
Teacher: No I'm not goin to the mall, keep spelling, mister.
Billy Madison: Couch. C-O-U-C-H!
Teacher: That is correct!
Billy Madison: I AM THE SMARTEST MAN ALIVE!
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Bus Driver: HEY! Who threw that? I'll turn this damn bus around. That'll end your PRECIOUS little field trip pretty damn quick, eh?
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Kyle: Hey, I dare you to throw your sandwich at the bus driver.
[Dan throw's sandwhich at the bus driver]
Bus Driver: HEY!
Veronica Vaughn: Hey who threw that?
Bus Driver: I'll turn this damn bus around! That'll end your precious field trip pretty damn quick huh! Little shit!
[quivers lips up and down while face gets red]
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Old Farm Lady: I'll tell you who took those lunches, that damn sasquatch.
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Billy Madison: Well, I made the duck blue because I'd never seen a blue duck before and I wanted to see one.
Miss Lippy: Well, I think it's an excellent blue duck. Congratulations Billy, you just passed the first grade.
Billy Madison: Wow, Miss Lippy, that's great. What do you think of that Mr. Blue Duck?
[pretending to be duck]
Billy Madison: That's quacktastic.
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Old Lady: What is a horse shoe? What does a horse shoe do? Are there any horse socks? Is anybody listening to me?
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Kid: Mortal Kombat, on Sega Genesis, is the best video game ever.
Billy Madison: I disagree, it's a very good game, but i think Donkey Kong is the best game ever.
Kid: Donkey Kong sucks.
Billy Madison: You know something? YOU SUCK!
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Billy Madison: Man, I'm glad I called that guy.
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Veronica Vaughn: So it's um, the last day of 3rd grade, and you have the teacher alone in your tent, what do you want to do?
Billy Madison: Well I could think of three things I'd like to do. One would involve some ice cubes and a nine iron. Two would involve a buffalo, live or stuffed, preferably stuffed for safety sake, and three, we bring back some of those ice cubes and switch it over to a pitching wedge.
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Rollo The Janitor: [from his spying notes] Miss Lippy's Car is Green!
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Billy Madison: How 'bout you Sideburns? You want some of this milk?
Rollo the Janitor: I'd rather have a beer.
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Billy Madison: [deleted scene]
[running out of the house with Veronica and Juanita chasing him]
Billy Madison: No more studying! No more studying! No more studying! No more studying! No more studying! No more studying! I'm done studying! I'm done studying! I'm done studying!
[hides, crouched, near a tree]
Billy Madison: [Veronica and Juanita catch up] Billy's not here. I'm a dog.
[makes growling noises]
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Billy Madison: I guess that snack pack is pretty good huh?
[the little kid smiles and nods]
Billy Madison: Wanna trade me the rest of it for this banana?
[the little kid smiles and shakes his head]
Billy Madison: You know how how badly I could beat you, right?
[the kid keeps smiling and nods]
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Billy Madison: Oh Veronica Vaughn! So hot! Want to touch the hiney! Arrroooooooo!
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Billy Madison: [Veronica has taken Billy out of the classroom after making fun of the kid trying to read My sister Fanny] OW! Your tearing my ear off.
[Sits down on chair]
Veronica Vaughn: Making fun of a little kid for trying to read. Are you psycho? Do you not have a soul?
Billy Madison: I'm sorry I can't hear you. I've been physically abused in the ear.
Veronica Vaughn: You keep your mouth shut for the next two weeks or I'm going to fail you. End of story.
[Goes back into classroom]
Billy Madison: I can see your lips moving but I can't make out the words. I'm deaf. Oh Veronica Vaughn so hot want to touch the hiney.
[Howls like a wolf]
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Veronica Vaughn: [scolding Billy in the hallway] Making fun of a kid for trying to read! Are you psycho? Do you not have a soul?
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3rd Grader: Wa-wa-wa-once th-th-th-there wa-wa-wa-was a-a-a-a g-g-girl
Billy Madison: Kid can't even read
Ernie: Cut it out dude your gonna get us in trouble.
Billy Madison: T-T-T-TODAY JUNIOR!
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Brian Madison: Billy, I've got some important news for you.
Billy Madison: ERIC, IS PREGNANT?
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Veronica Vaughn: [singing] Don't I have a nice rack?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tenth Grader: [after Billy pushes Eric and Eric falls over] Oh, gross... did you see that guys balls?
Tenth Grader: Yeah... they were weird looking.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Billy Madison: Hey, Carl. What's up?
Carl: Nothing much, Billy. I see you got a little sun today.
Billy Madison: You think so? I fell asleep by the pool for a few hours.
Eric: Did you fall asleep or did you pass out?
Billy Madison: [sarcastic laughter] Shut up!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Billy Madison: Bunt. B-U-N-T, in perfect cursive. Got any more brain busters?
Veronica Vaughn: How about 'Rizzuto'?
[Billy ponders, then writes]
Veronica Vaughn: Rirruto?
Billy Madison: Those're Z's.
Veronica Vaughn: They look like R's to me.
Billy Madison: You're cheating! Rizzuto's not a word! He's a baseball player!
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[Billy Madison is having big party for passing 2nd grade]
Eric: [very stressed out] Is he going to have a stupid party every time he passes a grade?
Carl: You know, everyone's having a good time except you.
[a girl is now trying to reach into Eric's suit jacket]
Eric: [shoeing her away] Spoiled snot. Get outta here!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Frank: Hey, you wanna go feed that donkey some beer? Get it all messed up?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dog on TV: Speak for yourself, Moron!
Billy Madison: Ha ha ha, oh my GOD that is funny!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kid: You got a misshaped head.
Billy Madison: Thank you.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Billy Madison: Hey Ernie, you fallin in love with the wall or somethin?
Ernie: I had an accident.
Billy Madison: You had an accident? what's that supposed to mean - GOO!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Freshman: Are you in 'Loser Denial'?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Veronica Vaughn: Would you like to try the word 'buzz'?
Billy Madison: I HATE SCHOOL AND I HATE ALL OF YOU! I'M NEVER COMING BACK TO SCHOOL, NEVER!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Billy Madison: Chlorophyll? More like BOREophyll.
t trimester or early second trimester. Due to the nature of screens, each has a significant chance of a [[Type I and type II errors|false positive]], suggesting a fetus with Down syndrome when, in fact, the fetus does not have this genetic abnormality. Screen positives must be verified before a Down syndrome diagnosis is made. Common screening procedures for Down syndrome are given in Table 1.
{| class=""wikitable""
|+ Table 1: Common first and second trimester Down syndrome screens
|-
!Screen
!When performed (weeks [[gestation]])
!Detection rate
![[Type I and type II errors|False positive]] rate
!Description
|-
|Triple screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|75%
|align=""center""|8.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone).For a current estimate of rates, see {{cite journal| author=Benn, PA, J Ying, T Beazoglou, JFX Egan| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=21| issue=1| pages=46–51| title=Estimates for the sensitivity and false-positive rates for second trimester serum screening for Down syndrome and trisomy 18 with adjustments for cross-identification and double-positive results}} PMID 11180240
|-
|Quad screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|79%
|align=""center""|7.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone), and high [[inhibin]]-Alpha (INHA).
|-
|AFP/free beta screen
|align=""center""|13–22
|align=""center""|80%
|align=""center""|2.8%
|This test measures the [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]], produced by the fetus, and free beta hCG, produced by the [[placenta]].
|-
|Nuchal translucency/free beta/PAPPA screen
|align=""center""|10–13.5
|align=""center""|91%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|align=""center""|5%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|Uses [[ultrasound]] to measure [[Nuchal translucency|Nuchal Translucency]] in addition to the freeBeta [[human chorionic gonadotropin|hCG]] and PAPPA ([[pregnancy-associated plasma protein A]]). NIH has confirmed that this first trimester test is more accurate than second trimester screening methods.NIH FASTER study (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):2001). See also J.L. Simplson's editorial (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):19).
|}
[[Image:Vessie T21.JPG|thumb|right|221px|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome and [[megacystis]]]]
Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is 90%–95% and the rate of false positive is 2%–5%. [[Type I and type II errors|False positive]]s can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses (very rare with the ultrasound tests), incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.
Confirmation of screen positive is normally accomplished with [[amniocentesis]] or [[chorionic villus sampling]] (CVS). [[Amniocentesis]] is an invasive procedure and involves taking [[amniotic fluid]] from the mother and identifying fetal cells. The lab work can take several weeks but will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems with a very low false positive rate. {{cite web |title=Down syndrome |author=Fackler, A |url=http://health.yahoo.com/topic/children/baby/article/healthwise/hw167989 |accessdate = 2006-09-07}}
Due to the low incidence of Down syndrome, a vast majority of early screen positives are false.Assume the false positive rate is 2% (at the low end), the incidence of Down syndrome is 1/500 (on the high side) with 95% detection, and there is no [[ascertainment bias]]. Out of 100,000 screens, 200 will have Down syndrome, and the screen will detect 190 of them. From the 99,800 normal pregnancies, 1996 will be given a positive result. So, among the 2,186 positive test results, 91% will be false positives and 9% will be true positives. Since false positives typically prompt an amniocentesis to confirm the result, and the amniocentesis carries a small risk of inducing [[miscarriage]], there is a slight risk of miscarrying a healthy fetus. (The added miscarriage risk from an amniocentesis is traditionally quoted as 0.5%, but recent studies suggest that it may be considerably smaller (0.06% with a 95% CI of 0 to 0.5%).{{cite journal |title=Pregnancy loss rates after midtrimester amniocentesis |author=Eddleman, Keith A., ''et al'' |journal=Obstet Gynecol|year=2006|volume=108|issue=5|pages=1067–1072|url=http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/short/108/5/1067 |accessdate = 2006-12-09}} PMID 17077226)
A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated.{{cite journal| author=Caroline Mansfield, Suellen Hopfer, Theresa M. Marteau| title=Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spina bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: a systematic literature review| year=1999| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=19| issue=9| pages=808–812| url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/65500197/ABSTRACT}} PMID 10521836 This is similar to 90% results found by {{cite journal| title=Determinants of parental decisions after the prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome: Bringing in context| journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics| volume=93| issue=5| pages=410–416| year=1999| author=David W. Britt, Samantha T. Risinger, Virginia Miller, Mary K. Mans, Eric L. Krivchenia, Mark I. Evans}} PMID 10951466 Physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications,{{cite journal| author=Glover, NM and Glover, SJ| title=Ethical and legal issues regarding selective abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome| journal=Ment. Retard.| year=1996| volume=34| issue=4| pages=207–214| id=PMID 8828339}} with some commentators calling it ""[[eugenics]] by abortion"".{{cite journal |last=Will |first=George |title=Eugenics By Abortion: Is perfection an entitlement? |date=2005-04-14 |journal=Washington Post |pages=A37 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A51671-2005Apr13.html |accessdate = 2006-07-03}} Many members of the [[disability rights]] movement ""believe that public support for prenatal diagnosis and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement's basic philosophy and goals.""{{cite journal |author=Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch |title=Disability rights critique of prenatal genetic testing: Reflections and recommendations |year=2003 |journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=40–47 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/102531130/ABSTRACT| accessdate = 2006-07-03}} PMID 12587137","Pregnant women can be screened for various complications during pregnancy. Many standard prenatal screens can discover Down syndrome. [[Genetic counseling]] along with [[genetic testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], [[chorionic villus sampling]] (CVS), or percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome, or where normal prenatal exams indicate possible problems. Genetic screens are often performed on pregnant women older than 30 or 35.
Amniocentesis and CVS are considered invasive procedures, in that they involve inserting instruments into the uterus, and therefore carry a small risk of causing fetal injury or miscarriage. There are several common non-invasive screens that can indicate a fetus with Down syndrome. These are normally performed in the late first trimester or early second trimester. Due to the nature of screens, each has a significant chance of a [[Type I and type II errors|false positive]], suggesting a fetus with Down syndrome when, in fact, the fetus does not have this genetic abnormality. Screen positives must be verified before a Down syndrome diagnosis is made. Common screening procedures for Down syndrome are given in Table 1.
{| class=""wikitable""
|+ Table 1: Common first and second trimester Down syndrome screens
|-
!Screen
!When performed (weeks [[gestation]])
!Detection rate
![[Type I and type II errors|False positive]] rate
!Description
|-
|Triple screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|75%
|align=""center""|8.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone).For a current estimate of rates, see {{cite journal| author=Benn, PA, J Ying, T Beazoglou, JFX Egan| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=21| issue=1| pages=46–51| title=Estimates for the sensitivity and false-positive rates for second trimester serum screening for Down syndrome and trisomy 18 with adjustments for cross-identification and double-positive results}} PMID 11180240
|-
|Quad screen
|align=""center""|15–20
|align=""center""|79%
|align=""center""|7.5%
|This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone), and high [[inhibin]]-Alpha (INHA).
|-
|AFP/free beta screen
|align=""center""|13–22
|align=""center""|80%
|align=""center""|2.8%
|This test measures the [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]], produced by the fetus, and free beta hCG, produced by the [[placenta]].
|-
|Nuchal translucency/free beta/PAPPA screen
|align=""center""|10–13.5
|align=""center""|91%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|align=""center""|5%Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
|Uses [[ultrasound]] to measure [[Nuchal translucency|Nuchal Translucency]] in addition to the freeBeta [[human chorionic gonadotropin|hCG]] and PAPPA ([[pregnancy-associated plasma protein A]]). NIH has confirmed that this first trimester test is more accurate than second trimester screening methods.NIH FASTER study (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):2001). See also J.L. Simplson's editorial (NEJM 2005 ('''353'''):19).
|}
[[Image:Vessie T21.JPG|thumb|right|221px|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome and [[megacystis]]]]
Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is 90%–95% and the rate of false positive is 2%–5%. [[Type I and type II errors|False positive]]s can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses (very rare with the ultrasound tests), incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.
Confirmation of screen positive is normally accomplished with [[amniocentesis]] or [[chorionic villus sampling]] (CVS). [[Amniocentesis]] is an invasive procedure and involves taking [[amniotic fluid]] from the mother and identifying fetal cells. The lab work can take several weeks but will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems with a very low false positive rate. {{cite web |title=Down syndrome |author=Fackler, A |url=http://health.yahoo.com/topic/children/baby/article/healthwise/hw167989 |accessdate = 2006-09-07}}
Due to the low incidence of Down syndrome, a vast majority of early screen positives are false.Assume the false positive rate is 2% (at the low end), the incidence of Down syndrome is 1/500 (on the high side) with 95% detection, and there is no [[ascertainment bias]]. Out of 100,000 screens, 200 will have Down syndrome, and the screen will detect 190 of them. From the 99,800 normal pregnancies, 1996 will be given a positive result. So, among the 2,186 positive test results, 91% will be false positives and 9% will be true positives. Since false positives typically prompt an amniocentesis to confirm the result, and the amniocentesis carries a small risk of inducing [[miscarriage]], there is a slight risk of miscarrying a healthy fetus. (The added miscarriage risk from an amniocentesis is traditionally quoted as 0.5%, but recent studies suggest that it may be considerably smaller (0.06% with a 95% CI of 0 to 0.5%).{{cite journal |title=Pregnancy loss rates after midtrimester amniocentesis |author=Eddleman, Keith A., ''et al'' |journal=Obstet Gynecol|year=2006|volume=108|issue=5|pages=1067–1072|url=http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/short/108/5/1067 |accessdate = 2006-12-09}} PMID 17077226)
A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated.{{cite journal| author=Caroline Mansfield, Suellen Hopfer, Theresa M. Marteau| title=Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spina bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: a systematic literature review| year=1999| journal=Prenatal Diagnosis| volume=19| issue=9| pages=808–812| url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/65500197/ABSTRACT}} PMID 10521836 This is similar to 90% results found by {{cite journal| title=Determinants of parental decisions after the prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome: Bringing in context| journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics| volume=93| issue=5| pages=410–416| year=1999| author=David W. Britt, Samantha T. Risinger, Virginia Miller, Mary K. Mans, Eric L. Krivchenia, Mark I. Evans}} PMID 10951466 Physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications,{{cite journal| author=Glover, NM and Glover, SJ| title=Ethical and legal issues regarding selective abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome| journal=Ment. Retard.| year=1996| volume=34| issue=4| pages=207–214| id=PMID 8828339}} with some commentators calling it ""[[eugenics]] by abortion"".{{cite journal |last=Will |first=George |title=Eugenics By Abortion: Is perfection an entitlement? |date=2005-04-14 |journal=Washington Post |pages=A37 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A51671-2005Apr13.html |accessdate = 2006-07-03}} Many members of the [[disability rights]] movement ""believe that public support for prenatal diagnosis and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement's basic philosophy and goals.""{{cite journal |author=Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch |title=Disability rights critique of prenatal genetic testing: Reflections and recommendations |year=2003 |journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=40–47 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/102531130/ABSTRACT| accessdate = 2006-07-03}} PMID 12587137",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,165228594,2007-10-17T18:11:15Z,72.40.101.219,"*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070518174657.htm Jet Lag, Circadian Clocks Explained]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]","*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.circadianmedicine.net www.circadianmedicine.net]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*[[2006-01-18]] The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston ''[http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat]''
*[http://focus.hms.harvard.edu/1996/Mar15_1996/Quad.html Artificial Light Resets Natural Clock]
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19025545.800-time-for-bed-said-the-adrenal-clock.html Time for bed, said the adrenal clock]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070518174657.htm Jet Lag, Circadian Clocks Explained]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[11]
Methadone,(Top),166096504,2007-10-21T18:24:02Z,66.177.167.120,"{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-(Dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.svg
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-80(-92)
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 hrs.
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]] and in the treatment of [[narcotic]] addiction. It was developed in [[Germany]] in 1937, and in the [[USA]] was first brought to market by the pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company]].
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects.
Methadone was introduced into the [[United States]] in 1947 by Eli Lilly and Company as an analgesic (They gave it the trade name Dolophine®, which is now registered to [[Roxane Laboratories]]). Since then, it has been best known for its use in treating narcotic addiction. A great deal of anecdotal evidence was available ""on the street"" that methadone might prove effective in treating heroin withdrawal and it had even been used in some hospitals. It was not until studies performed at the [[Rockefeller University]] in New York City by Professor [[Vincent Dole]], along with [[Marie Nyswander]] and [[Mary Jeanne Kreek]], that methadone was systematically studied as a potential substitution therapy. Their studies introduced a sweeping change in the notion that drug addiction was more than a simple character flaw, but rather a disorder to be treated in the same way as other diseases. To date, methadone maintenance therapy has been the most systematically studied and most successful, and most politically polarizing, of any pharmacotherapy for the treatment of drug addiction patients.
Methadone is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late 2004, the cost of a one-month supply of methadone was $20, as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of [[Demerol]] at $120.
Methadone (as Dolophine) was first manufactured in the USA by [[Mallinckrodt]] Pharmaceuticals, a [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]-based subsidiary of the [[Tyco International]] corporation. Mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early 1990s. Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. However, the major producer remains Mallinckrodt. Mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersible tablets and oral concentrate under the name ''Methadose'' in the United States.
Generally, one will only hear ""dolophine"" used by older addicts who used the product in the 1960s and 1970s. Medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone, when actually it is the reverse, may also use the old brand name. A persistent but untrue [[urban legend]] claims that the trade name ""Dolophine"" was coined in tribute to [[Adolf Hitler]] by its German creators, and it is sometimes even claimed that the drug was originally named ""adolphine"" or ""adolophine"" or ""Dolphamine"". The claim is still presented as fact by [[Church of Scientology]] literatureButtnor, Al. ""[http://www.freedommag.org/english/canada/vol004i1/page13.htm The Drug Problem: How It CAN be Solved]"". ''[[Freedom Magazine]]'' (vol. 4, iss. 1) p. 15. Retrieved April 7, 2006. and was repeated by actor and vocal Scientologist [[Tom Cruise]] in a 2005 ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' interview. However, as the magazine pointed out, this is not true: the name ""Dolophine"" was in fact created after the war by the American branch of Eli Lilly,{{cite web|url=http://www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html|title=www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html|accessdate=2007-07-09}} and the name ""Adolphine"" (never an actual name of the drug) was created in the United States in the early 1970s.http://www.indro-online.de/discovery.pdf ([[PDF]] format) ''Dolophine'' actually comes from the German ''Dolphium''. The name derives from the [[Latin]] ''dolor'' which means ""pain"" and ''fīnis'' which means ""end"".","{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-(Dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.svg
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-80(-92)
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 hrs.
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]] and in the treatment of [[narcotic]] addiction. It was developed in [[Germany]] in 1937, and in the [[USA]] was first brought to market by the pharmaceutical company [[Eli
Methadone makes you sweat when you poop.
Lilly and Company]].
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects.
iMethadone has a slow metabolism and very high fat solubility, making it longer lasting than morphine-based drugs. Methadone has a typical [[half-life]] of 15 to 60 hours (in rare cases up to 190 hours{{cite web | last=Manfredonia | first=John |url=http://www.jaoa.org/cgi/content/full/105/3_suppl/18S | title=Prescribing Methadone for Pain Management in End-of-Life Care | publisher=JAOA The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association | date=2005-03-18|accessdate=2007-01-29 }}), permitting the administration only once a day in heroin [[detoxification]] and maintenance programs. The analgesic activity is shorter than the pharmacological half-life; dosing for pain control usually requires multiple doses per day. The most common mode of delivery at a methadone clinic is in an oral solution, usually Methadose is used. Methadone is almost as effective when administered orally as by injection. As with other opiod medications, tolerance and dependence usually develop with repeated doses. Tolerance to the different physiological effects of methadone varies. Tolerance to analgesia usually occurs during the first few weeks of use; whereas with respiratory depression, sedation, and nausea it is seen within approximately 5-7 days. There is no tolerance formed to constipation produced by methadone or other opioids; however, effects may be less severe after time.
On [[November 29]], [[2006]], the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] issued a Public Health Advisory about methadone titled ""Methadone Use for Pain Control May Result in Death and
Life-Threatening Changes in Breathing and Heart Beat."" The advisory went on to say that ""the FDA has received reports of death and life-threatening side effects in patients taking methadone. These deaths and life-threatening side effects have occurred in patients newly starting methadone for pain control and in patients who have switched to methadone after being treated for pain with other strong narcotic pain relievers. Methadone can cause slow or shallow breathing and dangerous changes in heart beat that may not be felt by the patient."" The advisory urged that physicians use caution when prescribing methadone to patients who are not used to the drug, and that patients take the drug exactly as directed.{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2006/safety06.htm#Methadone | title = 2006 Safety Alerts for Drugs, Biologics, Medical Devices, and Dietary Supplements | work = MedWatch | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}
Methadone also binds to the glutamate [[NMDA]] (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor. Glutamate is the primary excitary neurotransmitter in the CNS. NMDA receptors have a very important role in modulating long term excitation and memory formation. NMDA antagonists such as dextromethorphan, ketamine, and ibogaine are being studied for their role in decreasing the development of tolerance to opioids and as possible for eliminating addiction/tolerance/withdrawal, possibly by disrupting memory circuitry. Acting as an NMDA antagonist may be one mechanism by which methadone decreases craving for opioids and tolerance, and has been proposed as a possible mechanism for its distinguished efficacy regarding the treatment of neuropathic pain.
Withdrawal symptoms are generally slightly less severe than those of morphine or heroin at equivalent doses but are significantly more prolonged; methadone withdrawal symptoms can last for several weeks or more, thus individuals maintained on methadone for obtuse periods of time may find it more difficult to give up methadone than people who go directly from heroin use to abstinence. However, this point is still a frequent argument that garners contention within the medical community and abroad.","[1, 2, 4, 9, 10]"
Gene therapy,Background,166287561,2007-10-22T14:43:32Z,Arnon Chaffin,"Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells,","On [[September 14]], [[1990]] at the [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Institutes of Health]] [[W. French Anderson]], M.D., and his colleagues R. Michael Blaese, M.D., C. Bouzaid, M.D., and Kenneth Culver, M.D., performed the first approved gene therapy procedure on four-year old Ashanthi DeSilva. Born with a rare genetic disease called [[severe combined immunodeficiency|severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)]], she lacked a healthy immune system, and was vulnerable to every passing germ or infection. Children with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to adulthood; a common childhood illness like chickenpox is life-threatening. Ashanthi led a cloistered existence -- avoiding contact with people outside her family, remaining in the sterile environment of her home, and battling frequent illnesses with massive amounts of antibiotics.
In Ashanthi's gene therapy procedure, doctors removed white blood cells from the child's body, let the cells grow in the lab, inserted the missing gene into the cells, and then infused the genetically modified blood cells back into the patient's bloodstream. Laboratory tests have shown that the therapy strengthened Ashanthi's immune system by 40%; she no longer has recurrent colds, she has been allowed to attend school, and she was immunized against whooping cough. This procedure was not a cure; the white blood cells treated genetically only work for a few months, after which, the process must be repeated (VII, Thompson [First] 1993). As of early 2007, she was still in good health, and she was attending college. However, there is no consensus on what portion of her improvement should be attributed to gene therapy vis-a-vis other treatments. Some would state that the case is of great importance despite its indefinite results, if only because it demonstrated that gene therapy could be practically attempted without adverse consequences. [http://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/magazine/15-10/ff_anderson?currentPage=3]
Although this simplified explanation of a gene therapy procedure sounds like a happy ending, it is little more than an optimistic first chapter in a long story; the road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the correct site on the comparatively large [[human genome]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Genetic engineering,Methodology,166508712,2007-10-23T13:51:26Z,ClueBot,"u SUCK
There are a number of ways through which genetic engineering is accomplished. Essentially, the process has four main steps.
1)Isolation
2)Insertion into a [[vector (biology)|vector]]
3)[[transformation (genetics)|transformation]]
4)Tests to isolate genetically modified organism (GMO)
hello people. i am a virgin
Isolation is achieved by identifying the gene of interest that the scientist wishes to insert into the organism, usually using existing knowledge of the various functions of genes. DNA information can be obtained from cDNA or gDNA libraries, and amplified using [[PCR|PCR]] techniques. If necessary, ie for insertion of eukaryotic genomic DNA into prokaryotes, further modification may be carried out such as removal of introns or ligating prokaryotic promoters.
Once the gene of interest is isolated, it is inserted into a vector such as a plasmid. Other vectors can also be used, such as viral vectors, and non-prokaryotic ones such as liposomes, or even direct insertion using DNA guns. [[restriction enzyme|Restriction enzymes]] and [[ligases]] are of great use in this crucial step if it is being inserted into prokaryotic or viral vectors. [[Daniel Nathans]] and [[Hamilton Smith]] received the [[1978]] [[Nobel Prize]] [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|in Physiology or Medicine]] for their isolation of [[restriction enzyme|restriction endonucleases]].
Once the vector is obtained, it can be used to transform the target organism. Depending on the vector used, it can be complex or simple. For example, using raw DNA with DNA guns is a fairly straightforward process but with low success rates, where the DNA is coated onto particles such as gold and fired directly into a cell. Other more complex methods, such as [[Transformation (genetics)|bacterial transformation]] or using virus's as vectors have higher success rates.
After transformation, the GMO can be isolated from those that have failed to take up the vector in various ways. One method is testing with DNA probes that can hybridize to the gene of interest that was supposed to have been inserted, another would be to package resistance genes along with the vector, such that the resulting GMO is resistant to certain chemicals, such as penicillin, and then they can be grown on agar dishes with penicillin, to ensure only those that have taken up the vector will survive.","There are a number of ways through which genetic engineering is accomplished. Essentially, the process has four main steps.
1)Isolation
2)Insertion into a [[vector (biology)|vector]]
3)[[transformation (genetics)|transformation]]
4)Tests to isolate genetically modified organism (GMO)
Isolation is achieved by identifying the gene of interest that the scientist wishes to insert into the organism, usually using existing knowledge of the various functions of genes. DNA information can be obtained from cDNA or gDNA libraries, and amplified using [[PCR|PCR]] techniques. If necessary, ie for insertion of eukaryotic genomic DNA into prokaryotes, further modification may be carried out such as removal of introns or ligating prokaryotic promoters.
Once the gene of interest is isolated, it is inserted into a vector such as a plasmid. Other vectors can also be used, such as viral vectors, and non-prokaryotic ones such as liposomes, or even direct insertion using DNA guns. [[restriction enzyme|Restriction enzymes]] and [[ligases]] are of great use in this crucial step if it is being inserted into prokaryotic or viral vectors. [[Daniel Nathans]] and [[Hamilton Smith]] received the [[1978]] [[Nobel Prize]] [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|in Physiology or Medicine]] for their isolation of [[restriction enzyme|restriction endonucleases]].
Once the vector is obtained, it can be used to transform the target organism. Depending on the vector used, it can be complex or simple. For example, using raw DNA with DNA guns is a fairly straightforward process but with low success rates, where the DNA is coated onto particles such as gold and fired directly into a cell. Other more complex methods, such as [[Transformation (genetics)|bacterial transformation]] or using virus's as vectors have higher success rates.
After transformation, the GMO can be isolated from those that have failed to take up the vector in various ways. One method is testing with DNA probes that can hybridize to the gene of interest that was supposed to have been inserted, another would be to package resistance genes along with the vector, such that the resulting GMO is resistant to certain chemicals, such as penicillin, and then they can be grown on agar dishes with penicillin, to ensure only those that have taken up the vector will survive.",[11]
Asperger syndrome,Prognosis,166671573,2007-10-24T03:12:18Z,SandyGeorgia,"As of 2006, no studies with AS where done with children, adolescents, and the long term outcome of individuals with AS. The latest studies show however, that many children in the present day are living up to full potential, many even marrying. However, because of the lack of socail interaction that goes along with AS, the divorce rate for AS adults is 80%.","As of 2006, no studies addressing the long-term outcome of individuals with Asperger syndrome are available and there are no systematic long-term follow-up studies of children with AS. Individuals with AS appear to have normal [[life expectancy]] but have an increased [[prevalence]] of [[comorbid]] [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] conditions such as [[depression (clinical)|depression]], [[mood disorder]]s, and [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] that may significantly affect [[prognosis]]. Although social impairment is lifelong, outcome is generally more positive than with individuals with lower functioning autism spectrum disorders; for example, ASD symptoms are more likely to diminish with time in children with AS or HFA.{{cite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2005 |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=117–22 |title= Modeling clinical outcome of children with autistic spectrum disorders |author= Coplan J, Jawad AF |doi=10.1542/peds.2004-1118 |pmid=15995041 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/116/1/117 |laysummary=http://stokes.chop.edu/publications/press/?ID=181 |laysource=press release |laydate=2005-07-05}} Although most individuals with AS/HFA have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in math than in general intelligence,{{cite journal |journal=Autism |date=2007 |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=547–56 |title= Mathematical ability of students with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism |author= Chiang HM, Lin YH |doi=10.1177/1362361307083259 |pmid=17947290}} AS has been linked to high achieving mathematicians, physicists, computer scientists, and engineers, and the condition need not be an obstacle to achievement at the highest levels in these fields.{{cite journal |author=Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E |title=The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=5–17 |year=2001 |doi=10.1023/A:1005653411471 |url=http://www.autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2001_BCetal_AQ.pdf |format=PDF}} {{cite journal |title=Errata |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=603 |year=2001 |doi=10.1023/A:1017455213300}}PMID 11439754.
Children with AS may require [[special education]] services because of their social and behavioral difficulties although many attend regular education classes. Adolescents with AS may exhibit ongoing difficulty with self-care, organization and disturbances in social and romantic relationships; despite high cognitive potential, most remain at home, although some do marry and work independently. The ""different-ness"" adolescents experience can be traumatic.{{cite journal |author= Moran M |url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/41/19/21 |title= Asperger's may be answer to diagnostic mysteries |journal= Psychiatr News |year=2006 |volume=41 |issue=19 |pages=21}} Anxiety may stem from preoccupation over possible violations of routines and rituals, from being placed in a situation without a clear schedule or expectations, or from [[Social anxiety|concern with failing in social encounters]]; the resulting stress may manifest as inattention, withdrawal, reliance on obsessions, hyperactivity, or aggressive or oppositional behavior. Depression is often the result of chronic frustration from repeated failure to engage others socially, and mood disorders requiring treatment may develop.
Education of families is critical in developing strategies for understanding strengths and weaknesses; helping the family to cope improves outcome in children. Prognosis may be improved by diagnosis at a younger age that allows for early interventions, while interventions in adulthood are valuable but less beneficial. There are legal implications for individuals with AS as they run the risk of exploitation by others and may be unable to comprehend the societal implications of their actions.","[1, 2, 4, 7, 9]"
Methadone,(Top),166916977,2007-10-25T04:50:09Z,Tiptoety,"{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-(Dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.svg
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-80(-92)
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 hrs.
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]] and in the treatment of [[narcotic]] addiction. It was developed in [[Germany]] in 1937.
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects.
Methadone was introduced into the [[United States]] in 1947 by Eli Lilly and Company as an analgesic (They gave it the trade name Dolophine®, which is now registered to [[Roxane Laboratories]]). Since then, it has been best known for its use in treating narcotic addiction. A great deal of anecdotal evidence was available ""on the street"" that methadone might prove effective in treating heroin withdrawal and it had even been used in some hospitals. It was not until studies performed at the [[Rockefeller University]] in New York City by Professor [[Vincent Dole]], along with [[Marie Nyswander]] and [[Mary Jeanne Kreek]], that methadone was systematically studied as a potential substitution therapy. Their studies introduced a sweeping change in the notion that drug addiction was more than a simple character flaw, but rather a disorder to be treated in the same way as other diseases. To date, methadone maintenance therapy has been the most systematically studied and most successful, and most politically polarizing, of any pharmacotherapy for the treatment of drug addiction patients.
Methadone is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late 2004, the cost of a one-month supply of methadone was $20, as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of [[Demerol]] at $120.
Methadone (as Dolophine) was first manufactured in the USA by [[Mallinckrodt]] Pharmaceuticals, a [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]-based subsidiary of the [[Tyco International]] corporation. Mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early 1990s. Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. However, the major producer remains Mallinckrodt. Mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersible tablets and oral concentrate under the name ''Methadose'' in the United States.
Generally, one will only hear ""dolophine"" used by older addicts who used the product in the 1960s and 1970s. Medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone, when actually it is the reverse, may also use the old brand name.
Methadone is not a new drug. It was developed during World War II by the German chemical cartel I.G. Farben as a synthetic pain-killer. (Source: Dorothy Nelkin, ""Methadone Maintenance: A Technological Fix,"" 1973, Cornell University) It was originally called Dolophine, after Adolf Hitler. (Source: ""N.Y. Uses Methadone as Way Off the Needle,"" Los Angeles Times, 17 Dec. 1989)","{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-(Dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.svg
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-80(-92)
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 hrs.
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]] and in the treatment of [[narcotic]] addiction. It was developed in [[Germany]] in 1937.
On [[September 11]], [[1941]] Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or polamidon and whose structure had no relation to morphine or the opioid alkaloids (Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects.
Methadone was introduced into the [[United States]] in 1947 by Eli Lilly and Company as an analgesic (They gave it the trade name Dolophine®, which is now registered to [[Roxane Laboratories]]). Since then, it has been best known for its use in treating narcotic addiction. A great deal of anecdotal evidence was available ""on the street"" that methadone might prove effective in treating heroin withdrawal and it had even been used in some hospitals. It was not until studies performed at the [[Rockefeller University]] in New York City by Professor [[Vincent Dole]], along with [[Marie Nyswander]] and [[Mary Jeanne Kreek]], that methadone was systematically studied as a potential substitution therapy. Their studies introduced a sweeping change in the notion that drug addiction was more than a simple character flaw, but rather a disorder to be treated in the same way as other diseases. To date, methadone maintenance therapy has been the most systematically studied and most successful, and most politically polarizing, of any pharmacotherapy for the treatment of drug addiction patients.
Methadone is also used in managing chronic pain due to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late 2004, the cost of a one-month supply of methadone was $20, as compared to an equivalent analgesic amount of [[Demerol]] at $120.
Methadone (as Dolophine) was first manufactured in the USA by [[Mallinckrodt]] Pharmaceuticals, a [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]-based subsidiary of the [[Tyco International]] corporation. Mallinckrodt held the patent up until the early 1990s. Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. However, the major producer remains Mallinckrodt. Mallinckrodt sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersible tablets and oral concentrate under the name ''Methadose'' in the United States.
Generally, one will only hear ""dolophine"" used by older addicts who used the product in the 1960s and 1970s. Medical professionals who believe that dolophine is the generic name for methadone, when actually it is the reverse, may also use the old brand name. A persistent but untrue [[urban legend]] claims that the trade name ""Dolophine"" was coined in tribute to [[Adolf Hitler]] by its German creators, and it is sometimes even claimed that the drug was originally named ""adolphine"" or ""adolophine"" or ""Dolphamine"". The claim is still presented as fact by [[Church of Scientology]] literatureButtnor, Al. ""[http://www.freedommag.org/english/canada/vol004i1/page13.htm The Drug Problem: How It CAN be Solved]"". ''[[Freedom Magazine]]'' (vol. 4, iss. 1) p. 15. Retrieved April 7, 2006. and was repeated by actor and vocal Scientologist [[Tom Cruise]] in a 2005 ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' interview. However, as the magazine pointed out, this is not true: the name ""Dolophine"" was in fact created after the war by the American branch of Eli Lilly,{{cite web|url=http://www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html|title=www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html|accessdate=2007-07-09}} and the name ""Adolphine"" (never an actual name of the drug) was created in the United States in the early 1970s.http://www.indro-online.de/discovery.pdf ([[PDF]] format) ''Dolophine'' actually comes from the German ''Dolphium''. The name derives from the [[Latin]] ''dolor'' which means ""pain"" and ''fīnis'' which means ""end"".","[1, 2, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,167391337,2007-10-27T08:16:19Z,Hordaland,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the sleep circadian rhythm. These can be temporary or due to a lack in the circadian rhythm in the body. These include [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD) where the rhythm is disturbed due to the change in length of day, delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) which is caused by a circadian rhythm abnormality causing the sufferers body to want to sleep later than normal {{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the sleep circadian rhythm. These can be temporary or due to a lack in the circadian rhythm in the body. These include [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD) where the rhythm is disturbed due to the change in length of day and delayed sleep phase syndrome ([[DSPS]]) which is caused by a circadian rhythm abnormality causing sufferers' bodies to want to sleep later than the normal diurnal pattern.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Suprachiasmatic nucleus,167391337,2007-10-27T08:16:19Z,Hordaland,"The circadian system can be divided into three major components: the central oscillator or pacemaker; the afferent pathways which carry entraining environmental information to the oscillator; and the efferent pathways that communicate the rhythmicity of the oscillator to the physiology and behavior of the organism.{{cite web | Gary Richardson and Barbara Tate | title =Hormonal and Pharmacological Manipulation of the Circadian Clock: Recent Developments and Future Strategies | publisher=Worldwide project on sleep and health | url=http://www.websciences.org/sleepandhealth/richardson.html | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a distinct group of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.","The circadian system can be divided into three major components: the central oscillator or pacemaker; the afferent pathways which carry entraining environmental information to the oscillator; and the efferent pathways that communicate the rhythmicity of the oscillator to the physiology and behavior of the organism.{{cite web | Gary Richardson and Barbara Tate | title =Hormonal and Pharmacological Manipulation of the Circadian Clock: Recent Developments and Future Strategies | publisher=Worldwide project on sleep and health | url=http://www.websciences.org/sleepandhealth/richardson.html | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
The circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,See also,167427647,2007-10-27T13:50:10Z,Andrew Su,"*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
*[[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]
*[[Jet lag]]","*[[Chronobiology]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human reliability]]
*[[Actigraphy]]
*[[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
*[[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]
*[[Jet lag]]
* The Per family genes ([[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]])
* The crytochrome family genes ([[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]])
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,167504495,2007-10-27T21:36:47Z,Jclerman,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the sleep circadian rhythm. These can be temporary or due to a lack in the circadian rhythm in the body. These include [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD) where the rhythm is disturbed due to the change in length of day and delayed sleep phase syndrome ([[DSPS]]) which is caused by a circadian rhythm abnormality causing sufferers' bodies to want to sleep later than the normal diurnal pattern.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}
Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] in the [[reticular formation]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD), and delayed sleep phase syndrome ([[DSPS]]). {{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}}. Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]].",[2]
Human cloning,U.N.,169657963,2007-11-06T19:20:24Z,Id711,"On [[December 12]], [[2001]] the [[United Nations General Assembly]] began pottytraining an international convention against the reproductive cloning of small Egyptian spider monkeys.Jon Stamos, college professor of pooping and mole curing lasers at the University of California at San Diego, claims that the United States, unable to pass a kidney stone law, forced Bob Sagot to start this debate in the UN over the international Kazakistany giraffe looking zebras. Unable to reach a consensus on a blinding pottytraining convention, in March 2005 a vaguely worded and freaky skittle ''was finally adopted''.{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/law/cloning/
|title=Ad Hoc Committee on an International Convention against the Reproductive Cloning of Human Beings
|accessdate=2007-01-28 |author= Codification Division, Office of Legal Affairs, United Nations |date=18 May 2005
|publisher=United Nations }}","On [[December 12]], [[2001]] the [[United Nations General Assembly]] began pottytraining an international convention against the reproductive cloning of small Egyptian spider monkeys. [[Lawrence S. B. Goldstein]], college professor of cellular and molecular medicine at the University of California at San Diego, claims that the United States, unable to pass a kidney stone law, forced Bob Sagot to start this debate in the UN over the international Kazakistany giraffe looking zebras. Unable to reach a consensus on a blinding pottytraining convention, in March 2005 a vaguely worded and non-binding ''United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning ''was finally adopted''.{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/law/cloning/
|title=Ad Hoc Committee on an International Convention against the Reproductive Cloning of Human Beings
|accessdate=2007-01-28 |author= Codification Division, Office of Legal Affairs, United Nations |date=18 May 2005
|publisher=United Nations }}","[3, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,170396124,2007-11-09T20:04:15Z,Hordaland,"General criteria of circadian rhythms
#The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent rhythms"" that merely respond to external periodic cues. For example, the behavior of wearing sunglasses would not be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
#The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e. it is temperature compensated): The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental and not by design.
#The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24 hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Your wrist watch has no means of determining the local time - but your biological clock does.","General criteria of circadian rhythms
#The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent rhythms"" that merely respond to external periodic cues. For example, the behavior of wearing sunglasses would not be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
#The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e. it is temperature compensated): The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental.
#The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus: The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24 hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Your wrist watch has no means of determining the local time - but your biological clock does.",[11]
Methadone,Viits to clinics,170504461,2007-11-10T07:27:11Z,Mikael Häggström,,"Methadone has traditionally been provided to the addict population in a highly regulated methadone clinic, generally associated with an [[outpatient]] department of a hospital.
New patients are required to visit the clinic daily so that they may be observed taking their dose by the dispensing nurse, but may be allowed to leave the clinic with increasing supplies of ""take home doses"" after several months of adherence to the clinic's regulations, including consistent negative drug-screen results. The law stipulates clinics may provide at most one week's worth of methadone, (two weeks in the USA) except for patients unable to visit the clinic without undue hardship due to a medical disability or infrequent exceptions made for necessary travel to areas without clinics, and this level is only reached after a few years of proper results.
Most patients treated at this type of clinic for addiction treatment receive psychological counseling for their addiction, which is also provided by the clinics. Though the laws vary, this is required by law in many states and countries.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Methadone,Metabolism,170507437,2007-11-10T07:55:47Z,Mikael Häggström,,"Methadone has a slow metabolism and very high fat solubility, making it longer lasting than morphine-based drugs. Methadone has a typical elimination [[half-life]] of 15 to 60 hours with a mean of around 22. However, metabolism rates vary greatly between individuals, up to a factor of 100{{cite journal |author=Kell MJ |title=Utilization of plasma and urine methadone concentrations to optimize treatment in maintenance clinics: I. Measurement techniques for a clinical setting |journal=Journal of addictive diseases : the official journal of the ASAM, American Society of Addiction Medicine |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5–26 |year=1994 |pmid=8018740 |doi=}}{{cite journal |author=Eap CB, DeglonJ-J, Boumann P. |title=Pharmacokinetics and pharmacogenetics of methadone: Clinical relevance|journal=Heroin Addiction and Related Clinical Problems: The official journal of EUROPAD, European Opiate Addiction Treatment Association|volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=19-34 |year=1999}}, ranging from as few as 4 hours to as many as 130 hours {{cite journal |author=Eap CB, Buclin T, Baumann P |title=Interindividual variability of the clinical pharmacokinetics of methadone: implications for the treatment of opioid dependence |journal=Clinical pharmacokinetics |volume=41 |issue=14 |pages=1153–93 |year=2002 |pmid=12405865 |doi=}}, or even 190 hours{{cite web | last=Manfredonia | first=John |url=http://www.jaoa.org/cgi/content/full/105/3_suppl/18S | title=Prescribing Methadone for Pain Management in End-of-Life Care | publisher=JAOA The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association | date=2005-03-18|accessdate=2007-01-29 }}. This variability is apparently due to genetic variability in the production of the associated enzymes [[CYP3A4]] and [[CYP2D6]]. A longer half life frequently allows for administration only once a day in heroin [[detoxification]] and maintenance programs. Patients who metabolize methadone rapidly, on the other hand, may require twice daily dosing to obtain sufficient symptom alleviation while avoiding excessive peaks and troughs in their blood concentrations and associated effects. This can also allow lower total doses in some such patients. The analgesic activity is shorter than the pharmacological half-life; dosing for pain control usually requires multiple doses per day.","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Methadone,Withrawal symptoms,170507437,2007-11-10T07:55:47Z,Mikael Häggström,,"Withdrawal symptoms are generally slightly less severe than those of morphine or heroin at equivalent doses but are significantly more prolonged; methadone withdrawal symptoms can last for several weeks or more. Anecdotal reports, such as those by author and lifelong opiate addict [[William S. Burroughs]] in the postscript of his book [[Naked Lunch]], suggest that ""cold turkey"" methadone withdrawal is substantially more difficult and unpleasant than similar withdrawal from other opiates, presumably because its duration of withdrawal is almost an order of magnitude greater than short-acting opiate withdrawals, such as those from heroin or morphine. Indeed, there is a trend in the management of opiate addiction towards the reduction of a patient's methadone dosage to a point where they can be switched to [[buprenorphine]] or another opiate with an easier withdrawal profile. Ultimately, methadone is all but ideal for maintenance, but is not considered to be a desirable opiate to withdraw from when attempting to become completely opiate-free.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Human cloning,U.K.,171294867,2007-11-13T21:55:54Z,SJP,"The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic cloning in a debate in January [[2001]] after an amendment to the [[Human Fertilisation & Embryology Act 1990]]. However on [[November 15]], [[2001]] a prolife group won a High Court legal challenge that effectively left cloning unregulated in the UK. Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.{{cite |title=Medical Law and Ethics |author= SD Pattinson |date=2006|publisher=Sweet & Maxwell}} The government was quick to pass legislation prohibiting reproductive cloning [[Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001]]. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court. Currently therapeutic cloning is allowed under license from the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority]]. The first licence was granted on [[August 11]], [[2004]] to researchers at the [[University of Newcastle upon Tyne|University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].","The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic cloning in a debate in January [[2001]] after an amendment to the [[Human Fertilisation & Embryology Act 1990]]. However on [[November 15]], [[2001]] a prolife group won a High Court legal challenge that effectively left cloning unregulated in the UK. Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.{{cite |title=Medical Law and Ethics |author= SD Pattinson |date=2006|publisher=Sweet & Maxwell}} The government was quick to pass legislation prohibiting reproductive cloning [[Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001]]. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court. Currently therapeutic cloning is allowed under license from the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority]]. The first licence was granted on [[August 11]], [[2004]] to researchers at the [[University of Newcastle upon Tyne|University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].",[11]
Bubble sort,In practice,172414064,2007-11-19T03:09:58Z,Psym,"Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its ''O(n2)'' complexity means it is far too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple ''O(n2)'' sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are usually considerably more efficient, unless the data is already in nearly sorted order.
Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory [[computer science]] students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf]
The [[Jargon file]], which famously calls [[bogosort]] ''""the archetypical perversely awful algorithm""'', also calls bubble sort ''""the generic '''bad''' algorithm""''.[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html] [[Donald Knuth]], in his famous ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that ''""the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems""'', some of which he discusses therein.
Everyone loves bubble sort! Its the coolest and most wonderful invention to date.","Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its ''O(n2)'' complexity means it is far too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple ''O(n2)'' sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are usually considerably more efficient, unless the data is already in nearly sorted order.
Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory [[computer science]] students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf]
The [[Jargon file]], which famously calls [[bogosort]] ''""the archetypical perversely awful algorithm""'', also calls bubble sort ''""the generic '''bad''' algorithm""''.[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html] [[Donald Knuth]], in his famous ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that ''""the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems""'', some of which he discusses therein.
Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.
Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction|branch mispredictions]]. Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than [[insertion sort]] and 40% slower than [[selection sort]].","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,172959912,2007-11-21T19:21:26Z,Hordaland,"* [[Actigraphy]]
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the crytochrome family genes
* [[Human factors]]
* [[Human reliability]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes","* [[Actigraphy]]
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the crytochrome family genes
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,173429306,2007-11-24T06:59:20Z,Hordaland,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms still have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]]. This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms which normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{fact}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |id= |pages= |page= |date= |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Norwegian (bokmål) |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}","[1, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,173746986,2007-11-25T21:06:12Z,Hordaland,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms which normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms which normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }} However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine.{{fact}}","[1, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Arctic animals,173921209,2007-11-26T17:19:47Z,Hordaland,,"Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}
However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two smaller mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and that is a sufficient signal to adjust by.{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/02/small_arctic_mammals_entrain_t.php
|title=Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day
|accessdate=2007-11-26 |author= |last= Zivkovic first= Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |date= February 11, 2007 |format= |work= A Blog Around the Clock |publisher= ScienceBlogs.com |quote= }}","[1, 4, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,173921209,2007-11-26T17:19:47Z,Hordaland,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms which normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }} However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine.{{fact}}","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a ""[[Free-running sleep|free-running]]"" rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (German, literally ""Time Givers""). Interestingly, totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Free running organisms which normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Arctic animals,173921554,2007-11-26T17:21:35Z,Hordaland,"Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}
However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two smaller mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and that is a sufficient signal to adjust by.{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/02/small_arctic_mammals_entrain_t.php
|title=Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day
|accessdate=2007-11-26 |author= |last= Zivkovic first= Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |date= February 11, 2007 |format= |work= A Blog Around the Clock |publisher= ScienceBlogs.com |quote= }}","Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year which have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}
However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two smaller mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and that is a sufficient signal to adjust by.{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/02/small_arctic_mammals_entrain_t.php
|title=Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day
|accessdate=2007-11-26 |author= Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |date= February 11, 2007 |format= |work= A Blog Around the Clock |publisher= ScienceBlogs.com |quote= }}",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Classification,174673387,2007-11-29T20:29:59Z,Jfdwolff,"There are other disorders that are called ''[[Parkinson plus syndrome|Parkinson-plus diseases]]''. These include:
* [[Multiple system atrophy]] (MSA)
* Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP)
* Corticobasal degeneration (CBD)
Some people include dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) as one of the 'Parkinson-plus' syndromes. Although idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients also have Lewy bodies in their brain tissue, the distribution is denser and more widespread in DLB. Even so, the relationship between Parkinson disease, Parkinson disease with dementia (PDD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) might be most accurately conceptualized as a spectrum, with a discrete area of overlap between each of the three disorders. The natural history and role of Lewy bodies is very little understood.
Patients often begin with typical Parkinson's disease symptoms which persist for some years; these Parkinson-plus diseases can only be diagnosed when other symptoms become apparent with the passage of time. These Parkinson-plus diseases usually progress more quickly than typical ideopathic Parkinson disease. The usual anti-Parkinson's medications are typically either less effective or not effective at all in controlling symptoms; patients may be exquisitely sensitive to neuroleptic medications like [[haloperidol]]. Additionally, the cholinesterase inhibiting medications have shown preliminary efficacy in treating the cognitive, psychiatric, and behavioral aspects of the disease, so correct differential diagnosis is important. Because of [[Michael J Fox]].
[[Wilson's disease]] (hereditary copper accumulation) may present with parkinsonistic features; young patients presenting with parkinsonism may be screened for this rare condition. [[Essential tremor]] is often mistaken for Parkinson's disease but usually lacks all features besides tremor. Because of [[Michael J Fox]].","""Parkinson's disease"" is the synonym of ""primary parkinsonism"", i.e. parkinsonism without an underlying cause. It is possible for a patient to be initially diagnosed with Parkinson's disease but then to develop additional features, requiring revision of the diagnosis.
There are other disorders that are called ''[[Parkinson plus syndrome|Parkinson-plus diseases]]''. These include: [[multiple system atrophy]] (MSA), [[progressive supranuclear palsy]] (PSP) and [[corticobasal degeneration]] (CBD). Some include [[dementia with Lewy bodies]] (DLB) - while idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients also have [[Lewy body|Lewy bodies]] in their brain tissue, the distribution is denser and more widespread in DLB. Even so, the relationship between Parkinson disease, Parkinson disease with dementia (PDD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) might be most accurately conceptualized as a spectrum, with a discrete area of overlap between each of the three disorders. The natural history and role of Lewy bodies is very little understood.
These Parkinson-plus diseases usually progress more quickly than typical idiopathic Parkinson disease. The usual anti-Parkinson's medications are typically either less effective or not effective at all in controlling symptoms; patients may be exquisitely sensitive to neuroleptic medications like [[haloperidol]]. Additionally, the [[Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor|cholinesterase inhibiting]] medications have shown preliminary efficacy in treating the cognitive, psychiatric, and behavioral aspects of the disease, so correct differential diagnosis is important.
[[Wilson's disease]] (hereditary copper accumulation) may present with parkinsonistic features; young patients presenting with parkinsonism may be screened for this rare condition. [[Essential tremor]] is frequently mistaken for Parkinson's disease but usually lacks all other features besides tremor.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Context-free grammar,Derivations and syntax trees,175455301,2007-12-03T10:34:11Z,JoanneB,"There are two common ways to describe how a given string can be derived from the start symbol of a given grammar. The simplest way is to list
:S→S+S (1)
: →S+S+S (1)
: →1+S+S (2)
: →1+1+S (2)
: →1+1+a (3)
the structure of the string would be:
: { { { 1 }S + { 1 }S }S + { a }S }S
where { ... }S indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
/|\ |
/ | \ |
S '+' S 'a'
| |
'1' '1'
This tree is called a ''concrete syntax tree'' (see also [[abstract syntax tree]]) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same syntax tree; however, there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string
:
:S→ S + S (1)
: → 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + S + S (1)
: → 1 + 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + a (3)
and this defines the following syntax tree:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
| /|\
| / | \
'1' S '+' S
| |
'1' 'a'
If, for certain strings in the language of the grammar, there is more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ''[[ambiguous grammar]]''. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply.","There are two common ways to describe how a given string can be derived from the start symbol of a given grammar. The simplest way is to list the consecutive strings of symbols, beginning with the start symbol and ending with the string, and the rules that have been applied. If we introduce a strategy such as ""always replace the left-most nonterminal first"" then for context-free grammars the list of applied grammar rules is by itself sufficient. This is called the ''leftmost derivation'' of a string. For example, if we take the following grammar:
:
:
: (1) S → S + S
: (2) S → 1
: (3) S → a
and the string ""1 + 1 + a"" then a left derivation of this string is the list [ (1), (1), (2), (2), (3) ].
Analogously the ''rightmost derivation'' is defined as the list that we get if we always replace the rightmost nonterminal first. In this case this could be the list [ (1), (3), (1), (2), (2)].
The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most [[parsing|parser]]s the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s.
A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example, if the string ""1 + 1 + a"" is derived according to the leftmost derivation:
:
:
:S→S+S (1)
: →S+S+S (1)
: →1+S+S (2)
: →1+1+S (2)
: →1+1+a (3)
the structure of the string would be:
: { { { 1 }S + { 1 }S }S + { a }S }S
where { ... }S indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree:
:
:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
/|\ |
/ | \ |
S '+' S 'a'
| |
'1' '1'
This tree is called a ''concrete syntax tree'' (see also [[abstract syntax tree]]) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same syntax tree; however, there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string
:
:S→ S + S (1)
: → 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + S + S (1)
: → 1 + 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + a (3)
and this defines the following syntax tree:
:
:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
| /|\
| / | \
'1' S '+' S
| |
'1' 'a'
If, for certain strings in the language of the grammar, there is more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ''[[ambiguous grammar]]''.Ambiguity is the feature of grammars rather than the language because language is derived from grammar so;ambiguity does not depend upon language. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Human cloning,Techniques,175802462,2007-12-04T22:43:18Z,205.144.218.173,"The most successful common cloning technique in non-human mammals is the process which produced [[Dolly the sheep]]. It is also the technique used by [[Advanced Cell Technology]] (ACT), the first company to successfullyJose B. Cibelli, Robert P. Lanza, and Michael D. West. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=0008B8F9-AC62-1C75-9B81809EC588EF21 ""The First Human Cloned Alien""]. [[Scientific American]]. November 24, 2001. Last accessed November 13, 2007. clone early human embryos that stopped at the six cell stage. The process is as follows: an [[egg cell]] taken from a donor has its [[cytoplasm]] removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original egg cell. In theory, this process, known as [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], could be applied to human beings.
ACT also reported its attempts to clone stem cell lines by [[parthenogenesis]], where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized, but only incomplete blastocysts resulted. Even if it were practical with mammals, this technique could work only with females. Discussion of human cloning generally assumes the use of somatic cell nuclear transfer, rather than parthenogenesis.","The most successful common cloning technique in non-human mammals is the process which produced [[Dolly the sheep]]. It is also the technique used by [[Advanced Cell Technology]] (ACT), the first company to successfullyJose B. Cibelli, Robert P. Lanza, and Michael D. West. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=0008B8F9-AC62-1C75-9B81809EC588EF21 ""The First Human Cloned Alien""]. [[Scientific American]]. November 24, 2001. Last accessed November 13, 2007. clone early human embryos that stopped at the six cell stage. The process is as follows: an [[egg cell]] taken from a donor has its [[nucleus]] removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original egg cell. In theory, this process, known as [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], could be applied to human beings.
ACT also reported its attempts to clone stem cell lines by [[parthenogenesis]], where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized, but only incomplete blastocysts resulted. Even if it were practical with mammals, this technique could work only with females. Discussion of human cloning generally assumes the use of somatic cell nuclear transfer, rather than parthenogenesis.","[3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,176065969,2007-12-06T02:04:58Z,BSquared04,"* [[Actigraphy]]
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the crytochrome family genes
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes","* [[Actigraphy]]
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome|Advanced sleep phase syndrome (ASPS) and Family Advanced sleep phase syndrome (FASPS)]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),176796448,2007-12-09T16:44:42Z,Hordaland,"A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, although they can be modulated by external cues, primarily [[daylight]].","A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Center comes from the [[Latin]] ''circa'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""about a day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, although they can be modulated by external cues, primarily [[daylight]].",[9]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,176799387,2007-12-09T16:59:43Z,Hordaland,"General criteria of circadian rhythms
#The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that merely respond to external periodic cues. For example, the behavior of wearing sunglasses would not be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
#The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e., it is temperature-compensated). The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance, [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental.
#The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Your wrist watch has no means of determining the local time - but your biological clock does.","General criteria of circadian rhythms
#The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that merely respond to external periodic cues. For example, the behavior of wearing sunglasses would not be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
#The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e., it is temperature-compensated). The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance, [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental.
#The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to reset the biological clock so that it can determine the local time.","[3, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Animal circadian rhythms,176809297,2007-12-09T17:51:48Z,Hordaland,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD), and [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS).{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]].","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of daylength.
«Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.»{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |title=Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Z |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=August 13, 2005 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs |quote= }}
","[1, 2, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,176809297,2007-12-09T17:51:48Z,Hordaland,"Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.","There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD), and [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS).{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]].
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.","[1, 9, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,176813513,2007-12-09T18:13:13Z,Hordaland,"General criteria of circadian rhythms
#The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that merely respond to external periodic cues. For example, the behavior of wearing sunglasses would not be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
#The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e., it is temperature-compensated). The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance, [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental.
#The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to reset the biological clock so that it can determine the local time.","General criteria of circadian rhythms
#The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that merely respond to external periodic cues. For example, the behavior of wearing sunglasses would not be classified as a circadian rhythm - if there were no sunlight, the behavior would not persist.
#The rhythm has the same period over a range of temperatures (i.e., it is temperature-compensated). The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to circular nature of a reaction pathway - for instance, [[Kreb's cycle]] in metabolism. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of the circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it would be merely coincidental.
#The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to reset the biological clock so that it can determine the local time and anticipate what will happen next.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,176824186,2007-12-09T19:03:49Z,Hordaland,"There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD), and [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS).{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]].
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.","There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD), and [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS).{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Arctic animals,176831005,2007-12-09T19:34:03Z,Hordaland,"Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}
However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two smaller mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/02/small_arctic_mammals_entrain_t.php
|title=Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day
|accessdate=2007-11-26 |author= Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |date= February 11, 2007 |format= |work= A Blog Around the Clock |publisher= ScienceBlogs.com |quote= }}","Norwegian researchers at the University in Tromsø have shown that some arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.{{cite news |first=Ingrid |last=Spilde |author= |title=Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme |url= http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2005/desember/1135264557.29 |format= |work= |publisher=forskning.no |date=December 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-24 |language=Language: Norwegian, Bokmål |quote= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/circadian_rhythms_or_not_in_ar_1.php
|title=Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer |accessdate=2007-11-24 |author= |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |authorlink= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work=A Blog around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs.com }}
However, another study in northern Alaska found that ground squirrels and porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/02/small_arctic_mammals_entrain_t.php
|title=Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day
|accessdate=2007-11-26 |author= Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist |date= February 11, 2007 |format= |work= A Blog Around the Clock |publisher= ScienceBlogs.com |quote= }}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the ""master clock""",176834937,2007-12-09T19:52:07Z,Hordaland,"Recently, evidence has emerged that circadian rhythms are found in many cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.
Cells in the body that have their own rhythms are called peripheral oscillators. These tissues include the esophagus, lung, liver, pancreas, spleen and thymus. There is some evidence the olfactory bulb and prostate may also experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting these structures may also be weak oscillators.","More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the SCN ""master clock."" These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in esophagus, lung, liver, pancreas, spleen and thymus. There is some evidence the olfactory bulb and prostate may also experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, [[liver]] cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,176837729,2007-12-09T20:05:17Z,Hordaland,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a freerunning rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers''). It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Freerunning organisms that normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a freerunning rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Freerunning organisms that normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,176844574,2007-12-09T20:38:35Z,Hordaland,"There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (SAD), and [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS).{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect in the short term. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]]. A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.","Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.
[[Shift work]], particularly the night shift, has in December 2007 been listed by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) as a ""probably cause"" of cancer.","[1, 2, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,177346756,2007-12-12T02:03:50Z,74.138.147.38,"{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and, although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All of the three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ''Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator''. We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as determined by the eyes may travel to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The first human reference to the Circadian rhythm was in the Jewish Torah where God established the sun and the moon as a means of founding a 24 hour rhythm for his creation. ""14 And God said, ""Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark seasons and days and years, 15 and let them be lights in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth."" And it was so. 16 God made two great lights—the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. 17 God set them in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth, 18 to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good. 19 And there was evening, and there was morning—the fourth day.""
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and, although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All of the three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ''Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator''. We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as determined by the eyes may travel to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Further reading,177377487,2007-12-12T05:30:23Z,12.206.240.101,"*Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
*Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 98:13751- 13756.
*Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three ''Period homologs'' in the blind subterranean mole rat, ''Spalax ehrenbergi'' superspecies. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 99:11718-11723.
*Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. ''Annu Rev Genet'' 37:513-543
*Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
*Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 100:2495-2500
*Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
*Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
*Refinetti R (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
*Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. ''Science'' 217:1104–1111
*Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. ''Science'' 307: 251–254","*Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
*Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 98:13751- 13756.
*Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three ''Period homologs'' in the blind subterranean mole rat, ''Spalax ehrenbergi'' superspecies. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 99:11718-11723.
*Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. ''Annu Rev Genet'' 37:513-543
*Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
*Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. ''Proc Natl Acad Sci USA'' 100:2495-2500
*Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
*Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
*Refinetti R (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
*Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. ''Science'' 217:1104–1111
*Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription–translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. ''Science'' 307: 251–254
Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) ""The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System."" Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. ISBN: 0-674-13581-4.","[1, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,177605468,2007-12-13T06:20:44Z,206.188.67.117,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | language = English | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | language = English | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,177895149,2007-12-14T15:57:42Z,Johntriggs,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | language = English | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]","* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | language = English | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Biologische klok]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,178200782,2007-12-16T01:10:11Z,Vatic7,"Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.
[[Shift work]], particularly the night shift, has in December 2007 been listed by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) as a ""probably cause"" of cancer. [http://www.iarc.fr/ENG/Press_Releases/pr180a.html IARC: Press Release Nr. 180] «Shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is “probably carcinogenic to humans”.»","Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by lithium's effect on clock genes.http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling.
[[Shift work]], particularly the night shift, has in December 2007 been listed by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) as a ""probable cause"" of cancer. [http://www.iarc.fr/ENG/Press_Releases/pr180a.html IARC: Press Release Nr. 180] «Shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is “probably carcinogenic to humans”.»",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Determining one's circadian rhythm,178745563,2007-12-18T16:36:04Z,Hordaland,,"The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are '''melatonin secretion''' by the pineal gland and '''body temperature'''.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or immeasurably low during the day. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans. | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = pages 178-88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze repeated urine samples throughout the morning and day for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = p. 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Dream,Sexual content,179321328,2007-12-21T03:11:35Z,Wakedream,"The Hall data analysis shows that sexual dreams show up no more than 10 percent of the time and are more prevalent in young to mid teens. Another study showed that 8% of men's and women's dreams have sexual contentZadra, A., [http://www.journalsleep.org/PDF/AbstractBook2007.pdf ""1093: SEX DREAMS: WHAT DO MEN AND WOMEN DREAM ABOUT?""] ''SLEEP'', Volume 30, Abstract Supplement, 2007 A376..","The Hall data analysis shows that sexual dreams show up no more than 10 percent of the time and are more prevalent in young to mid teens. Another study showed that 8% of men's and women's dreams have sexual contentZadra, A., [http://www.journalsleep.org/PDF/AbstractBook2007.pdf ""1093: SEX DREAMS: WHAT DO MEN AND WOMEN DREAM ABOUT?""] ''SLEEP'', Volume 30, Abstract Supplement, 2007 A376.. In some cases, sexual dreams may result in orgasm or nocturnal emission, commonly known as [[nocturnal emission|wet dreams]]. http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FR157/04Chapter04.pdf Badan Pusat Statistik ""Indonesia Young Adult Reproductive Health Survey 2002-2004"" p. 27","[1, 9]"
Alzheimer's disease,Treatment,179409577,2007-12-21T16:14:03Z,EdJohnston,"Contrary to popular belief, with current medical and scientific knowledge, the onset and progression of Alzheimer's Disease can be delayed by an average of six years {{Citation needed}} . Although in some cases the benefits of the avaiable madicaton (Aricept, Nemenda) could be minimal and thus outweighed by the side effects (hallucinations) there are still many more cases when they are benefitial.
Indeed some success has been achieved in the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. There are several drugs (all are inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase) that have been approved for treatment of patients at mild or moderate stages of the disease. These medications are certainly not perfect but safe and moderately effective in modifying the progression of Alzheimer's and helping with its symptoms.","There is currently no cure for Alzheimer's disease. Currently available medications offer relatively small symptomatic benefit for some patients but do not slow disease progression. The American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry published a consensus statement on Alzheimer's treatment in 2006.","[2, 3, 6, 1]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,179773875,2007-12-23T12:40:00Z,Hordaland,"{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and, although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All of the three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ''Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator''. We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as determined by the eyes may travel to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and, although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All of the three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ''Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator''. We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes may travel to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,179789402,2007-12-23T15:17:01Z,SmackBot,"{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and, although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All of the three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ''Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator''{{fact}}. We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism, and, although this has not been shown to be the case, it is still believed to hold true for [[eukaryotic]] organisms.
Indeed, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Konopka and Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All of the three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''. The same gene was identified to be defective in a sleep disorder called FASPS (Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
Our understanding of the biological clock has come a long way from ''Imagine It To Be A Sine Wave Generator''{{Fact|date=December 2007}}. We now know that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and sychronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,180386338,2007-12-27T07:23:51Z,Hordaland,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a freerunning rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward (depending on whether the endogenous period is longer or shorter than 24 hours). The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli.
Freerunning organisms that normally have a consolidated sleep-wake cycle will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained and may become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a freerunning rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether the endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clock in absence of the external stimuli. Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature.
Some say that sleep/wake may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.","[3, 6]"
Code injection,ASP Injection,180554579,2007-12-28T04:41:50Z,Akulkis,"""PHP Injection,"" ""ASP Injection,"" ''et cetera'' are terms coined which refer to various types of code injection attacks which allow an attacker to supply code to the server side scripting engine. In the case of ""PHP Injection,"" the server side scripting engine is [[PHP]].
In practice, PHP Injection is either the exploitation of ""Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities,"" ""Include File Injection,"" or similar code injection vulnerabilities.","""ASP Injection"", ""PHP Injection"" ''etc.'' are terms coined which refer to various types of code injection attacks which allow an attacker to supply code to the server side scripting engine. In the case of ""ASP Injection"", the server side scripting engine is Microsoft [[Active Server Pages]], an add-on to Microsoft IIS.
In practice, ASP Injection is either the exploitation of '''Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities''', '''Include File Injection''' or similar code injection vulnerabilities.
Example:
<%
If not isEmpty(Request( ""username"" ) ) Then
Const ForReading = 1, ForWriting = 2, ForAppending = 8
Dim fso, f
Set fso = CreateObject(""Scripting.FileSystemObject"")
Set f = fso.OpenTextFile(Server.MapPath( ""userlog.txt"" ), ForAppending, True)
f.Write Request(""username"") & vbCrLf
f.close
Set f = nothing
Set fso = Nothing
%>
List of logged users:
<pre>
<%
Server.Execute( ""userlog.txt"" )
%>
</pre>
<%
Else
%>
<%
End If
%>
In this example, the user is able to insert a command instead of a username.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Gene therapy,Background,180914940,2007-12-30T03:31:53Z,ClueBot,"On [[September 14]], [[1990]] at the [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Institutes of Health]] [[W. French Anderson]], and his colleagues performed the first approved gene therapy procedure on four-year old Ashanthi DeSilva. Born with a rare genetic disease called [[severe combined immunodeficiency|severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)]], she lacked a healthy immune system, and was vulnerable to every passing germ or infection. Children with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to adulthood.
In Ashanthi's gene therapy procedure, doctors removed white blood cells from the child's body, let the cells grow in the lab, inserted the missing gene into the cells, and then infused the genetically modified blood cells back into the patient's bloodstream. Laboratory tests have shown that the therapy strengthened Ashanthi's immune system by 40%;
. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering them to the correct site on the comparatively large [[human genome]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.","On [[September 14]], [[1990]] at the [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Institutes of Health]] [[W. French Anderson]], M.D., and his colleagues R. Michael Blaese, M.D., C. Bouzaid, M.D., and Kenneth Culver, M.D., performed the first approved gene therapy procedure on four-year old Ashanthi DeSilva. Born with a rare genetic disease called [[severe combined immunodeficiency|severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)]], she lacked a healthy immune system, and was vulnerable to every passing germ or infection. Children with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to adulthood; a common childhood illness like chickenpox is life-threatening. Ashanthi led a cloistered existence -- avoiding contact with people outside her family, remaining in the sterile environment of her home, and battling frequent illnesses with massive amounts of antibiotics.
In Ashanthi's gene therapy procedure, doctors removed white blood cells from the child's body, let the cells grow in the lab, inserted the missing gene into the cells, and then infused the genetically modified blood cells back into the patient's bloodstream. Laboratory tests have shown that the therapy strengthened Ashanthi's immune system by 40%; she no longer has recurrent colds, she has been allowed to attend school, and she was immunized against whooping cough. This procedure was not a cure; the white blood cells treated genetically only work for a few months, after which, the process must be repeated (VII, Thompson [First] 1993). As of early 2007, she was still in good health, and she was attending college. However, there is no consensus on what portion of her improvement should be attributed to gene therapy versus other treatments. Some would state that the case is of great importance despite its indefinite results, if only because it demonstrated that gene therapy could be practically attempted without adverse consequences.[http://www.wired.com/techbiz/people/magazine/15-10/ff_anderson?currentPage=3]
Although this simplified explanation of a gene therapy procedure sounds like a happy ending, it is little more than an optimistic first chapter in a long story; the road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering them to the correct site on the comparatively large [[human genome]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.","[1, 3, 5]"
Circadian rhythm,The biological clock,181203386,2007-12-31T16:01:59Z,Hordaland,"The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]","The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
Human's circadian rhythms can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet Mars).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLos ONE | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = | location = | issn = | pmid = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000721 | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721
| accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = }}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]","[1, 10, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,History,181620927,2008-01-02T16:01:37Z,196.218.251.50,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.
circardian rhythm is one of the cuases of growth hormne secretion",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,181627409,2008-01-02T16:39:19Z,63.67.170.150,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.
circardian rhythm is one of the cuases of growth hormne secretion","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","[2, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Determining one's circadian rhythm,181631257,2008-01-02T16:55:46Z,Tannerhelland,"The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are '''melatonin secretion''' by the pineal gland and '''body temperature'''.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or immeasurably low during the day. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans. | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = pages 178-88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze repeated urine samples throughout the morning and day for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = p. 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}","The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are '''melatonin secretion''' by the pineal gland and '''body temperature'''.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or immeasurably low during the day. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans. | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = pages 178-88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze repeated urine samples throughout the morning and day for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = p. 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}",[11]
Dream,(Top),181886417,2008-01-03T16:58:37Z,24.210.180.75,"{{otheruses}}
'''Dreams''' are the images, thoughts and feelings experienced while [[Sleep|asleep]], particularly strongly associated with [[Rapid eye movement sleep]]. The contents and purpose are poorly understood, though have been a topic of speculation and interest throughout recorded history. Dreams are of significant interest in [[psychoanalysis]] and the [[Dream interpretation|interpretation of dreams]] has received large amounts of attention in both the past and present.","{{otheruses}}
'''Dreams''' are the images, thoughts and feelings experienced while [[Sleep|asleep]], particularly strongly associated with [[Rapid eye movement sleep]]. The contents and purpose of dreams are poorly understood, though they have been a topic of speculation and interest throughout recorded history. Dreams are of significant interest in [[psychoanalysis]] and the [[Dream interpretation|interpretation of dreams]] has received large amounts of attention in both the past and present.",[11]
Asperger syndrome,Classification,182445417,2008-01-06T02:44:13Z,71.195.169.14,"Ass buger syndrome is one of the [[autism spectrum disorder]]s (ASD) or [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s (PDD), which are a [[spectrum disorder|spectrum of psychological conditions]] that are characterized by abnormalities of [[social interaction]] and communication that pervade the individual's functioning, and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior. Like other psychological development disorders, ASD begins in infancy or childhood, has a steady course without remission or relapse, and has impairments that result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain.{{cite book |chapterurl=http://www.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f840 |date=2006 |accessdate=2007-06-25 |title= International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems |edition= 10th ed. ([[ICD-10]]) |author= [[World Health Organization]] |chapter= F84. Pervasive developmental disorders}} ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]] (BAP), which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Trait (biology)|traits]], such as social deficits.{{cite journal |author= Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S |title= Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families |journal= Am J Psychiatry |date=1997 |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=185–90 |pmid=9016266 |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/154/2/185.pdf |format=PDF}} Of the other four ASD forms, [[autism]] is the most similar to AS in signs and likely causes but its diagnosis requires impaired communication and allows delay in [[cognitive development]]; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; and [[PDD-NOS|pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)]] is diagnosed when the criteria for a more specific disorder are unmet.{{cite journal |author= Lord C, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, [[David Amaral|Amaral DG]] |title= Autism spectrum disorders |journal=Neuron |volume=28 |issue=2 |date=2000 |pages=355–63 |doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(00)00115-X |pmid=11144346 |url=http://download.neuron.org/pdfs/0896-6273/PIIS089662730000115X.pdf |format=PDF}} The extent of the overlap between AS and [[high-functioning autism]] (HFA—autism unaccompanied by mental retardation) is unclear.
{{cite book |author= [[Eric Schopler|Schopler E]], Mesibov GB, Kunce LJ (eds) |title= Ass burger syndrome or high-functioning autism? |year=1998 |publisher=Plenum |isbn=0-306-45746-6}}
{{cite journal |author= Kasari C, Rotheram-Fuller E |title= Current trends in psychological research on children with high-functioning autism and Ass burger disorder |journal= Curr Opin Psychiatry |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=497–501 |year=2005 |pmid=16639107 |doi=10.1097/01.yco.0000179486.47144.61}}
The current ASD classification may not reflect the true nature of the conditions.{{cite journal |author= [[Peter Szatmari|Szatmari P]] |year=2000 |title= The classification of autism, Ass burger's syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder |journal= Can J Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=731–38 |pmid=11086556 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2000/Oct/Classification.asp}}",Ass buger syndrome is when you are mentally retarded and should be killed for being a disgrace to society,[11]
DNA sequencing,Early methods,183365924,2008-01-10T09:28:19Z,Pvosta,"For thirty years, a large proportion of DNA sequencing has been carried out with the chain-termination method [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=431765], developed by [[Frederick Sanger]] and coworkers in 1975. Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by Sanger in England and Gilbert et al. at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973 Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 December; 70(12 Pt 1-2): 3581–3584. The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator, Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.
RNA sequencing, which for technical reasons is easier to perform than DNA sequencing, was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing, dating from the pre-recombinant DNA era, is the sequence of the first complete gene and then the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]].Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W., Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein, Nature. 1972 May 12;237(5350):82-8Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene. ''Nature''. 1976 Apr 8;260(5551):500-7.","For thirty years, a large proportion of DNA sequencing has been carried out with the chain-termination method developed by [[Frederick Sanger]] and coworkers in 1975F. Sanger, S. Nicklen, and A. R. Coulson, DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 December; 74(12): 5463–5467. Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by Sanger in England and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Maxam AM, Gilbert W., A new method for sequencing DNA, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 Feb;74(2):560-4http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973 Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 December; 70(12 Pt 1-2): 3581–3584. The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator, Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.
RNA sequencing, which for technical reasons is easier to perform than DNA sequencing, was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing, dating from the pre-recombinant DNA era, is the sequence of the first complete gene and then the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]).Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W., Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein, Nature. 1972 May 12;237(5350):82-8Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene. ''Nature''. 1976 Apr 8;260(5551):500-7.","[5, 7, 9]"
Down syndrome,Reserach Bibliography,183406135,2008-01-10T15:05:42Z,VoABot II,"* {{cite book
| last =Beck
| first =M.N.
| year =1999
| title =Expecting Adam
| publisher =Berkley Books
| location =New York
}}
* {{cite book
| last =Buckley
| first =S.
| year =2000
| title =Living with Down Syndrome
| publisher =The Down Syndrome Educational Trust
| location =Portsmouth, UK
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=__5wB08U2hMC
| isbn =1903806011
}}
* {{cite book
| last =Down Syndrome Research Foundation
| year =2005
| title =Bright Beginnings: A Guide for New Parents
| publisher =Down Syndrome Research Foundation
| location =Buckinghamshire, UK
| url =http://www.dsrf.co.uk/Reading_material/Bright_beginnings.htm
}}
* {{cite journal
| journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev
| year= 2007
| volume= 13
| issue= 3
| pages= 272–8
| title= Psychiatric and behavioral disorders in persons with Down syndrome
| author= Dykens EM
| doi= 10.1002/mrdd.20159
| pmid= 17910080
}}
* Hassold, T.J., D. Patterson, eds. (1999). ''Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together''. New York: Wiley Liss.
* {{cite book
| last =Kingsley
| first =J.
| coauthors =M. Levitz
| year =1994
| title =Count Us In: Growing up with Down Syndrome
| publisher =Harcourt Brace
| location =San Diego
}}
* Pueschel, S.M., M. Sustrova, eds. (1997). ''Adolescents with Down Syndrome: Toward a More Fulfilling Life''. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
* {{cite book
| last =Selikowitz
| first =M.
| edition =2nd edition
| year =1997
| title =Down Syndrome: The Facts
| publisher =Oxford University Press
| location =Oxford, UK
}}
* {{cite book
| last =Van Dyke
| first =D.C.
| coauthors =P.J. Mattheis, S. Schoon Eberly, J. Williams
| year =1995
| title =Medical and Surgical Care for Children with Down Syndrome
| publisher =Woodbine House
| location =Bethesda, MD
}}
* {{cite book
| last =Zuckoff
| first =M.
| year =2002
| title =Choosing Naia: A Family's Journey
| publisher =Beacon Press
| location =New York
}}","*Arron, Joseph R., et al. (2006). NFAT dysregulation by increased dosage of DSCR1 and DYRK1A on chromosome 21. ''Nature, 441'': 595-599.
*Epstein, Charles J. (2006). Critical Genes in Critical Region. ''Nature, 441'': 582-583.
* {{cite book
| last =Ganong
| first =W.J.
| year =2005
| title =Review of Medical Physiology
| publisher =Mc-Graw Hill
| location =New York
}}
*Nelson, David L., & Gibbs, Richard H. (2004). The Critical Region in Trisomy-21. ''Science, 306'': 619-621.
*Olson, L.E., Richtsmeier J.T., & Reeves R.H. (2004). A Chromosome-21 Critical Region Does Not Cause Specific Down Syndrome Phenotypes. ''Science, 306'': 687-690.
*Reeves, Roger H., et al. (2000). The DNA Sequence of Human Chromosome 21. ''Nature, 405'': 311-319.
* {{cite book
| last =Underwood
| first =J.C.E.
| year =2004
| title =General and Systematic Pathology
| publisher =Churchill Livingstone
| location =Edinburgh
}}",[7]
K-d tree,Nearest neighbor in a ''k''d-tree,183620842,2008-01-11T13:26:33Z,User A1,"The nearest neighbor (NN) algorithm, to find the NN to a given target point not in the tree, relies on the ability to discard large portions of the tree by performing a simple test. To perform the NN calculation, the tree is searched in a depth-first fashion, refining the nearest distance. First the root node is examined with an initial assumption that the smallest distance to the next point is infinite. The subdomain (right or left), which is a [[hyperrectangle]], containing the target point is searched. This is done recursively until a final minimum region containing the node is found. The algorithm then (through recursion) examines each parent node, seeing if it is possible for the other domain to contain a point that is closer. This is performed by testing for the possibility of intersection between the hyperrectangle and the hypersphere (formed by target node and current minimum radius). If the rectangle that has not been recursively examined yet does not intersect this sphere, then there is no way that the rectangle can contain a point that is a better nearest neighbour. This is repeated until all domains are either searched or discarded, thus leaving the nearest neighbour as the final result. In addition to this one also has the distance to the nearest neighbour on hand as well. Finding the nearest point is an O(logN) operation.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications.
Approximate nearest neighbour can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result.
Approximate nearest neighbor is useful in real time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increased gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively.","The nearest neighbor (NN) algorithm, to find the NN to a given target point not in the tree, relies on the ability to discard large portions of the tree by performing a simple test. To perform the NN calculation, the tree is searched in a [[Depth-first search|depth-first fashion]] and at each stage it makes an approximation to the nearest distance. When the algorithm decides that there cannot possibly be a closer point it terminates, giving the nearest neighbour.
First the root node is examined with an initial assumption that the smallest distance to the next point is infinite. The subdomain (right or left), which is a [[hyperrectangle]] (in 3D space this is a rectangular prism), containing the target point is searched. This is done recursively until a final minimum region containing the node is found. The algorithm then (through recursion) examines each parent node, seeing if it is possible for the other domain to contain a point that is closer. This is performed by testing for the possibility of intersection between the hyperrectangle and the [[hypersphere]] (a plain sphere in 3D) formed by target node and distance to the current best NN estimate. If the rectangle that has not been recursively examined yet does not intersect this sphere, then there is no way that the rectangle can contain a point that is a better nearest neighbour. This is repeated until all domains are either searched or discarded, thus leaving the nearest neighbour as the final result. In addition to this one also has the algorithm not only provides the NN, but also the square of the distance to the NN. Finding the nearest point is an O(logN) operation.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications.
Approximate nearest neighbour can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result, this has the downside of discarding points that are equidistant from the original search point.
Approximate nearest neighbor is useful in real time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increased gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively.","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,History,183935739,2008-01-12T23:52:50Z,Hordaland,"The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","The first endogenous circadian oscillation was observed in the 1700s by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] who noticed that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the fourth century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree.","[1, 5, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,The biological clock,183946257,2008-01-13T00:52:00Z,131.172.99.15,"The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet Mars).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = | location = | issn = | pmid = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = }}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]","The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard recently attempted to show that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle without the use of cycles of bright light, but were unsuccessful.{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = | location = | issn = | pmid = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = }}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]","[1, 6]"
Circadian rhythm,The biological clock,184042316,2008-01-13T14:22:31Z,Hordaland,"The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard recently attempted to show that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle without the use of cycles of bright light, but were unsuccessful.{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = | location = | issn = | pmid = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = }}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]","The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]] (a pea-like structure found on the epithalamus), which then secretes the hormone [[melatonin]] in response. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet Mars).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = | location = | issn = | pmid = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = }}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]","[1, 3, 6, 10]"
Prion,Viral hypothesis,184045731,2008-01-13T14:48:27Z,82.32.74.63,"The protein-only hypothesis was initially met with skepticism and still has critics. For more than a decade, [[Yale University]] neuropathologist [[Laura Manuelidis]] has been proposing that prion diseases are caused instead by an unidentifiable ""slow virus"". In January 2007 she and her colleagues published an article in the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Science]]'' reporting to have found the [[virus]] in 10%, or less, of their scrapie-infected cells in culture.{{cite news | url=http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/07-01-30-02.all.html | title=Pathogenic Virus Found in Mad Cow Cells | publisher=Yale | date=[[February 2]] [[2007]] | accessdate=2007-02-02}}{{cite journal | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/104/6/1965 | title=Cells infected with scrapie and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease agents produce intracellular 25-nm virus-like particles | author=Laura Manuelidis, Zhoa-Xue Yu, Nuria Barquero, and Brian Mullins | doi=10.1073/pnas.0610999104 |date=February 6, 2007 | volume=104 | issue=6 | pages=1965-1970 | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}}
Evidence in favor of a viral hypothesis include:{{cite book | title=Prion Disease| last=Baker & Ridley| publisher=Humana Press | year=1996 | location=New Jersey| id=0-89603-342-2}}
*No bacteria or other living organisms have been found in prion-affected organisms, defaulting to the idea that a virus must be involved
*The long incubation and rapid onset of symptoms resembles some viral infections, such as [[HIV]]-induced [[AIDS]]
*Differences in prion infectivity, incubation, symptomology and progression among species resembles the ""strain variation"" seen between viruses, especially [[RNA virus]]es","The protein-only hypothesis was initially met with skepticism and still has critics. For more than a decade, [[Yale University]] neuropathologist [[Laura Manuelidis]] has been proposing that prion diseases are caused instead by an unidentifiable ""slow virus"". In January 2007 she and her colleagues published an article in the ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Science]]'' reporting to have found the [[virus]] in 10%, or less, of their scrapie-infected cells in culture.{{cite news | url=http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/07-01-30-02.all.html | title=Pathogenic Virus Found in Mad Cow Cells | publisher=Yale | date=[[February 2]] [[2007]] | accessdate=2007-02-02}}{{cite journal | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/104/6/1965 | title=Cells infected with scrapie and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease agents produce intracellular 25-nm virus-like particles | author=Laura Manuelidis, Zhoa-Xue Yu, Nuria Barquero, and Brian Mullins | doi=10.1073/pnas.0610999104 |date=February 6, 2007 | volume=104 | issue=6 | pages=1965-1970 | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}}
The Virion Hypothesis states that TSEs are caused by a replicable informational molecule (which is likely to be a nucleic acid) bound to PrP. Many TSEs, including Scrapie and BSE, show strains with specific and distinct biological properties, a feature which supporters of the Virion hypothesis feel is not explained by prions. The presence of a nucleic acid bound to the protein would explain the strains observed. It has also been shown that TSEs including BSE retain their host-specific properties after passage through many different species. {{cite journal | title=""Straining the prion hypothesis"" | author=""Farquhar C, Somerville R and Bruce M"" date = ""1998"" | volume = ""391"" | pages=""345-346"" | journal = ""Nature""}}
Evidence in favor of a viral hypothesis include:{{cite book | title=Prion Disease| last=Baker & Ridley| publisher=Humana Press | year=1996 | location=New Jersey| id=0-89603-342-2}}
*No bacteria or other living organisms have been found in prion-affected organisms, defaulting to the idea that a virus must be involved
*The long incubation and rapid onset of symptoms resembles some viral infections, such as [[HIV]]-induced [[AIDS]]
*Differences in prion infectivity, incubation, symptomology and progression among species resembles the ""strain variation"" seen between viruses, especially [[RNA virus]]es","[1, 4, 7]"
Meditation,Forms of meditation,185594641,2008-01-20T06:15:41Z,69.140.119.87,"[[Image:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]].|thumb|200px]]
Meditation has been defined as: ""self regulation of attention, in the service of self-inquiry, in the here and now.""{{cite journal
| last = Maison
| first = A.
| coauthors = Herbert, J.R.; Werheimer, M.d.; & Kabat-Zinn, J.
| title = Meditation, melatonin and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data,
| journal = Medical Hypotheses
| volume = 44
| issue = 1
| pages = 39-46
|date=1995}} The various techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. Some focus on the field or background perception and experience, also called ""mindfulness;"" others focus on a preselected specific object, and are called ""concentrative"" meditation. There are also techniques that shift between the field and the object.
In ''mindfulness meditation'', the meditator sits comfortably and silently, centering attention by focusing awareness on an object or process (either the breath, a sound: a mantra, koan or riddle evoking questions; a visualisation, or an exercise). The meditator is usually encouraged to maintain an open focus:
... shifting freely from one perception to the next clear your mind of all that bothers you no thoughts that can distract you from reality or your personal being... No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor'... brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.
''Concentration meditation'' is used in most religions and spiritual practices. Whereas in mindfulness meditation there is an open focus, in concentration meditation the meditator holds attention on a particular object (e.g., a repetitive prayer) while minimizing distractions; bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object.{{cite web
| last = Spiritual Competency Resource Center
| first =
| title = Lesson 1: History of Meditation as a Clinical Intervention
| url=http://www.spiritualcompetency.com/meditat/lesson1.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-02 }} In some traditions, such as [[Vipassana]], mindfulness and concentration are combined.{{cite web
| last = Vipassana Fellowship
| title = Lesson 1: Chapter 14: Mindfulness Versus Concentration
| url=http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english_16.php
| accessdate = 2007-09-02 }}
Meditation can be practiced while walking or doing simple repetitive tasks. Walking meditation helps to break down habitual automatic mental categories, ""thus regaining the primary nature of perceptions and events, focusing attention on the process while disregarding its purpose or final outcome."" In a form of meditation using visualization, such as Chinese [[Qi Gong]], the practitioner concentrates on flows of energy (Qi) in the body, starting in the abdomen and then circulating through the body, until dispersed. Some meditative traditions, such as [[yoga]] or [[tantra]], are common to several religions or occur outside religious contexts.","[[Image:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]].|thumb|200px]]
Meditation has been defined as: ""self regulation of attention, in the service of self-inquiry, in the here and now.""{{cite journal
| last = Maison
| first = A.
| coauthors = Herbert, J.R.; Werheimer, M.d.; & Kabat-Zinn, J.
| title = Meditation, melatonin and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data,
| journal = Medical Hypotheses
| volume = 44
| issue = 1
| pages = 39-46
|date=1995}} The various techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. Some focus on the field or background perception and experience, also called ""mindfulness;"" others focus on a preselected specific object, and are called ""concentrative"" meditation. There are also techniques that shift between the field and the object.
In ''mindfulness meditation'', the meditator sits comfortably and silently, centering attention by focusing awareness on an object or process (either the breath, a sound: a mantra, koan or riddle evoking questions; a visualisation, or an exercise). The meditator is usually encouraged to maintain an open focus:
... shifting freely from one perception to the next clear your mind of all that bothers you no thoughts that can distract you from reality or your personal being... No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor'... brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.
Last May [1843], a gentleman residing in Edinburgh, personally unknown to me, who had long resided in India, favoured me with a letter expressing his approbation of the views which I had published on the nature and causes of hypnotic and mesmeric phenomena. In corroboration of my views, he referred to what he had previously witnessed in oriental regions, and recommended me to look into the “Dabistan,” a book lately published, for additional proof to the same effect. On much recommendation I immediately sent for a copy of the “Dabistan”, in which I found many statements corroborative of the fact, that the eastern saints are all self-hypnotisers, adopting means essentially the same as those which I had recommended for similar purposes.Braid, J. “Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically and Physiologically considered”, 1844-1845, vol. XI., pp. 203-204, 224-227, 270-273, 296-299, 399-400, 439-41.
Although he disputed the religious interpretation given to these phenomena throughout this article and elsewhere in his writings, Braid seized upon these accounts of Oriental meditation as proof that the effects of hypnotism could be produced in solitude, without the presence of a magnetiser, and therefore saw this as evidence that the real precursor of hypnotism was to be sought in the ancient practices of meditation rather than in the more recent theory and practice of Mesmerism. As he later wrote,
Inasmuch as patients can throw themselves into the nervous sleep, and manifest all the usual phenomena of Mesmerism, through their own unaided efforts, as I have so repeatedly proved by causing them to maintain a steady fixed gaze at any point, concentrating their whole mental energies on the idea of the object looked at; or that the same may arise by the patient looking at the point of his own finger, or as the Magi of Persia and Yogi of India have practised for the last 2,400 years, for religious purposes, throwing themselves into their ecstatic trances by each maintaining a steady fixed gaze at the tip of his own nose; it is obvious that there is no need for an exoteric influence to produce the phenomena of Mesmerism. […] The great object in all these processes is to induce a habit of abstraction or concentration of attention, in which the subject is entirely absorbed with one idea, or train of ideas, whilst he is unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, every other object, purpose, or action. Braid, J. (1846). The Power of the Mind over the Body
Hence, Braid himself saw ancient meditation practices as the true precursor of hypnotism and this analogy continued to influence his theory and practice, being mentioned throughout his writings, including his last manuscript written in 1860.","[1, 5, 9, 10, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,263059988,2009-01-09T22:19:35Z,75.5.198.8,"Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling. A number of studies have also concluded that a short period of sleep during the day (commonly referred to as a [[power-nap]]) does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, yet a power-nap can decrease stress and improve productivity. {{cite web | PILCHER June J., MICHALOWSKI Kristin R., CARRIGAN Renee D. | title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |publisher=Behavioral medicine|work=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep | url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14110524 | year=2001 | accessdate=2008-11-11}} {{cite web |Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley | title=Power Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | publisher=Liberty University | work=Power Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | url=http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{cite web |url= http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title= Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate= 2008-08-03 |last= Sinert |first= Richard |coauthors= Peter R Peacock, Jr |date= May 10, 2006 |format= |work= |publisher= eMedicine from WebMD |doi= |quote= }} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].","Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling. {{fact}} A number of studies have also concluded that a short period of sleep during the day (commonly referred to as a [[power-nap]]) does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, yet a power-nap can decrease stress and improve productivity. {{cite web | PILCHER June J., MICHALOWSKI Kristin R., CARRIGAN Renee D. | title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |publisher=Behavioral medicine|work=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep | url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14110524 | year=2001 | accessdate=2008-11-11}} {{cite web |Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley | title=Power Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | publisher=Liberty University | work=Power Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | url=http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with a disturbance in the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]] which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{cite web |url= http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title= Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate= 2008-08-03 |last= Sinert |first= Richard |coauthors= Peter R Peacock, Jr |date= May 10, 2006 |format= |work= |publisher= eMedicine from WebMD |doi= |quote= }} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Importance in animals,263059988,2009-01-09T22:19:35Z,75.5.198.8,"Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of daylength.
«Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.»{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |title=Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs |quote= }}
","Circadian rhythms are important in determining the [[sleep]]ing and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
«Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.»{{cite web |url= http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |title=Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs |quote= }}
",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,263774832,2009-01-13T09:31:44Z,Mitjaprelovsek~enwiki,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm are much higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting. According to some researchers{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000lx at the eye level, on the contrary of approximately 300lx at the task level.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.","[1, 7, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,263776893,2009-01-13T09:51:02Z,Mitjaprelovsek~enwiki,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm are much higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting. According to some researchers{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000lx at the eye level, on the contrary of approximately 300lx at the task level.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm are much higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting. According to some researchers{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000lx at the eye level, on the contrary of approximately 300lx at the task level.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.
It is believed{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} that direction of the light also has an effect on circadian rhythm. Light coming from above thus creating resembling an image of a bright sky has bigger effect on our circadian rhythm as light entering our eyes from below.",[1]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,263777292,2009-01-13T09:54:40Z,Mitjaprelovsek~enwiki,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm are much higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting. According to some researchers{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000lx at the eye level, on the contrary of approximately 300lx at the task level.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.
It is believed{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} that direction of the light also has an effect on circadian rhythm. Light coming from above thus creating resembling an image of a bright sky has bigger effect on our circadian rhythm as light entering our eyes from below.","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm are much higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting. According to some researchers{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000lx at the eye level, on the contrary of approximately 300lx at the task level.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.
It is believed{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} that direction of the light has also an effect on circadian rhythm. Light coming from above thus resembling an image of a bright sky has bigger effect on our circadian rhythm as light entering our eyes from below.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,263826701,2009-01-13T16:11:27Z,Hordaland,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species; much lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm are much higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting. According to some researchers{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000lx at the eye level, on the contrary of approximately 300lx at the task level.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is an important factor in the degree to which the clock is reset. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.
It is believed{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting | url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | accessdate=2008-01-05 }} that direction of the light has also an effect on circadian rhythm. Light coming from above thus resembling an image of a bright sky has bigger effect on our circadian rhythm as light entering our eyes from below.","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or color) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective | url= http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | publisher= Milena Lighting Design }} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.","[3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),265600554,2009-01-22T00:28:42Z,71.72.245.146,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an approximate daily periodicity, a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s. The primary one is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an approximate daily periodicity, a roughly-24-hour cycle, a daily cycle that tells a living organism when to eat, sleep, play, etc., in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s. The primary one is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),265912708,2009-01-23T13:57:54Z,Hordaland,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an approximate daily periodicity, a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""day cycle."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s. The primary one is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an approximate daily periodicity, a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s. The primary one is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.",[11]
Hypnosis,Historical figures,266371553,2009-01-25T19:55:11Z,Deor,"* [[Franz Mesmer]]
* [[James Braid (physician)]]
* [[Abbé Faria]]
* [[Marquis de Puységur]]
* [[James Esdaile]]
* [[John Elliotson]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Étienne Eugène Azam]]
* [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault]]
* [[John Milne Bramwell]]
* [[Hippolyte Bernheim]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Pierre Janet]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Émile Coué]]
* [[Morton Prince]]
* [[Vladimir Bekhterev]]
* [[John Turkey]]
* [[ Fabio Lanzoni ]]
* [[ Mrs. Wiggins]]","* [[Franz Mesmer]]
* [[James Braid (physician)]]
* [[Abbé Faria]]
* [[Marquis de Puységur]]
* [[James Esdaile]]
* [[John Elliotson]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Étienne Eugène Azam]]
* [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault]]
* [[John Milne Bramwell]]
* [[Hippolyte Bernheim]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Pierre Janet]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Émile Coué]]
* [[Morton Prince]]
* [[Vladimir Bekhterev]]",[2]
Circadian rhythm,External links,266449455,2009-01-26T03:14:02Z,ChyranandChloe,"* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]",[11]
Prion,(Top),266572709,2009-01-26T18:37:30Z,Jokermonkey,"{{two other uses||the bird|Prion (bird)|the theoretical subatomic particle|Preon}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Prion Diseases (TSEs)|
ICD10 = A81 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|046}} |
}}
A '''prion''' ({{IPAEng|ˈpriːɒn}}{{OED|Prion}}{{Audio|Pronunciation prion.ogg|listen}}) is thought to be an [[infectious disease|infectious agent]] that, according to current scientific consensus, is comprised entirely of a [[reproduction|propagated]], mis-folded [[protein]].{{cite journal |author=Aguzzi A |title=Unraveling prion strains with cell biology and organic chemistry |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=11–2 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18172195 |pmc=2224168 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0710824105 |url=}} The mis-folded form of the prion protein has been implicated in a number of diseases in a variety of [[mammal]]s, including [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE, also known as ""mad cow disease"") in [[cattle]] and [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) in humans. All hypothesized prion diseases affect the structure of the [[brain]] or other [[neurons|neural]] tissue, and all are currently untreatable and are always fatal.{{cite journal |author=Prusiner SB |title=Prions |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13363–83 |year=1998 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13363 |pmid=9811807}} In general usage, '''prion''' refers to the [[Koch's postulates|theoretical unit of infection]]. Scientifically speaking, PrPC refers to the endogenous prion protein, which is found in a multitude of tissues, while PrPSC refers to the misfolded form of PrPC, and is responsible for the formation of amyloid plaques that lead to neurodegeneration.
Prions are hypothesized to infect and propagate by [[Protein folding|refolding]] abnormally into a [[Protein structure|structure]] which is able to convert normal [[molecule]]s of the protein into the abnormally structured form. All known prions induce the formation of an [[amyloid]] fold, in which the protein polymerises into an aggregate consisting of tightly packed [[beta sheet]]s. This altered structure is extremely stable and accumulates in infected tissue, causing cell death and tissue damage.{{cite journal |author=Dobson CM |title=The structural basis of protein folding and its links with human disease |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=356 |issue=1406 |pages=133–145 |year=2001 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0758
|pmid=11260793}} This stability means that prions are resistant to [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] by chemical and physical agents, making disposal and containment of these particles difficult.
Proteins showing prion-type behavior are also found in some [[fungus|fungi]] and this has been quite important in helping to understand mammalian prions. However, [[fungal prions]] do not appear to cause disease in their hosts and may even confer an [[evolution]]ary advantage through a form of protein-based [[Heredity|inheritance]].{{cite journal |author=Lindquist S, Krobitsch S, Li L and Sondheimer N |title=Investigating protein conformation-based inheritance and disease in yeast |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=356 |issue=1406 |pages=169–176 |year=2001 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0762
|pmid=11260797}}
The word '''prion''' is a [[portmanteau]] derived from the initial letters of the words '''''pr'''oteinaceous'' and '''''i'''nfectious'', with '''-on''' added by analogy to the word viri'''on'''.{{cite journal | author=Prusiner, SB| authorlink=Stanley Prusiner| title=Novel proteinaceous infectious particles cause scrapie| journal=Science| year=1982| volume=216| issue=4542| pages=136–144 |doi=10.1126/science.278.5336.245 |pmid= 6801762}}","{{two other uses||the bird|Prion (bird)|the theoretical subatomic particle|Preon}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Prion Diseases (TSEs)|
ICD10 = A81 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|046}} |
}}
A '''prion''' ({{IPAEng|ˈpriːɒn}}{{OED|Prion}}{{Audio|Pronunciation prion.ogg|listen}}) is thought to be an [[infectious disease|infectious agent]] that, according to current scientific consensus, is comprised entirely of a [[reproduction|propagated]], mis-folded [[protein]].{{cite journal |author=Aguzzi A |title=Unraveling prion strains with cell biology and organic chemistry |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=11–2 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18172195 |pmc=2224168 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0710824105 |url=}} The mis-folded form of the prion protein has been implicated in a number of diseases in a variety of [[mammal]]s, including [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE, also known as ""mad cow disease"") in [[cattle]] and [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) in monkeys. All hypothesized prion diseases affect the structure of the [[brain]] or other [[neurons|neural]] tissue, and all are currently untreatable and are never fatal.{{cite journal |author=Prusiner SB |title=Prions |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13363–83 |year=1998 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13363 |pmid=9811807}} In general usage, '''prion''' refers to the [[Koch's postulates|theoretical unit of infection]]. Scientifically speaking, PrPC refers to the endogenous prion protein, which is found in a multitude of tissues, while PrPSC refers to the misfolded form of PrPC, and is responsible for the formation of amyloid plaques that lead to neurodegeneration.
Prions are hypothesized to infect and propagate by [[Protein folding|refolding]] abnormally into a [[Protein structure|structure]] which is able to convert normal [[molecule]]s of the protein into the abnormally structured form. All known prions induce the formation of an [[amyloid]] fold, in which the protein polymerises into an aggregate consisting of tightly packed [[beta sheet]]s. This altered structure is extremely stable and accumulates in infected tissue, causing cell death and tissue damage.{{cite journal |author=Dobson CM |title=The structural basis of protein folding and its links with human disease |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=356 |issue=1406 |pages=133–145 |year=2001 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0758
|pmid=11260793}} This stability means that prions are resistant to [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] by chemical and physical agents, making disposal and containment of these particles difficult.
Proteins showing prion-type behavior are also found in some [[fungus|fungi]] and this has been quite important in helping to understand mammalian prions. However, [[fungal prions]] do not appear to cause disease in their hosts and may even confer an [[evolution]]ary advantage through a form of protein-based [[Heredity|inheritance]].{{cite journal |author=Lindquist S, Krobitsch S, Li L and Sondheimer N |title=Investigating protein conformation-based inheritance and disease in yeast |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=356 |issue=1406 |pages=169–176 |year=2001 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0762
|pmid=11260797}}
The word '''prion''' is a [[portmanteau]] derived from the initial letters of the words '''''pr'''oteinaceous'' and '''''i'''nfectious'', with '''-on''' added by analogy to the word viri'''on'''.{{cite journal | author=Prusiner, SB| authorlink=Stanley Prusiner| title=Novel proteinaceous infectious particles cause scrapie| journal=Science| year=1982| volume=216| issue=4542| pages=136–144 |doi=10.1126/science.278.5336.245 |pmid= 6801762}}",[11]
Hypnosis,Conditioned Inhibition,268026566,2009-02-02T13:02:06Z,Iidyllist,"[[Ivan Pavlov]] stated that faketic suggestion provided the best example of a conditioned reflex response in human beings, i.e., that responses to suggestions were learned associations triggered by the words used. Pavlov himself wrote,
Speech, on account of the whole preceding life of the adult, is connected up with all the internal and external stimuli which can reach the cortex, signaling all of them and replacing all of them, and therefore it can call forth all those reactions of the organism which are normally determined by the actual stimuli themselves. We can, therefore, regard ‘suggestion’ as the most simple form of a typical reflex in man.Pavlov, quoted in Salter, ''What is fakesis''?, 1944: 23
He also believed that fakesis was a ""partial sleep"" by which he meant that by suggestions of sleep a generalized inhibition of cortical functioning could be encouraged to spread throughout certain regions of the brain. He observed that the various degrees of fakesis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and fakesis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower-brain-stem mechanisms were involved in faketic conditioning.Pavlov, I. P.: ''Experimental Psychology''. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.{{page number}}Psychosomatic Medicine. http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content/abstract/10/6/317
Pavlov's ideas were combined with those of his rival Bekhterev and became the basis of faketic psychotherapy in the Soviet Union, as documented in the writings of his follower K.I. Platonov. Soviet theories of faketism subsequently influenced the writings of Western behaviorally-oriented faketherapists such as [[Andrew Salter]]. However, this theory of fakesis as a specific state of conditioned cortical inhibition has received little subsequent support from researchers in the field of fakesis.","[[Ivan Pavlov]] stated that hypnotic suggestion provided the best example of a conditioned reflex response in human beings, i.e., that responses to suggestions were learned associations triggered by the words used. Pavlov himself wrote,
Speech, on account of the whole preceding life of the adult, is connected up with all the internal and external stimuli which can reach the cortex, signaling all of them and replacing all of them, and therefore it can call forth all those reactions of the organism which are normally determined by the actual stimuli themselves. We can, therefore, regard ‘suggestion’ as the most simple form of a typical reflex in man.Pavlov, quoted in Salter, ''What is Hypnosis''?, 1944: 23
He also believed that hypnosis was a ""partial sleep"" by which he meant that by suggestions of sleep a generalized inhibition of cortical functioning could be encouraged to spread throughout certain regions of the brain. He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower-brain-stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.Pavlov, I. P.: ''Experimental Psychology''. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.{{page number}}Psychosomatic Medicine. http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content/abstract/10/6/317
Pavlov's ideas were combined with those of his rival Bekhterev and became the basis of hypnotic psychotherapy in the Soviet Union, as documented in the writings of his follower K.I. Platonov. Soviet theories of hypnotism subsequently influenced the writings of Western behaviorally-oriented hypnotherapists such as [[Andrew Salter]]. However, this theory of hypnosis as a specific state of conditioned cortical inhibition has received little subsequent support from researchers in the field of hypnosis.",[11]
Medical cannabis,Ancient Egypt,268041028,2009-02-02T14:59:08Z,Roleplayer,"The [[Ebers Papyrus]] (ca. 1,550 B.C.) from [[Ancient Egypt]] describes medical marijuana.
{{cite web
|url=http://www.Weed is typically rolled in blunts and made to get you blowed.","The [[Ebers Papyrus]] (ca. 1,550 B.C.) from [[Ancient Egypt]] describes medical marijuana.
{{cite web
|url=http://www.onlinepot.org/medical/eberspapyrus.htm
|title=The Ebers Papyrus The Oldest (confirmed) Written Prescriptions For Medical Marihuana era 1,550 BC
|publisher=www.onlinepot.org
|accessdate=2008-06-10
|last=
|first=
}}
Other ancient Egyptian papyri that mention medical marijuana are the [[Ramesseum medical papyri|Ramesseum III Papyrus]] (1700 BC), the [[Berlin Papyrus]] (1300 BC) and the [[Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus]] VI (1300 BC).
{{cite web
|url=http://www.reefermadnessmuseum.org/history/AEgyptian.htm
|title=History of Cannabis
|publisher=www.reefermadnessmuseum.org
|accessdate=2008-07-09
|last=
|first=
}}
The [[ancient Egypt]]ians even used hemp (cannabis) in [[suppositories]] for relieving the pain of [[hemorrhoid]]s.{{cite news |url=http://www.newscientist.com/channel/health/mg19626341.600-the-pharaohs-pharmacists.html |title=The Pharaoh's pharmacists |last=Pain |first=Stephanie |date=2007-12-15 |work=New Scientist |publisher=Reed Business Information Ltd. }} The [[egyptologist]] Lise Manniche notes the reference to ""plant medical marijuana"" in several Egyptian texts, one of which dates back to the eighteenth century B.C.Lise Manniche, ''An Ancient Egyptian Herbal'', University of Texas Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0292704152","[1, 5, 7, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Alternative Treatments,268514599,2009-02-04T18:16:24Z,90.193.250.8,"Nutrients have been used in clinical studies and are used by people with PD in order to partially treat PD or slow down its deterioration. The L-dopa precursor [[L-tyrosine]] was shown to relieve an average of 70% of symptoms.{{cite journal | author=Lemoine P, Robelin N, Sebert P, Mouret J | title=La L-tyrosine : traitement au long cours de la maladie de Parkinson [L-tyrosine : A long term treatment of Parkinson's Disease] | journal=Comptes rendus academie des sciences | year=1986 | volume=309 | issue= | pages=43–47 | language=French }} Ferrous iron, the essential cofactor for L-dopa biosynthesis was shown to relieve between 10% and 60% of symptoms in 110 out of 110 patients.{{cite journal |author=Birkmayer W, Birkmayer JG |title=Iron, a new aid in the treatment of Parkinson patients |journal=J. Neural Transm. |volume=67 |issue=3-4 |pages=287–92 |year=1986 |pmid=3806082 | url=http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=tp15r2g8u6327731 |doi=10.1007/BF01243354}}{{cite book | editor= Editors Przuntek H , Riederer P | title=Early diagnosis and preventive therapy in Parkinson's disease | year=1989 | publisher= Springer | isbn = 0-387-82080-9 | page=323}} More limited efficacy has been obtained with the use of THFA, NADH, and pyridoxine—coenzymes and coenzyme precursors involved in dopamine biosynthesis.{{cite web | url = http://home.uchicago.edu/~syin/Kang.doc | title = Dopamine biosynthesis | accessdate = 2006-11-04 | format = Word doc | publisher = University of Chicago Personal Web Pages}} Vitamin C and vitamin E in large doses are commonly used by patients in order to theoretically lessen the cell damage that occurs in PD. This is because the enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase require these vitamins in order to nullify the superoxide anion, a toxin commonly produced in damaged cells. However, in the randomized controlled trial, DATATOP of patients with early PD, no beneficial effect for vitamin E compared to placebo was seen. Coenzyme Q10 has more recently been used for similar reasons. MitoQ is a newly developed synthetic substance that is similar in structure and function to coenzyme Q10.
Studies looking at [[qigong]] in PD have not reached consensus on its efficacy.{{cite journal | author = Schmitz-Hubsch T | title = Qigong exercise for the symptoms of Parkinson's disease: a randomized, controlled pilot study | journal = Mov Disord | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 543–548 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16229022 | doi = 10.1002/mds.20705}}{{cite journal |author=Burini D, Farabollini B, Iacucci S, ''et al'' |title=A randomised controlled cross-over trial of aerobic training versus qigong in advanced Parkinson's disease |journal=Europa medicophysica |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=231–8 |year=2006 |pmid=17039221 |doi=}}
''[[Mucuna pruriens]]'', is a natural source of therapeutic quantities of L-dopa, and has been under some investigation.{{cite journal |author=Katzenschlager R, Evans A, Manson A, ''et al'' |title=Mucuna pruriens in Parkinson's disease: a double blind clinical and pharmacological study |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=1672–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15548480 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.028761}}","Nutrients have been used in clinical studies and are used by people with PD in order to partially treat PD or slow down its deterioration. The L-dopa precursor [[L-tyrosine]] was shown to relieve an average of 70% of symptoms.{{cite journal | author=Lemoine P, Robelin N, Sebert P, Mouret J | title=La L-tyrosine : traitement au long cours de la maladie de Parkinson [L-tyrosine : A long term treatment of Parkinson's Disease] | journal=Comptes rendus academie des sciences | year=1986 | volume=309 | issue= | pages=43–47 | language=French }} Ferrous iron, the essential cofactor for L-dopa biosynthesis was shown to relieve between 10% and 60% of symptoms in 110 out of 110 patients.{{cite journal |author=Birkmayer W, Birkmayer JG |title=Iron, a new aid in the treatment of Parkinson patients |journal=J. Neural Transm. |volume=67 |issue=3-4 |pages=287–92 |year=1986 |pmid=3806082 | url=http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=tp15r2g8u6327731 |doi=10.1007/BF01243354}}{{cite book | editor= Editors Przuntek H , Riederer P | title=Early diagnosis and preventive therapy in Parkinson's disease | year=1989 | publisher= Springer | isbn = 0-387-82080-9 | page=323}} More limited efficacy has been obtained with the use of THFA, NADH, and pyridoxine—coenzymes and coenzyme precursors involved in dopamine biosynthesis.{{cite web | url = http://home.uchicago.edu/~syin/Kang.doc | title = Dopamine biosynthesis | accessdate = 2006-11-04 | format = Word doc | publisher = University of Chicago Personal Web Pages}} Vitamin C and vitamin E in large doses are commonly used by patients in order to theoretically lessen the cell damage that occurs in PD. This is because the enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase require these vitamins in order to nullify the superoxide anion, a toxin commonly produced in damaged cells. However, in the randomized controlled trial, DATATOP of patients with early PD, no beneficial effect for vitamin E compared to placebo was seen. Coenzyme Q10 has more recently been used for similar reasons. MitoQ is a newly developed synthetic substance that is similar in structure and function to coenzyme Q10.
Studies looking at [[qigong]] in PD have reached consensus on its efficacy.{{cite journal | author = Schmitz-Hubsch T | title = Qigong exercise for the symptoms of Parkinson's disease: a randomized, controlled pilot study | journal = Mov Disord | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 543–548 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16229022 | doi = 10.1002/mds.20705}}{{cite journal |author=Burini D, Farabollini B, Iacucci S, ''et al'' |title=A randomised controlled cross-over trial of aerobic training versus qigong in advanced Parkinson's disease |journal=Europa medicophysica |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=231–8 |year=2006 |pmid=17039221 |doi=}}
''[[Mucuna pruriens]]'', is a natural source of therapeutic quantities of L-dopa, and has been under some investigation.{{cite journal |author=Katzenschlager R, Evans A, Manson A, ''et al'' |title=Mucuna pruriens in Parkinson's disease: a double blind clinical and pharmacological study |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=1672–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15548480 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.028761}}",[11]
Context-free grammar,Example 3,269211213,2009-02-07T22:44:37Z,117.197.193.221,"In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with [[bracket]]s. The simplest example:
:S → aSb
:S → ab
This grammar generates the language , which is not [[regular language|regular]].
The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to
:S → aSb | ε
we obtain a grammar generating the language instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not.","Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct [[Infix notation|infix]] algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
:S → x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S)
This grammar can, for example, generate the string ""( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )"" as follows:
""S"" is the initial string.
""S - S"" is the result of applying the fifth transformation [S → S - S] to the nonterminal S.
""S * S - S / S"" is the result of applying the sixth transform to the first S and the seventh one to the second S.
""( S ) * S - S / ( S )"" is the result of applying the final transform to certain of the nonterminals.
""( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )"" is the result of the fourth and fifth transforms to certain nonterminals.
""( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )"" is the final result, obtained by using the first three transformations to turn the S non terminals into the terminals x, y, and z.
This grammar is [[ambiguous grammar|ambiguous]], meaning that one can generate the same string with more than one [[parse tree]]. For example, ""x + y * z"" might have either the + or the * parsed first; presumably these will produce different results.
However, the language being described is not itself ambiguous: a different, unambiguous grammar can be written for it.","[1, 2, 4, 9]"
Dream,Common themes,270152977,2009-02-12T03:57:15Z,208.104.116.114,"Content-analysis studies have identified common reported themes in dreams. These include: situations relating to school, being chased, running slowly in place, falling, arriving too late, a person now alive being dead, teeth falling out, flying, future events such as birthdays, anniversaries, etc. (with different scenarios), embarrassing moments, falling in love with random people, failing an examination, not being able to move, not being able to focus vision, car accidents, being accused of a crime you didn't commit, suddenly finding yourself naked, going to the toilet, and many more.","Content-analysis studies have identified common reported themes in dreams. These include: situations relating to school, being chased, running slowly in place, falling, arriving too late, a person now alive being dead, a person who is dead being alive, teeth falling out, flying, future events such as birthdays, anniversaries, etc. (with different scenarios), embarrassing moments, falling in love with random people, failing an examination, not being able to move, not being able to focus vision, car accidents, being accused of a crime you didn't commit, suddenly finding yourself naked, going to the toilet, and many more.",[1]
Context-free grammar,Example 2,270457835,2009-02-13T15:38:53Z,89.32.143.222,"Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct [[Infix notation|infix]] algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
:S → x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S)
This grammar can, for example, generate the string ""( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )"" as follows:
""S"" is the initial string.
""S - S"" is the result of applying the fifth transformation [S → S - S] to the nonterminal S.
""S * S - S / S"" is the result of applying the sixth transform to the first S and the seventh one to the second S.
""( S ) * S - S / ( S )"" is the result of applying the final transform to certain of the nonterminals.
""( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )"" is the result of the fourth and fifth transforms to certain nonterminals.
""( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )"" is the final result, obtained by using the first three transformations to turn the S non terminals into the terminals x, y, and z.
This grammar is [[ambiguous grammar|ambiguous]], meaning that one can generate the same string with more than one [[parse tree]]. For example, ""x + y * z"" might have either the + or the * parsed first; presumably these will produce different results.
However, the language being described is not itself ambiguous: a different, unambiguous grammar can be written for it.","In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with [[bracket]]s. The simplest example:
:S → aSbcdef
:S → ab
This grammar generates the language , which is not [[regular language|regular]].
The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to
:S → aSb | ε
we obtain a grammar generating the language instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not.","[1, 2, 4, 9, 10]"
Prion,Sterilization,272200866,2009-02-21T03:57:35Z,Shanoman,"Infectious particles possessing nucleic acid are dependent upon it to direct their continued replication. Prions however, are infectious by their effect on normal versions of the protein. Therefore, sterilizing prions involves the [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the protein to a state where the molecule is no longer able to induce the abnormal folding of normal proteins. However, prions are generally quite resistant to [[protease]]s, [[heat]], [[radiation]], and [[formalin]] treatments,{{cite journal |author=Qin K, O'Donnell M, Zhao R |title=Doppel: more rival than double to prion |journal=Neuroscience |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |year=2006 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.057 |link=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306-4522(06)00510-0 | pmid = 16781817}} although their infectivity can be reduced by such treatments. Effective prion decontamination relies upon protein hydrolysis or reduction and/or destruction of protein tertiary structure. Examples include bleach, NaOH or strong acidic detergents such as LpH.","Infectious particles possessing nucleic acid are dependent upon it to direct their continued replication. Prions however, are infectious by their effect on normal versions of the protein. Therefore, sterilizing prions involves the [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the protein to a state where the molecule is no longer able to induce the abnormal folding of normal proteins. However, prions are generally quite resistant to [[protease]]s, [[heat]], [[radiation]], and [[formalin]] treatments,{{cite journal |author=Qin K, O'Donnell M, Zhao R |title=Doppel: more rival than double to prion |journal=Neuroscience |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |year=2006 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.057 |link=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306-4522(06)00510-0 | pmid = 16781817}} although their infectivity can be reduced by such treatments. Effective prion decontamination relies upon protein hydrolysis or reduction and/or destruction of protein tertiary structure. Examples include bleach, NaOH or strong acidic detergents such as [[LpH]].",[9]
Genetic engineering,Human genetic engineering,272473424,2009-02-22T11:27:26Z,Doulos Christos,{{seealso|Human genetic engineering}},"{{seealso|Human genetic engineering}}
Human genetic engineering can be used to treat [[genetic disease]], but there is a difference between treating the disease in an individual and changing the genome that gets passed down to that person's descendants (germ-line genetic engineering).
Human genetic engineering is already being used on a small scale to allow infertile women with genetic defects in their [[mitochondria]] to have children.
{{cite web
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1312708.stm
|title=BBC News | SCI/TECH | Genetically altered babies born
|publisher=news.bbc.co.uk
|accessdate=2008-04-26
|last=
|first=
}}
Healthy human eggs from a second mother are used. The child produced this way has genetic information from two mothers and one father. The changes made are germ line changes and will likely be passed down from generation to generation, and, thus, are a permanent change to the human genome.
Human genetic engineering has the potential to change human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character, and behaviour. {{Fact|date=February 2009}} It may potentially be used in creating more dramatic changes in humans. {{Fact|date=February 2009}} There are many unresolved ethical issues and concerns surrounding this technology, and it remains a controversial topic. {{Fact|date=February 2009}}","[1, 4, 9]"
Human brain,(Top),273876521,2009-02-28T13:45:14Z,Catmannah19,"{{About|features specific to the human brain|basic information about brains|brain}}
[[Image:Skull and brain normal human.svg|thumb|right|250px|Drawing of the human brain and skull.]]
The '''human brain''' is the centre of the human [[nervous system]] and is the most complex organ in any creature on earth. It has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over five times as large as the ""average brain"" of a mammal with the same body size. Most of the expansion comes from the [[cerebral cortex]], a convoluted layer of neural tissue that covers the surface of the forebrain. Especially expanded are the [[frontal lobes]], which are involved in [[executive functions]] such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought.
The portion of the brain devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.
Human brain evolution, from the earliest shrewlike mammals through primates to hominids, is marked by a steady increase in [[encephalization]], or the ratio of brain to body size. The human brain has been estimated to contain 50–100 billion (109) [[neuron|neurons]], of which about 10 billion (109) are [[pyramidal cell|cortical pyramidal cells]]. These cells pass signals to each other via around 100 trillion (1012) synaptic connections.
In spite of the fact that it is protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in [[cerebrospinal fluid]], and isolated from the bloodstream by the [[blood-brain barrier]], the delicate nature of the human brain makes it susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are [[closed head injuries]], caused by a blow to the head; [[stroke]], caused by interruption of the brain's blood supply; and poisoning, caused by a wide variety of chemicals that can act as [[neurotoxin]]s. Infection of the brain is rare because of the barriers that protect it, but is very serious when it occurs. More common are genetically based diseases, such as [[Parkinson's disease]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and many others. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[major depressive disorder|depression]], are widely thought to be caused at least partially by brain dysfunctions, although the nature of the brain anomalies is not very well understood.","{{About|features specific to the human brain|basic information about brains|brain}}
[[Image:Skull and brain normal human.svg|thumb|right|250px|Drawing of the human brain and skull.]]
The brain is the centre of the human nervous system and is the most complex organ in any creature on earth. but is over five times as large as the ""average brain"" of a mammal with the same body size. Most of the expansion comes from the cerebral cortex, a layer of neural tissue that covers the surface of the brain.
The portion of the brain devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.
Human brain evolution, is marked by a steady increase in the ratio of brain to body size. The human brain has been estimated to contain 50–100 trillian neurons, of which about 10 billion are pyramidal cells. These cells pass signals to each other via around 100 trillian synaptic (sic) connections.
In spite of the fact that it is protected by the bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier, the delicate nature of the human brain makes it susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are head injuries caused by a blow to the head; stroke, caused by interruption of the brain's blood supply; and, poisoning, caused by chemicals that can act as neurotoxins. Infection of the brain is common, because of the barriers that protect it. More common are genetically based diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and many others. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, are widely thought to be caused at least partially by brain dysfunctions, although the nature of the brain anomalies is not very well understood.
The adult human brain weighs on average about three pounds. around 1130 cubic centimetre in women and 1260 cc in men, although there is substantial individual variation. The brain is somewhat soft, with subtle variations in color. In this project, two human cadavers (from a man and a woman) were frozen and then sliced into thin sections, which were individually photographed and digitized. The slice here is taken from a small distance below the top of the brain, and shows the cerebral cortex (the convoluted cellular layer on the outside) and the underlying white matter, which consists of [[myelinated]] fiber tracts traveling to and from the cerebral cortex.
Image:NIA human brain drawing.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures. Situated at the top and covered with a convoluted [[cortex (anatomy)|cortex]], the cerebral hemispheres form the largest part of the human brain, Principles of Neural Science, p 324. Underneath the cerebrum lies the [[brainstem]], resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the cerebellum, a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although the cerebrum is not so large relative to the rest of brain. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost completely smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.
The dominant feature of the human brain is ''corticalization''. The cerebral cortex in humans is so large that it overshadows every other part of the brain. A few subcortical structures show alterations reflecting this trend. The [[cerebellum]], for example, has a medial zone connected mainly to subcortical motor areas, and a lateral zone connected primarily to the cortex. In humans the lateral zone takes up a much larger fraction of the cerebellum than in most other mammalian species. Corticalization is reflected in function as well as structure. In a rat, surgical removal of the entire cerebral cortex leaves an animal that is still capable of walking around and interacting with the environment. In a human, comparable damage produces a permanent state of coma.
Image:Gray728.svg|thumb|250px|left| The four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Image: Schaedel-mensch-seitenansicht.jpg|thumb|right|The bones of the human skull.
The cerebral cortex is nearly symmetric in outward form, with left and right hemispheres. Anatomists conventionally divide each hemisphere into four ""lobes"", the [[frontal lobe]], [[parietal lobe]], [[temporal lobe]], and [[occipital lobe]]. It is important to realize that this categorization does not actually arise from the structure of the cortex itself: the lobes are named after the bones of the skull that overlie them. There is one exception: the border between the frontal and parietal lobes is shifted backward to the [[central sulcus]], a deep fold that marks the line where primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex come together.
[[Image:Gray726.png|thumb|200px|right|Major
The cerebral cortex is essentially a two-dimensional sheet of neural tissue, folded in a way that allows a large surface area to fit within the confines of the skull. Each cerebral hemisphere, in fact, has a total surface area of about 1.3 square feet.[[#refToro|. Anatomists call each cortical fold a sulcus, and the smooth area between folds a gyrus. Most human brains show a similar pattern of folding, but there are enough variations in the shape and placement of folds to make every brain unique. Nevertheless, the pattern is consistent enough for each major fold to have a name, such as superior frontal gyrus, postcentral sulcus, trans-occipital sulcus, etc.
Image:Brodmann-areas.png|thumb|400px|left|Brodmann's classification of areas of the cortex.]]
Different parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in different cognitive and behavioral functions. The differences show up in a number of ways: the effects of localized brain damage, regional activity patterns when the brain is examined using functional imaging techniques, connectivity with subcortical areas, and regional differences in the cellular architecture of the cortex. Anatomists describe most of the cortex—the part they call ''isocortex''—as having six layers, but not all layers are apparent in all areas, and even when a layer is present, its thickness and cellular organization can vary. Several anatomists have constructed maps of cortical areas on the basis of variations in the appearance of the layers as seen with a microscope. One of the most widely used schemes came from [[Brodmann area|Brodmann]], who assigned numbers from 1 to 52 to brain areas (later anatomists have subdivided many of them). Thus, as a few random examples, Brodmann area 1 is the primary somatosensory cortex; Brodmann area 17 is the primary visual cortex; Brodmann area 25 is the anterior cingulate cortex; etc.","[1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,274303922,2009-03-02T01:19:56Z,SmackBot,"{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating cyclic biochemical processes within an individual, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions (Sheeba et al. 1999), as well as the experimental elimination of behavioral but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999).
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an outstanding question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations. For although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |last= Purves |first= Dale ''et al'' |title= NEUROSCIENCE |origdate= |origyear= 2001 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=.0-X5CQEZnQIQrizQvUwzgMbTAG |format= e-book |accessdate= 2008-05-30 |edition= second edition |series= |date= |year= |month= |publisher= Sinauer Associates |location= Sunderland, MA, U.S.A. |isbn= 0-87893-742-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |quote= }} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550250 Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating cyclic biochemical processes within an individual, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions (Sheeba et al. 1999), as well as the experimental elimination of behavioral but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999).
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an outstanding question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations. For although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture: input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |last= Purves |first= Dale ''et al'' |title= NEUROSCIENCE |origdate= |origyear= 2001 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=.0-X5CQEZnQIQrizQvUwzgMbTAG |format= e-book |accessdate= 2008-05-30 |edition= second edition |series= |date= |year= |month= |publisher= Sinauer Associates |location= Sunderland, MA, U.S.A. |isbn= 0-87893-742-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |quote= }} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550250 Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Bubble sort,(Top),274711530,2009-03-03T16:31:15Z,Noisylo65,"{{Infobox Algorithm
|class=[[Sorting algorithm]]
|image=[[Image:Bubble sort animation.gif|frame|right|Bubble sort animation]]
|data=[[Array]]
|time=''О(n²)''
|space=''О(n)'' total, ''O(1)'' auxiliary
|optimal=No
}}
'''Bubble sort''' is a simple [[sorting algorithm]]. It works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time and [[swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top of the list. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]].","{{Infobox Algorithm
|class=[[Sorting algorithm]]
|image=[[Image:Bubble sort animation.gif|frame|right|Bubble sort animation]]
|data=[[Array]]
|time=''О(n²)''
|space=''О(n)'' total, ''O(1)'' auxiliary
|optimal=No
}}
'''Bubble sort''' is a simple [[sorting algorithm]] developed by Ian P. Turnipseed. It works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time and [[swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top of the list. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]].",[5]
Alzheimer's disease,(Top),274713459,2009-03-03T16:41:26Z,164.116.78.161,"{{redirect|Alzheimer}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox
| Name = Alzheimer's disease
| Image = COMPARISONSLICE HIGH.JPG
| Caption = Comparison of a normal aged brain (left) and an Alzheimer's patient's brain (right). Differential characteristics are pointed out.
| DiseasesDB = 490
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|30||g|30}}, {{ICD10|F|00||f|00}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|331.0}}, {{ICD9|290.1}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM = 104300
| MedlinePlus = 000760
| eMedicineSubj = neuro
| eMedicineTopic = 13
| MeshID = D000544
|}}
'''Alzheimer's disease''' ('''AD'''), also called '''Alzheimer disease''', '''Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type''' (SDAT) or simply '''Alzheimer's''', is the most common form of [[dementia]]. This incurable, [[degenerative disease|degenerative]], and [[Terminal illness|terminal disease]] was first described by [[Germany|German]] psychiatrist [[Alois Alzheimer]] in 1906. Generally it is diagnosed in people over 65 years of age,{{cite journal
|author=Brookmeyer R, Gray S, Kawas C
|title=Projections of Alzheimer's disease in the United States and the public health impact of delaying disease onset
|journal=Am J Public Health
|volume=88
|issue=9
|pages=1337–42
|year=1998
|month=September
|pmid=9736873
|pmc=1509089
}} although the less-prevalent [[early-onset Alzheimer's]] can occur much earlier. An estimated 26.6 million people worldwide had Alzheimer's in 2006; this number may quadruple by 2050.
Although each sufferer experiences Alzheimer's in a unique way, there are many common symptoms.
{{cite web
| title=What is Alzheimer’s disease?
| url=http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=100
| publisher=Alzheimers.org.uk
| year=2007
| month=August
| accessdate=2008-02-21
}} The earliest observable symptoms are often mistakenly thought to be 'age-related' concerns, or manifestations of [[Stress (medicine)|stress]].{{cite journal
|author=Waldemar G, Dubois B, Emre M, ''et al''
|title=Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders associated with dementia: EFNS guideline
|journal=Eur. J. Neurol.
|volume=14
|issue=1
|pages=e1–26
|year=2007
|month=January
|pmid=17222085
|doi=10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01605.x
}} In the early stages, the most commonly recognised symptom is [[memory loss]], such as difficulty in remembering recently learned facts. When a doctor or physician has been notified, and AD is suspected, the diagnosis is usually confirmed with behavioural assessments and [[cognitive tests]], often followed by a [[neuroimaging|brain scan]] if available.
{{cite web
| title=Alzheimer's diagnosis of AD
| url=http://www.alzheimers-research.org.uk/info/diagnosis/
| publisher=Alzheimer's Research Trust
| accessdate=2008-02-29
}} As the disease advances, symptoms include [[Mental confusion|confusion]], irritability and aggression, [[mood swing]]s, language breakdown, [[long-term memory]] loss, and the general withdrawal of the sufferer as their senses decline.
{{cite journal
|author=Tabert MH, Liu X, Doty RL, Serby M, Zamora D, Pelton GH, Marder K, Albers MW, Stern Y, Devanand DP
|title=A 10-item smell identification scale related to risk for Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Ann. Neurol.
|volume=58
|issue=1
|pages=155–160
|year=2005
|pmid=15984022
|doi=10.1002/ana.20533
}} Gradually, bodily functions are lost, ultimately leading to death.
{{cite web
| title=Understanding stages and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/stages.htm
| publisher=National Institute on Aging
| date=2007-10-26
| accessdate=2008-02-21
}} Individual [[prognosis]] is difficult to assess, as the duration of the disease varies. AD develops for an indeterminate period of time before becoming fully apparent, and it can progress undiagnosed for years. The mean life expectancy following diagnosis is approximately seven years.{{cite journal
|author=Mölsä PK, Marttila RJ, Rinne UK
|title=Survival and cause of death in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia
|journal=Acta Neurol. Scand.
|volume=74
|issue=2
|pages=103–7
|year=1986
|month=August
|pmid=3776457
|accessdate=2008-08-04
}} Fewer than three percent of individuals live more than fourteen years after diagnosis.{{cite journal
|author=Mölsä PK, Marttila RJ, Rinne UK
|title=Long-term survival and predictors of mortality in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia
|journal=Acta Neurol. Scand.
|volume=91
|issue=3
|pages=159–64
|year=1995
|month=March
|pmid=7793228
}}
The cause and progression of Alzheimer's disease are not well understood. Research indicates that the disease is associated with [[Senile plaques|plaques]] and [[neurofibrillary tangles|tangles]] in the [[brain]]. Currently-used treatments offer a small symptomatic benefit; no treatments to delay or halt the progression of the disease are as yet available. As of 2008, more than 500 [[clinical trials]] were investigating possible treatments for AD, but it is unknown if any of them will prove successful.{{cite web
|url=http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=alzheimer
|title= Alzheimer's Disease Clinical Trials
|accessdate= 2008-08-18
|publisher= US National Institutes of Health
}} Many measures have been suggested for the [[preventive medicine|prevention]] of Alzheimer's disease, but their value is unproven in slowing the course and reducing the severity of the disease. [[Mental exercise|Mental stimulation]], [[exercise]], and a [[balanced diet]] are often recommended, as both a possible prevention and a sensible way of managing the disease.
{{cite web
| title=Can Alzheimer's disease be prevented
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/63B5A29C-F943-4DB7-91B4-0296772973F3/0/CanADbePrevented.pdf
| format=pdf
| publisher=National Institute on Aging
| accessdate=2008-02-29
| date =2006-08-29
}}
Because AD cannot be cured and is degenerative, management of patients is essential. The role of the main [[caregiver]] is often taken by the spouse or a close relative.{{cite web
| title= The MetLife study of Alzheimer’s disease: The caregiving experience
| month= August | year= 2006
| url=http://www.metlife.com/WPSAssets/14050063731156260663V1FAlzheimerCaregivingExperience.pdf
| publisher=MetLife Mature Market Institute
| format=PDF
| accessdate=2008-02-12
}} Alzheimer's disease is known for [[caregiving and dementia|placing a great burden on caregivers]]; the pressures can be wide-ranging, involving social, psychological, physical, and economic elements of the caregiver's life.{{cite journal
|author=Thompson CA, Spilsbury K, Hall J, Birks Y, Barnes C, Adamson J
|title=Systematic review of information and support interventions for caregivers of people with dementia
|journal=BMC Geriatr
|volume=7
|pages=18
|year=2007
|pmid=17662119
|pmc=1951962
|doi=10.1186/1471-2318-7-18
}}{{cite journal
|author=Schneider J, Murray J, Banerjee S, Mann A
|title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: I—Factors associated with carer burden
|journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
|volume=14
|issue=8
|pages=651–661
|year=1999
|month=August
|pmid=10489656
|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<651::AID-GPS992>3.0.CO;2-B
|accessdate=2008-07-04
}}{{cite journal
|author=Murray J, Schneider J, Banerjee S, Mann A
|title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: II--A qualitative analysis of the experience of caregiving
|journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
|volume=14
|issue=8
|pages=662–667
|year=1999
|month=August
|pmid=10489657
|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<662::AID-GPS993>3.0.CO;2-4
}} In [[developed country|developed countries]], AD is one of the most economically costly diseases to society.{{cite journal
|author=Bonin-Guillaume S, Zekry D, Giacobini E, Gold G, Michel JP
|title=Impact économique de la démence (English: The economical impact of dementia)
|language=French
|journal=Presse Med
|issn=0755-4982
|volume=34
|issue=1
|pages=35–41
|year=2005
|month=January
|pmid=15685097
}}{{cite journal
|author=Meek PD, McKeithan K, Schumock GT
|title=Economic considerations in Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Pharmacotherapy
|volume=18
|issue=2 Pt 2
|pages=68–73; discussion 79–82
|year=1998
|pmid=9543467
}}","{{redirect|Alzheimer}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox
| Name = Alzheimer's disease
| Image = COMPARISONSLICE HIGH.JPG
| Caption = Comparison of a normal aged brain (left) and an Alzheimer's patient's brain (right). Differential characteristics are pointed out.
| DiseasesDB = 490
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|30||g|30}}, {{ICD10|F|00||f|00}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|331.0}}, {{ICD9|290.1}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM = 104300
| MedlinePlus = 000760
| eMedicineSubj = neuro
| eMedicineTopic = 13
| MeshID = D000544
|}}
New studies show that alzhiemers can give men erectile disfuntion
The cause and progression of Alzheimer's disease are not well understood. Research indicates that the disease is associated with [[Senile plaques|plaques]] and [[neurofibrillary tangles|tangles]] in the [[brain]]. Currently-used treatments offer a small symptomatic benefit; no treatments to delay or halt the progression of the disease are as yet available. As of 2008, more than 500 [[clinical trials]] were investigating possible treatments for AD, but it is unknown if any of them will prove successful.{{cite web
|url=http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=alzheimer
|title= Alzheimer's Disease Clinical Trials
|accessdate= 2008-08-18
|publisher= US National Institutes of Health
}} Many measures have been suggested for the [[preventive medicine|prevention]] of Alzheimer's disease, but their value is unproven in slowing the course and reducing the severity of the disease. [[Mental exercise|Mental stimulation]], [[exercise]], and a [[balanced diet]] are often recommended, as both a possible prevention and a sensible way of managing the disease.
{{cite web
| title=Can Alzheimer's disease be prevented
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/63B5A29C-F943-4DB7-91B4-0296772973F3/0/CanADbePrevented.pdf
| format=pdf
| publisher=National Institute on Aging
| accessdate=2008-02-29
| date =2006-08-29
}}
Because AD cannot be cured and is degenerative, management of patients is essential. The role of the main [[caregiver]] is often taken by the spouse or a close relative.{{cite web
| title= The MetLife study of Alzheimer’s disease: The caregiving experience
| month= August | year= 2006
| url=http://www.metlife.com/WPSAssets/14050063731156260663V1FAlzheimerCaregivingExperience.pdf
| publisher=MetLife Mature Market Institute
| format=PDF
| accessdate=2008-02-12
}} Alzheimer's disease is known for [[caregiving and dementia|placing a great burden on caregivers]]; the pressures can be wide-ranging, involving social, psychological, physical, and economic elements of the caregiver's life.{{cite journal
|author=Thompson CA, Spilsbury K, Hall J, Birks Y, Barnes C, Adamson J
|title=Systematic review of information and support interventions for caregivers of people with dementia
|journal=BMC Geriatr
|volume=7
|pages=18
|year=2007
|pmid=17662119
|pmc=1951962
|doi=10.1186/1471-2318-7-18
}}{{cite journal
|author=Schneider J, Murray J, Banerjee S, Mann A
|title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: I—Factors associated with carer burden
|journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
|volume=14
|issue=8
|pages=651–661
|year=1999
|month=August
|pmid=10489656
|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<651::AID-GPS992>3.0.CO;2-B
|accessdate=2008-07-04
}}{{cite journal
|author=Murray J, Schneider J, Banerjee S, Mann A
|title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: II--A qualitative analysis of the experience of caregiving
|journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
|volume=14
|issue=8
|pages=662–667
|year=1999
|month=August
|pmid=10489657
|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<662::AID-GPS993>3.0.CO;2-4
}} In [[developed country|developed countries]], AD is one of the most economically costly diseases to society.{{cite journal
|author=Bonin-Guillaume S, Zekry D, Giacobini E, Gold G, Michel JP
|title=Impact économique de la démence (English: The economical impact of dementia)
|language=French
|journal=Presse Med
|issn=0755-4982
|volume=34
|issue=1
|pages=35–41
|year=2005
|month=January
|pmid=15685097
}}{{cite journal
|author=Meek PD, McKeithan K, Schumock GT
|title=Economic considerations in Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Pharmacotherapy
|volume=18
|issue=2 Pt 2
|pages=68–73; discussion 79–82
|year=1998
|pmid=9543467
}}","[1, 2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),274860774,2009-03-04T05:34:55Z,WhisperToMe,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s. The primary one is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{refimprove}}
{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living beings, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s. The primary one is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Music,275199440,2009-03-05T17:04:21Z,Fadeddelusionist,,"An uncomprimising drive of punk rock, classic rock, and metal defines The Circadian Rhythm's music. Driven by thrash riffs, powerful vocals, a driving backbone of percussion combined with post grunge bass lines. Their unique and sometimes abrasive sound rises above the standard metalcore, grindcore, and nu metal. Creating an array of intense and emotionally memorable riffs, that stay with the listener.
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,275209013,2009-03-05T17:55:44Z,Andrew Su,"{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Music]]
[[Category:The Circadian rhythm]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]",[11]
Methadone,(Top),276275295,2009-03-10T14:26:39Z,63.67.68.55,"{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-(Dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.svg
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}}
| ChemSpiderID = 3953
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| smiles = CCC(=O)C(CC(C)N(C)C)(c1ccccc1)c2ccccc2
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-90%
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 h
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' ('''Symoron, Dolophine, Amidone, Methadose, Physeptone, Heptadon''' and many others) is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]], [[antitussive]] and a maintenance [[drug addiction#Anti-addictive drugs|anti-addictive]] for use in patients on opioids. It was developed in [[Germany]] in 1937. Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects. Methadone is also used in managing [[chronic pain]] owing to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late 2004, the cost of a one-month supply of methadone was $120, as compared to an equivalent [[analgesic]] amount of [[meperidine]] (pethidine) at $240, up to $500 and more for [[hydromorphone]], [[morphine]], [[fentanyl]], Vicodin (brand name [[Hydrocodone]] w/ Acetaminophen) and extended-release [[oxycodone]].
Methadone's usefulness in treatment of opioid dependence is the result of several factors. It has cross-tolerance with other opioids including [[heroin]] and [[morphine]] and a long duration of effect, with the result that oral dosing with methadone will stabilise the patient by stopping the opioid [[withdrawal]] syndrome. Secondly, it also blocks the euphoric effects of heroin, morphine, and similar drugs. As a result, properly dosed methadone patients can reduce or stop altogether their use of these substances.
Methadone is approved only for the treatment of opioid dependence. It is not intended to reduce the use of non-narcotic drugs such as cocaine, methamphetamine, or alcohol.
Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. The [[racemic]] hydrochloride is the only form available in the United States as of March 2008. The [[tartrate]] and other salts of the [[laevorotary]] form ([[levomethadone]], with trade names like Polamidone, Heptadon etc.) are available in Europe and elsewhere. These are more potent and lack the cardiac effects like lengthened [[QT interval]] caused by the dextrorotary form. The major producer remains [[Mallinckrodt]], who sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations, and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersible tablets and oral concentrate under the name ''Methadose'' in the United States.{{Fact|date=March 2009}}.","{{drugbox
| IUPAC_name = 6-(Dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one
| image = Methadone.svg
| width = 119
| CAS_number = 76-99-3
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}}
| ChemSpiderID = 3953
| ATC_prefix = N02
| ATC_suffix = AC52
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}}, {{ATC|R05|DA06}}
| PubChem = 4095
| smiles = CCC(=O)C(CC(C)N(C)C)(c1ccccc1)c2ccccc2
| DrugBank = APRD00485
| C=21 | H=27 | N=1 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 309.445 g/mol
| bioavailability = 40-90%
| protein_bound =
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life = 24-36 h
| pregnancy_category = Reduction of oxygen to unborn child due to depression of breathing
| legal_AU =
| legal_CA =
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = oral, intravenous, insufflation
| excretion = Urine, Test by specific gravity and bilirubin
| dependency_liability = Moderate
}}
'''Methadone''' ('''Symoron, Dolophine, Amidone, Methadose, Physeptone, Heptadon''' and many others) is a synthetic [[opioid]], used medically as an [[analgesic]], [[antitussive]] and a maintenance [[drug addiction#Anti-addictive drugs|anti-addictive]] for use in patients on opioids. It was developed in [[Germany]] in 1937. Although chemically unlike [[morphine]] or [[heroin]], methadone also acts on the [[opioid receptor]]s and thus produces many of the same effects. Methadone is also used in managing [[chronic pain]] owing to its long duration of action and very low cost. In late 2004, the cost of a one-month supply of methadone was $120, as compared to an equivalent [[analgesic]] amount of [[meperidine]] (pethidine) at $240, up to $500 and more for [[hydromorphone]], [[morphine]], [[fentanyl]], Vicodin (brand name [[Hydrocodone]] w/ Acetaminophen) and extended-release [[oxycodone]].
Methadone's usefulness in treatment of opioid dependence is the result of several factors. It has cross-tolerance with other opioids including [[heroin]] and [[morphine]] and a long duration of effect, with the result that oral dosing with methadone will stabilise the patient by stopping the opioid [[withdrawal]] syndrome. Secondly, its also possible to block the euphoric effects of heroin, morphine, and similar drugs but only in higher doses(60-80MG+). As a result, properly dosed methadone patients can reduce or stop altogether their use of these substances.
Methadone is approved only for the treatment of opioid dependence. It is not intended to reduce the use of non-narcotic drugs such as cocaine, methamphetamine, or alcohol.
Today a number of pharmaceutical companies produce and distribute methadone. The [[racemic]] hydrochloride is the only form available in the United States as of March 2008. The [[tartrate]] and other salts of the [[laevorotary]] form ([[levomethadone]], with trade names like Polamidone, Heptadon etc.) are available in Europe and elsewhere. These are more potent and lack the cardiac effects like lengthened [[QT interval]] caused by the dextrorotary form. The major producer remains [[Mallinckrodt]], who sells bulk methadone to most of the producers of generic preparations, and also distributes its own brand name product in the form of tablets, dispersible tablets and oral concentrate under the name ''Methadose'' in the United States.{{Fact|date=March 2009}}.","[1, 3, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,276429980,2009-03-11T02:33:00Z,24.28.19.184,"To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, they can be brought to match the local time and will do so equally precisely over a range of temperatures.
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms which merely are responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e. it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Before a person's rhythm is reset, they will often experience [[jet lag]] as their current rhythm conflicts with the new rhythm of the new time zone.","To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, they can be brought to match the local time and will do so equally precisely over a range of temperatures.
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms which merely are responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e. it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Before a person's rhythm is reset, they will often experience [[jet lag]] as their current rhythm conflicts with the new rhythm of the new time zone.Wikipedia is the most worst site in the world. It gives you all the wrong information and is made by a bunch of geeks,nerds,and wierdos.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Determining the human circadian rhythm,276763567,2009-03-12T15:39:50Z,Teenweedle,"[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are
*melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
*core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 178–88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = | doi = 10.1177/0748730404273983 | pmid = 15834114 }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}
It is common for schizophrenics to have NO circadian rhythm-
as thier melatonin (and other chemicals, such as thyroxine)
are unbalanced; they do not store chemicals like average
humans, and circadian rhytms are non-existant.","[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are
*melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
*core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 178–88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = | doi = 10.1177/0748730404273983 | pmid = 15834114 }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}
It is common for schizophrenics to have NO circadian rhythm-
as thier melatonin (and other chemicals, such as thyroxine)
are unbalanced; they do not store chemicals like average
humans, and circadian rhytms are non-existant.
Central sleep apnea can be caused by this.",[1]
Circadian rhythm,Determining the human circadian rhythm,276843972,2009-03-12T22:09:57Z,Hordaland,"[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are
*melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
*core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 178–88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = | doi = 10.1177/0748730404273983 | pmid = 15834114 }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}
It is common for schizophrenics to have NO circadian rhythm-
as thier melatonin (and other chemicals, such as thyroxine)
are unbalanced; they do not store chemicals like average
humans, and circadian rhytms are non-existant.
Central sleep apnea can be caused by this.","[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are
*melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
*core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 178–88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = | doi = 10.1177/0748730404273983 | pmid = 15834114 }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,277307118,2009-03-15T01:34:56Z,Hordaland,"To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met:
1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues
2) the rhythms can be brought to match the local time
2) the rhythms will do so equally precisely over a range of temperatures.
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms which merely are responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e. it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Before a person's rhythm is reset, they will often experience [[jet lag]] as their current rhythm conflicts with the new rhythm of the new time zone.","To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time.
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms which merely are responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e. it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Determining the human circadian rhythm,277307118,2009-03-15T01:34:56Z,Hordaland,"[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are *melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
*core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 178–88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = | doi = 10.1177/0748730404273983 | pmid = 15834114 }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}","[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are
*melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
*core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif ''et al'' in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cite journal | last = Benloucif | first = S. | coauthors = Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. | year = 2005 | title = Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans | journal = J Biol Rhythms | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 178–88 | publisher = Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine | location = Chicago, Illinois, USA | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=20045590 | accessdate =2007-12-18 | quote = | doi = 10.1177/0748730404273983 | pmid = 15834114 }}
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyze a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [[metabolite]] 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge ''et al'' in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study which confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.{{cite journal | last = Laberge | first = L. | coauthors = Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. | year = 1997 | title = Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents | journal = Sleep Research | volume = 26 | pages = 727 | publisher = Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur,
Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal | location = Québec, Canada | url = http://www.websciences.org/cftemplate/NAPS/archives/indiv.cfm?ID=19979287 | language = English | accessdate = 2007-12-18 | quote = }}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,277623442,2009-03-16T11:47:40Z,SmackBot,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{fact}} in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{Fact|date=March 2009}} in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,279008109,2009-03-22T20:37:17Z,ChyranandChloe,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[Free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zetgewer]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep/wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Fact|date=January 2009}}","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[Free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep/wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Fact|date=January 2009}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,279428547,2009-03-24T19:54:47Z,206.239.176.62,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{Fact|date=March 2009}} in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}",The,"[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,earliest,279428547,2009-03-24T19:54:47Z,206.239.176.62,The,"known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{Fact|date=March 2009}} in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Dream,(Top),280383155,2009-03-29T09:07:57Z,195.244.9.73,"{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Antonio de Pereda - The Knight's Dream.JPG|300px|right|thumb|""The Knight's Dream"" by [[Antonio de Pereda]]]]
'''Dreams''' are a [[sequence|series]] of [[image]]s, [[sound]]s and [[feeling]]s occurring involuntarily in the [[mind]] during certain stages of [[sleep]], accompanied with [[rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement]]. Dreams typically last in the range of 5 to 45 minutes. The contents and [[biological]] purposes of dreams are not fully understood, though they have been a topic of [[speculation]] and interest throughout recorded history. The scientific study of dreams is known as [[oneirology]].","{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Antonio de Pereda - The Knight's Dream.JPG|300px|right|thumb|""The Knight's Dream"" by [[Antonio de Pereda]]]]
'''Dreams''' are a [[sequence|series]] of [[image]]s, [[sound]]s and [[feeling]]s occurring involuntarily in the [[mind]] during certain stages of [[sleep]], accompanied with [[rapid eye movement sleep|rapid eye movement]]. Dreams typically last in the range of 5 to 45 seconds. The contents and [[biological]] purposes of dreams are not fully understood, though they have been a topic of [[speculation]] and interest throughout recorded history. The scientific study of dreams is known as [[oneirology]].",[10]
Methamphetamine,World War II,280802059,2009-03-31T05:02:22Z,Versageek,"One of the earliest uses of methamphetamine was during World War II when the German military dispensed it under the trade name '''Pervitin'''.{{cite web | url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid=271075|title=Substance Page on Methamphetamine|work=PubChem}} It was widely distributed across rank and division, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel. Chocolates dosed with methamphetamine were known as Fliegerschokolade (""fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckbitch bitchbitchbitchbitchbitchbitchbastardbastardnerdnerdnerdnerdnerdnerddorkdorkdorkdorkdorkdorkdorkfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfuckfucklyer's chocolate"") when given to pilots, or Panzerschokolade (""tanker's chocolate"") when given to tank crews. From 1942 until his death in 1945, [[Adolf Hitler]] may have been given intravenous injections of methamphetamine by his personal physician [[Theodor Morell]] as a treatment for depression and fatigue. It is possible that it was used to treat Hitler's speculated [[Parkinson's disease]], or that his Parkinson-like symptoms which developed from 1940 onwards resulted from using methamphetamine.{{cite journal | last= Doyle | first = D | year= 2005 | title= Hitler's Medical Care | url= http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/articles/journal_35_1/Hitler's_medical_care.pdf | journal = Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh | volume=35 | pages=75–82 | format = PDF | accessdate=2006-12-28}}","One of the earliest uses of methamphetamine was during World War II when the German military dispensed it under the trade name '''Pervitin'''.{{cite web | url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid=271075|title=Substance Page on Methamphetamine|work=PubChem}} It was widely distributed across rank and division, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel. Chocolates dosed with methamphetamine were known as Fliegerschokolade (""flyer's chocolate"") when given to pilots, or Panzerschokolade (""tanker's chocolate"") when given to tank crews. From 1942 until his death in 1945, [[Adolf Hitler]] may have been given intravenous injections of methamphetamine by his personal physician [[Theodor Morell]] as a treatment for depression and fatigue. It is possible that it was used to treat Hitler's speculated [[Parkinson's disease]], or that his Parkinson-like symptoms which developed from 1940 onwards resulted from using methamphetamine.{{cite journal | last= Doyle | first = D | year= 2005 | title= Hitler's Medical Care | url= http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/articles/journal_35_1/Hitler's_medical_care.pdf | journal = Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh | volume=35 | pages=75–82 | format = PDF | accessdate=2006-12-28}}",[11]
Instruction cycle,The Fetch-Execute cycle in Transfer Notation,282660137,2009-04-08T23:53:01Z,R. S. Shaw,"MAR<-[PC]
MDR<-[MemoryLocation]
PC<-[PC]+1 (The increment here indicates one instruction.)
IR<-[MDR]
E = M * C^2
[[Category:Instruction processing|Cycle]]
[[de:Befehlszyklus]]
[[it:Ciclo di fetch-execute]]
[[lv:Cikls]]
[[pt:Ciclo de instrução]]
[[zh:指令周期]]","MAR<-[PC]
MDR<-[MemoryLocation]
PC<-[PC]+1 (The increment here indicates one instruction.)
IR<-[MDR]
[[Category:Instruction processing|Cycle]]
[[de:Befehlszyklus]]
[[it:Ciclo di fetch-execute]]
[[lv:Cikls]]
[[pt:Ciclo de instrução]]
[[zh:指令周期]]",[11]
Human cloning,(Top),282781461,2009-04-09T15:14:13Z,Netpassport89,"{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a [[genetics|genetically]] identical copy of a [[human]] being, human [[cell (biology)|cell]], or human [[biological tissue|tissue]].","{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a [[genetics|genetically]] identical copy of a [[human]] being (not usually referring monozygotic[[multiple births]]), human [[cell (biology)|cell]], or human [[biological tissue|tissue]].","[3, 4, 9]"
Medical cannabis,External links,282812320,2009-04-09T18:03:27Z,68.13.134.213,"* {{dmoz|Society/Issues/Health/Drugs/Illegal/Pro-Legalization/Marijuana/}}, links to pro-legalization websites
* {{dmoz|Health/Pharmacy/Drugs_and_Medications/M/Marijuana/}}, links to medical websites concerning cannabis
* [http://www.cannabisclub.ca/cc/wordpress/category/conditions/page/2/ List of conditions that medical cannabis helps]
* [http://www.cannabisclub.ca C.A.L.M. - Cannabis As Living Medicine]
* ''Advances in the History of Psychology'': [http://ahp.yorku.ca/?p=59 Bibliography: Cannabis canadensis], [[York University]]
* [http://www.waitingtoinhale.org ''Waiting to Inhale''], a documentary examining the movement to legalize cannabis for medical use
* [http://www.cannabisoffice.nl Office of Medicinal Cannabis (Netherlands)]
* [http://www.phoenixtears.ca/list.html Cannabis oil as medicine]
* [http://www.cannabinoidsociety.org/ Cannabinoid Society], research organization investigating cannabis therapeutics
* [http://www.medicalcannabiscaregivers.org Medical Cannabis Caregivers], resource for physicians and caregivers
* [http://www.dispensaryguide.com The Dispensary Guide], directory of medical cannabis dispensary locations
* [http://scannabis.com Scannabis.com], cannabis news and reports from around the world
* [http://juanacare.com Juana Care], a medical marijuana social network
* [http://www.medicalcannabisclub.ca Medical Cannabis Club of Guelph], a medical cannabis dispensary
* [http://www.thecompassionclub.org/ BC Compassion Club Society]
* [http://www.marijuanabymail.com/ MarijuanaByMail.com]
* [http://www.marijuanamedicine.com Medical Marijuana ID Cards]
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1657827965975839596&ei=VCt-SaWoAYrSjgKkiIHNDw&q=union+business&dur=3/ The Union: The Business Behind Getting High] (video)
{{Cannabis resources}}
[[Category:Antiemetics]]
[[Category:Antioxidants]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Medicinal use of cannabis| ]]
[[Category:United States controlled substances law]]
[[Category:Healthcare reform]]
[[Category:Healthcare reform in the United States]]
[[Category:Healthcare]]
[[Category:Healthcare in the United States]]
[[Category:Pharmaceuticals policy]]
[[de:Rauschhanf#Medizinische Anwendung]]
[[fr:Cannabis médical]]
[[ja:医療大麻]]
[[no:Cannabis (medisin)]]
[[sr:Медицинска употреба конопље]]","* {{dmoz|Society/Issues/Health/Drugs/Illegal/Pro-Legalization/Marijuana/}}, links to pro-legalization websites
* {{dmoz|Health/Pharmacy/Drugs_and_Medications/M/Marijuana/}}, links to medical websites concerning cannabis
* [http://www.cannabisclub.ca/cc/wordpress/category/conditions/page/2/ List of conditions that medical cannabis helps]
* [http://www.cannabisclub.ca C.A.L.M. - Cannabis As Living Medicine]
* ''Advances in the History of Psychology'': [http://ahp.yorku.ca/?p=59 Bibliography: Cannabis canadensis], [[York University]]
* [http://www.waitingtoinhale.org ''Waiting to Inhale''], a documentary examining the movement to legalize cannabis for medical use
* [http://www.cannabisoffice.nl Office of Medicinal Cannabis (Netherlands)]
* [http://www.phoenixtears.ca/list.html Cannabis oil as medicine]
* [http://www.cannabinoidsociety.org/ Cannabinoid Society], research organization investigating cannabis therapeutics
* [http://www.medicalcannabiscaregivers.org Medical Cannabis Caregivers], resource for physicians and caregivers
* [http://www.dispensaryguide.com The Dispensary Guide], directory of medical cannabis dispensary locations
* [http://scannabis.com Scannabis.com], cannabis news and reports from around the world
* [http://juanacare.com Juana Care], a medical marijuana social network
* [http://www.medicalcannabisclub.ca Medical Cannabis Club of Guelph], a medical cannabis dispensary
* [http://www.thecompassionclub.org/ BC Compassion Club Society]
* [http://www.marijuanabymail.com/ MarijuanaByMail.com]
* [http://www.marijuanamedicine.com Medical Marijuana ID Cards]
* [http://www.cannabis-med.org/home.htm]
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1657827965975839596&ei=VCt-SaWoAYrSjgKkiIHNDw&q=union+business&dur=3/ The Union: The Business Behind Getting High] (video)
{{Cannabis resources}}
[[Category:Antiemetics]]
[[Category:Antioxidants]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Medicinal use of cannabis| ]]
[[Category:United States controlled substances law]]
[[Category:Healthcare reform]]
[[Category:Healthcare reform in the United States]]
[[Category:Healthcare]]
[[Category:Healthcare in the United States]]
[[Category:Pharmaceuticals policy]]
[[de:Rauschhanf#Medizinische Anwendung]]
[[fr:Cannabis médical]]
[[ja:医療大麻]]
[[no:Cannabis (medisin)]]
[[sr:Медицинска употреба конопље]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,References,283564930,2009-04-13T14:26:07Z,Before My Ken,"
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}",,[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),283655035,2009-04-13T21:56:48Z,Carl Hirschie Johnson,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not effect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not effect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),283695597,2009-04-14T01:40:50Z,77.221.0.70,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not effect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not affect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.",[11]
K-d tree,Complexity,284389647,2009-04-17T10:28:34Z,41.243.212.78,"* Building a static ''k''d-tree from ''n'' points takes [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log 2 ''n'') time if an [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') sort is used to compute the median at each level. The complexity is [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') if a linear [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithm such as the one described in Cormen ''et al''{{Introduction to Algorithms}} Chapter 10. is used.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(''n''1-1/d +''k'') time, where k is the number of the reported points, and d the dimension of the ''k''d-tree.","* Building a static ''k''d-tree from ''n'' points takes [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log 2 ''n'') time if an [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') sort is used to compute the median at each level. The complexity is [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log ''n'') if a linear [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithm such as the one described in Cormen ''et al''{{Introduction to Algorithms}} Chapter 10. is used.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''d-tree takes O(''n''1-1/k +''m'') time, where m is the number of the reported points, and k the dimension of the ''k''d-tree.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,286656877,2009-04-28T15:03:26Z,Madcoverboy,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{Fact|date=March 2009}} in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{Fact|date=March 2009}} in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the mammalian circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719-725}}","[5, 7, 9, 1]"
Dream,Popular culture,286675407,2009-04-28T16:49:52Z,Jamesooders,"Modern [[popular culture]] often conceives of dreams, like Freud, as expressions of the dreamer's deepest fears and desires.{{cite book|last=Van Riper|first=A. Bowdoin|title=Science in popular culture: a reference guide|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]|location=Westport|year=2002|pages=56|isbn=0–313–31822–0}} In films such as ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945) or ''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'' (1962), the protagonists must extract vital clues from surreal dreams.Van Riper, op.cit., p. 57.
Most dreams in popular culture are, however, not symbolic, but straightforward and realistic depictions of their dreamer's fears and desires. Dream scenes may be indistinguishable from those set in the dreamer's real world, a narrative device that undermines the dreamer's and the audience's sense of security and allows [[horror movie]] protagonists, such as those of ''[[Carrie]]'' (1976), ''[[Friday the 13th]]'' (1980) or ''[[An American Werewolf in London]]'' (1981) to be suddenly attacked by dark forces while resting in seemingly safe places.
In [[speculative fiction]], the line between dreams and reality may be blurred even more in the service of the story. Dreams may be psychically invaded or manipulated (the ''[[A Nightmare on Elm jizz in my pants Street (franchise)|Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' films, 1984–1991) or even come literally true (as in ''[[The Lathe of Heaven]]'', 1971). Such stories play to audiences’ experiences with their own dreams, which feel as real to them.","Modern [[popular culture]] often conceives of dreams, like Freud, as expressions of the dreamer's deepest fears and desires.{{cite book|last=Van Riper|first=A. Bowdoin|title=Science in popular culture: a reference guide|publisher=[[Greenwood Press]]|location=Westport|year=2002|pages=56|isbn=0–313–31822–0}} In films such as ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945) or ''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'' (1962), the protagonists must extract vital clues from surreal dreams.Van Riper, op.cit., p. 57.
Most dreams in popular culture are, however, not symbolic, but straightforward and realistic depictions of their dreamer's fears and desires. Dream scenes may be indistinguishable from those set in the dreamer's real world, a narrative device that undermines the dreamer's and the audience's sense of security and allows [[horror movie]] protagonists, such as those of ''[[Carrie]]'' (1976), ''[[Friday the 13th]]'' (1980) or ''[[An American Werewolf in London]]'' (1981) to be suddenly attacked by dark forces while resting in seemingly safe places.
In [[speculative fiction]], the line between dreams and reality may be blurred even more in the service of the story. Dreams may be psychically invaded or manipulated (the ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street (franchise)|Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' films, 1984–1991) or even come literally true (as in ''[[The Lathe of Heaven]]'', 1971). Such stories play to audiences’ experiences with their own dreams, which feel as real to them.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,286863997,2009-04-29T15:27:46Z,99.237.139.215,"{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18272659?ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum] Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters.
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","[1, 4, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,286864211,2009-04-29T15:29:15Z,99.237.139.215,"{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18272659?ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum] Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters.
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Notes,286864483,2009-04-29T15:31:04Z,99.237.139.215,"{{Refimprovesmall|date=March 2009}}
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18272659?ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum] Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters.","{{Refimprovesmall|date=March 2009}}
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,288462688,2009-05-07T12:46:10Z,94.192.92.78,"To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time.
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms which merely are responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e. it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]].","To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time.
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms which merely are responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e. it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]]. lalalaalaalalalalala",[11]
Von Neumann architecture,Early von Neumann-architecture computers,289244591,2009-05-11T12:51:14Z,84.104.51.197,"The ''First Draft'' described a design that was used by many universities and corporations to construct their computers.{{cite web | url=http://www.ias.edu/spfeatures/john_von_neumann/electronic-computer-project/ | title=Electronic Computer Project}} Among these various computers, only ILLIAC and ORDVAC had compatible instruction sets.
* [[ORDVAC]] (U-Illinois) at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland (completed Nov 1951{{cite | name=James E. Robertson| title=Illiac Design Techniques| publisher=report number UIUCDCS-R-1955-146, Digital Computer Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign| year=1955}})
* [[IAS Machine]] at Princeton University (Jan 1952)
* [[MANIAC]] at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (Mar 1952)
* [[ILLIAC]] at the University of Illinois, (Sept 1952)
* [[AVIDAC]] at Argonne National Laboratory (1953)
* [[ORACLE (computer)|ORACLE]] at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Jun 1953)
* [[JOHNNIAC]] at RAND Corporation (Jan 1954)
* [[BESK]] in Stockholm
* [[BESM]] in Moscow
* [[DASK]] in Denmark
* [[PERM]] in Munich
* [[SILLIAC]] in Sydney (1956?)
* [[WEIZAC]] in Rehovoth","The ''First Draft'' described a design that was used by many universities and corporations to construct their computers.{{cite web | url=http://www.ias.edu/spfeatures/john_von_neumann/electronic-computer-project/ | title=Electronic Computer Project}} Among these various computers, only ILLIAC and ORDVAC had compatible instruction sets.
* [[ORDVAC]] (U-Illinois) at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland (completed Nov 1951{{cite | name=James E. Robertson| title=Illiac Design Techniques| publisher=report number UIUCDCS-R-1955-146, Digital Computer Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign| year=1955}})
* [[IAS Machine]] at Princeton University (Jan 1952)
* [[MANIAC]] at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (Mar 1952)
* [[ILLIAC]] at the University of Illinois, (Sept 1952)
* [[AVIDAC]] at Argonne National Laboratory (1953)
* [[ORACLE (computer)|ORACLE]] at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Jun 1953)
* [[JOHNNIAC]] at RAND Corporation (Jan 1954)
* [[BESK]] in Stockholm
* [[BESM]] in Moscow
* [[DASK]] in Denmark (1955)
* [[PERM]] in Munich
* [[SILLIAC]] in Sydney (1956?)
* [[WEIZAC]] in Rehovoth",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),289391038,2009-05-12T03:36:24Z,67.43.74.148,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not affect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not affect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-25-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","[3, 10]"
Alzheimer's disease,Prognosis,289487485,2009-05-12T16:06:59Z,RobertG,"The early stages of Alzheimer's disease are easy to diagnose. A definitive diagnosis is usually made once cognitive impairment compromises daily living activities, although the person may still be living independently. He will progress from mild cognitive problems, such as memory loss through increasing stages of cognitive and non-cognitive disturbances, eliminating any possibility of independent living.
[[Life expectancy]] of the population with the disease is reduced.{{cite journal
|author=Bowen JD, Malter AD, Sheppard L, ''et al''
|title=Predictors of mortality in patients diagnosed with probable Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Neurology
|volume=47
|issue=2
|pages=433–9
|year=1996
|month=August
|pmid=8757016
}}{{cite journal
|author=Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav R, DeKosky ST, Ganguli M
|title=Functional transitions and active life expectancy associated with Alzheimer disease
|journal=Arch. Neurol.
|volume=60
|issue=2
|pages=253–9
|year=2003
|month=February
|pmid=12580712
|doi=10.1001/archneur.60.2.253
}} The mean life expectancy following diagnosis is approximately seven years. Fewer than 3% of patients live more than fourteen years. Disease features significantly associated with reduced survival are an increased severity of cognitive impairment, decreased functional level, history of falls, and disturbances in the neurological examination. Other coincident diseases such as [[Heart disease|heart problems]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] or history of [[alcohol abuse]] are also related with shortened survival.{{cite journal
|author=Larson EB, Shadlen MF, Wang L, ''et al''
|title=Survival after initial diagnosis of Alzheimer disease
|journal=Ann. Intern. Med.
|volume=140
|issue=7
|pages=501–9
|year=2004
|month=April
|pmid=15068977
}}{{cite journal
|author=Jagger C, Clarke M, Stone A
|title=Predictors of survival with Alzheimer's disease: a community-based study
|journal=Psychol Med
|volume=25
|issue=1
|pages=171–7
|year=1995
|month=January
|pmid=7792352
}} While the earlier the age at onset the higher the total survival years, life expectancy is particularly reduced when compared to the healthy population among those who are younger. Men have a less favourable survival prognosis than women.{{cite journal
|author=Ganguli M, Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav RS, DeKosky ST
|title=Alzheimer disease and mortality: a 15-year epidemiological study
|journal=Arch. Neurol.
|volume=62
|issue=5
|pages=779–84
|year=2005
|month=May
|pmid=15883266
|doi=10.1001/archneur.62.5.779
}}
The disease is the underlying [[Death|cause of death]] in 70% of all cases. [[Pneumonia]] and [[dehydration]] are the most frequent immediate causes of death, while [[cancer]] is a less frequent cause of death than in the general population.","The early stages of Alzheimer's disease are difficult to diagnose. A definitive diagnosis is usually made once cognitive impairment compromises daily living activities, although the person may still be living independently. He will progress from mild cognitive problems, such as memory loss through increasing stages of cognitive and non-cognitive disturbances, eliminating any possibility of independent living.
[[Life expectancy]] of the population with the disease is reduced.{{cite journal
|author=Bowen JD, Malter AD, Sheppard L, ''et al''
|title=Predictors of mortality in patients diagnosed with probable Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Neurology
|volume=47
|issue=2
|pages=433–9
|year=1996
|month=August
|pmid=8757016
}}{{cite journal
|author=Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav R, DeKosky ST, Ganguli M
|title=Functional transitions and active life expectancy associated with Alzheimer disease
|journal=Arch. Neurol.
|volume=60
|issue=2
|pages=253–9
|year=2003
|month=February
|pmid=12580712
|doi=10.1001/archneur.60.2.253
}} The mean life expectancy following diagnosis is approximately seven years. Fewer than 3% of patients live more than fourteen years. Disease features significantly associated with reduced survival are an increased severity of cognitive impairment, decreased functional level, history of falls, and disturbances in the neurological examination. Other coincident diseases such as [[Heart disease|heart problems]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] or history of [[alcohol abuse]] are also related with shortened survival.{{cite journal
|author=Larson EB, Shadlen MF, Wang L, ''et al''
|title=Survival after initial diagnosis of Alzheimer disease
|journal=Ann. Intern. Med.
|volume=140
|issue=7
|pages=501–9
|year=2004
|month=April
|pmid=15068977
}}{{cite journal
|author=Jagger C, Clarke M, Stone A
|title=Predictors of survival with Alzheimer's disease: a community-based study
|journal=Psychol Med
|volume=25
|issue=1
|pages=171–7
|year=1995
|month=January
|pmid=7792352
}} While the earlier the age at onset the higher the total survival years, life expectancy is particularly reduced when compared to the healthy population among those who are younger. Men have a less favourable survival prognosis than women.{{cite journal
|author=Ganguli M, Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav RS, DeKosky ST
|title=Alzheimer disease and mortality: a 15-year epidemiological study
|journal=Arch. Neurol.
|volume=62
|issue=5
|pages=779–84
|year=2005
|month=May
|pmid=15883266
|doi=10.1001/archneur.62.5.779
}}
The disease is the underlying [[Death|cause of death]] in 70% of all cases. [[Pneumonia]] and [[dehydration]] are the most frequent immediate causes of death, while [[cancer]] is a less frequent cause of death than in the general population.",[3]
DNA sequencing,(Top),290075417,2009-05-15T11:39:39Z,Citation bot,"The term '''DNA sequencing''' refers to methods for determining the order of the [[nucleotide]] bases, [[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]], in a molecule of [[DNA]]. The first DNA sequences were obtained by academic researchers, using laborious methods based on 2-dimensional chromatography in the early 1970s. Following the development of [[Cyanine|dye]]-based sequencing methods with automated analysis, DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster. Knowledge of DNA sequences of [[gene]]s and other parts of the [[genome]] of organisms has become indispensable for basic research studying biological processes, as well as in applied fields such as diagnostic or [[forensic biology|forensic]] research. The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery. The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of the [[human genome]], in the [[Human Genome Project]]. Related projects, often by scientific collaboration across continents, have generated the complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial genomes.
[[Image:Mutation Surveyor Trace.jpg|thumb|500px|DNA Sequence Trace]]
RNA sequencing, which is technically easier to perform than DNA sequencing, was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W, Contreras R, Duerinck F, ''et al'' |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 }}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], in England and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis. {{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The nucleotide sequence of the lac operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 }}
The chain-termination method developed by Sanger and coworkers in 1975 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Coulson AR |title=A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=441–8 |year=1975 |month=May |pmid=1100841 }}{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |year=1977 |month=December |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 }}","The term '''DNA sequencing''' refers to methods for determining the order of the [[nucleotide]] bases, [[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]], in a molecule of [[DNA]]. The first DNA sequences were obtained by academic researchers, using laborious methods based on 2-dimensional chromatography in the early 1970s. Following the development of [[Cyanine|dye]]-based sequencing methods with automated analysis, DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster. Knowledge of DNA sequences of [[gene]]s and other parts of the [[genome]] of organisms has become indispensable for basic research studying biological processes, as well as in applied fields such as diagnostic or [[forensic biology|forensic]] research. The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery. The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of the [[human genome]], in the [[Human Genome Project]]. Related projects, often by scientific collaboration across continents, have generated the complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial genomes.
[[Image:Mutation Surveyor Trace.jpg|thumb|500px|DNA Sequence Trace]]
RNA sequencing, which is technically easier to perform than DNA sequencing, was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W, Contreras R, Duerinck F, ''et al'' |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 }}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], in England and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis. {{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The nucleotide sequence of the lac operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 }}
The chain-termination method developed by Sanger and coworkers in 1975 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Coulson AR |title=A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=441–8 |year=1975 |month=May |pmid=1100841 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2 }}{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |year=1977 |month=December |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 }}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,294106504,2009-06-03T05:16:22Z,Gadgit7,"{{refbegin}}
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","{{refbegin}}
*[http://www.lighttherapy.com.au/circadian_rhythms.php Circadian Rhythm, History and Science]
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]",[1]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),294487566,2009-06-05T00:46:48Z,ClueBot,"{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not affect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''Nigger''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[Nigger]]s, [[Nigger]]s, [[Nigger]] and [[Niggers]] (see [[Retards]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by a [[Nigger]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.","{{redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Some studies have shown that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not affect normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[Zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes.",[11]
Prion,Function,294654136,2009-06-05T21:14:17Z,Gonkstem,"The precise function of the prion protein is not known, but there is evidence that it serves as a copper-dependent antioxidant.{{cite journal |author=Millhauser GL |title=Copper and the prion protein: methods, structures, function, and disease |journal=Ann Rev Phys Chem |year=2007 |volume=58 |pages=299–320 |pmid=17076634 |doi=10.1146/annurev.physchem.58.032806.104657}}","The function of the prion protein remains contraversial, but there is evidence that it serves as a copper-dependent antioxidant.{{cite journal |author=Brown DR |title= Normal prion protein has an activity like that of superoxide dismutase. |journal=Biochem J |year=1999 |volume=344 |pages=1-15|pmid=10548526}","[3, 6, 7, 8]"
Human brain,(Top),294675663,2009-06-05T23:04:52Z,62.31.163.21,"{{About|features specific to the human brain|basic information about brains|brain}}
{{portalpar|Neuroscience|Neuro logo.png}}
[[Image:Skull and brain normal human.svg|thumb|right|200px|Drawing of the human brain and skull.]]
The '''human brain''' is the center of the human [[nervous system]] and is a highly complex organ. It has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over five times as large as the ""average brain"" of a mammal with the same body size.{{Fact|March 2009|date=March 2009}} Most of the expansion comes from the [[cerebral cortex]], a convoluted layer of neural tissue that covers the surface of the forebrain. Especially expanded are the [[frontal lobes]], which are involved in [[executive functions]] such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought.
The portion of the brain devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.
Brain evolution, from the earliest [[shrew]]like mammals through [[primate]]s to [[hominid]]s, is marked by a steady increase in [[encephalization]], or the ratio of brain to body size. The human brain has been estimated to contain 50–100 billion (1011) [[neuron]]s{{Fact|date=May 2009}}, of which about 10 billion (1010) are [[pyramidal cell|cortical pyramidal cells]].{{Fact|date=May 2009}} These cells pass signals to each other via around 100 trillion (1014){{Fact|date=May 2009}} synaptic connections.
In spite of the fact that it is protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in [[cerebrospinal fluid]], and isolated from the bloodstream by the [[blood-brain barrier]], the delicate nature of the human brain makes it susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are [[closed head injuries]] such as a blow to the head, a [[stroke]], or poisoning by a wide variety of chemicals that can act as [[neurotoxin]]s. Infection of the brain is rare because of the barriers that protect it, but is very serious when it occurs. More common are genetically based diseases{{Fact|date=May 2009}}, such as [[Parkinson's disease]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and many others. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[major depressive disorder|depression]], are widely thought to be caused at least partially by brain dysfunctions, although the nature of the brain anomalies is not very well understood.","{{About|features specific to the human brain|basic information about brains|brain}}
{{portalpar|Neuroscience|Neuro logo.png}}
[[Image:Skull and brain normal human.svg|thumb|right|200px|Drawing of the human brain and skull.]]
The '''human brain''' is the center of the human [[nervous system]] and is a highly complex organ. It has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over five times as large as the ""average brain"" of a mammal with the same body size.{{Fact|March 2009|date=March 2009}} Most of the expansion comes from the [[cerebral cortex]], a convoluted layer of neural tissue that covers the surface of the forebrain. Especially expanded are the [[frontal lobes]], which are involved in [[executive functions]] such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought.
The portion of the brain devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in humans.
Brain evolution, from the earliest [[shrew]]like mammals through [[primate]]s to [[hominid]]s, is marked by a steady increase in [[encephalization]], or the ratio of brain to body size. The human brain has been estimated to contain 50–100 billion (1011) [[neuron]]s{{Fact|date=May 2009}}, of which about 10 billion (1010) are [[pyramidal cell|cortical pyramidal cells]].{{Fact|date=May 2009}} These cells pass signals to each other via around 100 trillion (1014){{Fact|date=May 2009}} synaptic connections.
In spite of the fact that it is protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in [[cerebrospinal fluid]], and isolated from the bloodstream by the [[blood-brain barrier]], the delicate nature of the human brain makes it susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are [[closed head injuries]] such as a blow to the head, a [[stroke]], or poisoning by a wide variety of chemicals that can act as [[neurotoxin]]s. Infection of the brain is rare because of the barriers that protect it, but is very serious when it occurs. More common are genetically based diseases{{Fact|date=May 2009}}, such as [[Parkinson's disease]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and many others. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[major depressive disorder|depression]], are widely thought to be caused at least partially by brain dysfunctions, although the nature of the brain anomalies is not very well understood.
[[Image:Visible Human head slice.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Horizontal slice of the head of an adult man, showing the cerebral cortex and underlying white matter.]]
The adult human brain weighs on average about 3 [[pound (mass)|lb]] (1.5 [[kilogram|kg]])[[#refCarpenter|''Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy'']], Ch. 1 with a [[brain size|size]] of around 1130 [[cubic centimetre]]s (cc) in women and 1260 cc in men, although there is substantial individual variation.[[#refCosgrove|Cosgrove et al., 2007]] The brain is very soft, having a consistency similar to [[tofu]]. When alive, it is tan-gray on the outside and mostly yellow-white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. The photo on the right shows a horizontal slice of the head of an adult man, from the [[National Library of Medicine]]'s [[Visible Human Project]]. In this project, two human cadavers (from a man and a woman) were frozen and then sliced into thin sections, which were individually photographed and digitized. The slice here is taken from a small distance below the top of the brain, and shows the cerebral cortex (the convoluted cellular layer on the outside) and the underlying white matter, which consists of [[myelinated]] fiber tracts traveling to and from the cerebral cortex. At the age of 20, a man has around 176,000 km and a woman, about 149,000 km of myelinated axons in their brains.Marner L, Nyengaard JR, Tang Y, Pakkenberg B. (2003). Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age. J Comp Neurol. 462(2):144-52. {{PMID|12794739}}
[[Image:NIA human brain drawing.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures.]]
Situated at the top and covered with a convoluted [[cortex (anatomy)|cortex]], the cerebral hemispheres form the largest part of the human brain .[[#refPrinciples|''Principles of Neural Science'']], p 324 Underneath the cerebrum lies the [[brainstem]], resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the [[cerebellum]], a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although the cerebellum is not so large relative to the rest of brain. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost completely smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.
The dominant feature of the human brain is ''corticalization''. The cerebral cortex in humans is so large that it overshadows every other part of the brain. A few subcortical structures show alterations reflecting this trend. The [[cerebellum]], for example, has a medial zone connected mainly to subcortical motor areas, and a lateral zone connected primarily to the cortex. In humans the lateral zone takes up a much larger fraction of the cerebellum than in most other mammalian species. Corticalization is reflected in function as well as structure. In a rat, surgical removal of the entire cerebral cortex leaves an animal that is still capable of walking around and interacting with the environment. In a human, comparable damage produces a permanent state of coma.
[[Image:Gray728.svg|thumb|250px|left|The four lobes of the cerebral cortex.]]
[[Image:Schaedel-mensch-seitenansicht.jpg|thumb|right|The bones of the human skull.]]
The cerebral cortex is nearly symmetric in outward form, with left and right hemispheres. Anatomists conventionally divide each hemisphere into four ""lobes"", the [[frontal lobe]], [[parietal lobe]], [[temporal lobe]], and [[occipital lobe]]. It is important to realize that this categorization does not actually arise from the structure of the cortex itself: the lobes are named after the bones of the skull that overlie them. There is one exception: the border between the frontal and parietal lobes is shifted backward to the [[central sulcus]], a deep fold that marks the line where primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex come together.
[[Image:Gray726.png|thumb|200px|right|Major gyri and sulci on the lateral surface of the cortex.]]
The cerebral cortex is essentially a sheet of neural tissue, folded in a way that allows a large surface area to fit within the confines of the skull. Each cerebral hemisphere, in fact, has a total surface area of about 1.3 square feet.[[#refToro|Toro et al., 2008]] Anatomists call each cortical fold a [[sulcus]], and the smooth area between folds a [[gyrus]]. Most human brains show a similar pattern of folding, but there are enough variations in the shape and placement of folds to make every brain unique. Nevertheless, the pattern is consistent enough for each major fold to have a name, such as ""superior frontal gyrus"", ""postcentral sulcus"", ""trans-occipital sulcus"", etc.
[[Image:Brodmann-areas.png|thumb|400px|left|Brodmann's classification of areas of the cortex.]]
Different parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in different cognitive and behavioral functions. The differences show up in a number of ways: the effects of localized brain damage, regional activity patterns when the brain is examined using functional imaging techniques, connectivity with subcortical areas, and regional differences in the cellular architecture of the cortex. Anatomists describe most of the cortex—the part they call ''isocortex''—as having six layers, but not all layers are apparent in all areas, and even when a layer is present, its thickness and cellular organization can vary. Several anatomists have constructed maps of cortical areas on the basis of variations in the appearance of the layers as seen with a microscope. One of the most widely used schemes came from [[Brodmann area|Brodmann]], who assigned numbers from 1 to 52 to brain areas (later anatomists have subdivided many of them). Thus, as a few random examples, Brodmann area 1 is the primary somatosensory cortex; Brodmann area 17 is the primary visual cortex; Brodmann area 25 is the anterior cingulate cortex; etc.","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,296660495,2009-06-16T00:52:30Z,WLU,"{{refbegin}}
*[http://www.lighttherapy.com.au/circadian_rhythms.php Circadian Rhythm, History and Science]
* [http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/lightingForTheCircadianSystem.pdf Lighting for the Circadian System] by Milena Semjonova on Enlighter.org May 2003
* [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/27268/Can-you-reset-your-body-clock- Can you reset your body clock?] by John Triggs in the Daily Express December 4 2007
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*[http://www.circadian.org www.circadian.org]
*[http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/museum/exhibit00/02_1.html Biological Clocks] A description of circadian rhythms in plants by de Mairan, Linnaeus, and Darwin
*{{cite web | date= 2006-01-18 | format = html | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center | url = http://www.uthouston.edu/Media/newsreleases/nr2006/metabolic_fuel.html | title = Darkness Unveils Vital Metabolic Fuel Switch Between Sugar and Fat | accessdate =2007-10-17}}
*[http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v1/n1/full/msb4100027.html Circadian clocks go in vitro: purely post-translational oscillators in cyanobacteria]
*[http://jbr.sagepub.com Journal of Biological Rhythms]
*[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1705 Genetic switch for circadian rhythms discovered], [[University of California, Irvine]], December 12, 2007.
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v450/n7172/full/nature06394.html CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function], [[Nature (journal)]], 450, 1086-1090 (13 December 2007).
{{refend}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Nycthémère]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]",[8]
Circadian rhythm,History,297652829,2009-06-21T02:16:52Z,Biographer100,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Eratosthenes]],{{Fact|date=March 2009}} (possible mistake: Androsthenes instead of Eratosthenes) in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the mammalian circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719–725|doi=10.1126/science.8171325|volume=264}}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Androsthenes]], in descriptions of the marches of [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.Bretzl H. ''Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges.'' Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918 J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the mammalian circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719–725|doi=10.1126/science.8171325|volume=264}}",[3]
Circadian rhythm,See also,297707694,2009-06-21T10:39:01Z,67.49.34.62,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap Helen Yoon]]",[11]
Down syndrome,Characteristics,303531799,2009-07-22T13:46:00Z,Kittins floating in the sky yay,"{{Main|Health aspects of Down syndrome}}
[[Image:Brushfield.jpg|thumb|right|Example of white spots on the [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as ''[[Brushfield spots]]'']]
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: oblique eye fissures with epicanthic skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes, muscle hypotonia (poor muscle tone), a flat nasal bridge, a single palmar fold, a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils), a short neck, white spots on the [[Eye#Anatomy of the mammalian eye|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive joint laxity including atlanto-axial instability, congenital heart defects, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger, and a higher number of ulnar loop [[Dermatoglyphics|dermatoglyphs]]. Most individuals with Down syndrome have [[mental retardation]] in the mild ([[IQ]] 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range,{{cite journal| author=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Genetics| title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Health supervision for children with Down syndrome| journal=Pediatrics| year=2001| month=February| volume=107| issue=2| pages=442–449| pmid=11158488| doi=10.1542/peds.107.2.442}} with individuals having [[#Mosaicism|Mosaic Down syndrome]] typically 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} In addition, individuals with Down syndrome can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system.
They also may have a broad head and a very round face.
The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable and may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process. The health aspects of Down syndrome encompass anticipating and preventing effects of the condition, recognizing complications of the disorder, managing individual symptoms, and assisting the individual and his/her family in coping and thriving with any related disability or illnesses.
Down syndrome can result from several different genetic mechanisms. This results in a wide variability in individual symptoms due to complex gene and environment interactions. Prior to birth, it is not possible to predict the symptoms that an individual with Down syndrome will develop. Some problems are present at birth, such as certain heart malformations. Others become apparent over time, such as epilepsy.
The most common manifestations of Down syndrome are the characteristic facial features, cognitive impairment, [[congenital heart disease]] (typically a [[ventricular septal defect]]), hearing deficits (maybe due to sensory-neural factors, or chronic serous [[otitis media]], also known as Glue-ear), [[short stature]], thyroid disorders, and [[Alzheimer's disease]]. Other less common serious illnesses include [[leukemia]], [[immune deficiency|immune deficiencies]], and [[epilepsy]].
However, health benefits of Down syndrome include greatly reduced incidence of many common malignancies except leukemia and testicular cancerYang Q, Rasmussen SA, Friedman JM. [http://www.ds-health.com/abst/a0205.htm Mortality associated with Down's syndrome in the USA from 1983 to 1997: a population-based study.] ''Lancet'' 2002 23 March;359(9311):1019–25. PMID 11937181 — although it is, as yet, unclear whether the reduced incidence of various fatal cancers among people with Down syndrome is as a direct result of tumor-suppressor genes on chromosome 21 (such as Ets2),[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20080102/hl_nm/cancer_down_dc ]{{Dead link|date=January 2009}} because of reduced exposure to [[environmental factor]]s that contribute to cancer risk, or some other as-yet unspecified factor. In addition to a reduced risk of most kinds of cancer, people with Down syndrome also have a much lower risk of [[atherosclerosis|hardening of the arteries]] and [[diabetic retinopathy]].","{{Main|Health aspects of Down syndrome}}
[[Image:Brushfield.jpg|thumb|right|Example of white spots on the [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as ''[[Brushfield spots]]'']]
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: [[microgenia]] (abnormally small chin){[cite web |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a62J5GPHd3cC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=%22down%27s+syndrome%22+chin+face&source=bl&ots=hVCgwMgpKi&sig=dZ3TYZnWjWMEnTioJY9WQcLP_4E&hl=en&ei=0Q9nSsegJYOZjAe6ypmmAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5| title=Conditional love: parents' attitudes toward handicapped children|author=Meira Weiss|page=94|accessdate = 2009-07-22}} or oblique eye fissures with epicanthic skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes (formerly known as a mongoloid fold{{cite web |publication-date = 1980|page = 343|author=This discussion by Myron Belfer, M.D., book by Gottfried Lemperie, M.D., and Dorin Radu, M.D.|url=http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=info:Nt6asksVAiYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&output=viewport| title=Facial Plastic Surgery in Children with Down's Syndrome (preview page, with link to full content on plasreconsurg.com)|accessdate = 2009-07-22}}), muscle hypotonia (poor muscle tone), a flat nasal bridge, a single palmar fold, a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils) or [[macroglossia]], a short neck, white spots on the [[Eye#Anatomy of the mammalian eye|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive joint laxity including atlanto-axial instability, congenital heart defects, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger, and a higher number of ulnar loop [[Dermatoglyphics|dermatoglyphs]]. Most individuals with Down syndrome have [[mental retardation]] in the mild ([[IQ]] 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range,{{cite journal| author=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Genetics| title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Health supervision for children with Down syndrome| journal=Pediatrics| year=2001| month=February| volume=107| issue=2| pages=442–449| pmid=11158488| doi=10.1542/peds.107.2.442}} with individuals having [[#Mosaicism|Mosaic Down syndrome]] typically 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} In addition, individuals with Down syndrome can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system.
They also may have a broad head and a very round face.
The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable and may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process. The health aspects of Down syndrome encompass anticipating and preventing effects of the condition, recognizing complications of the disorder, managing individual symptoms, and assisting the individual and his/her family in coping and thriving with any related disability or illnesses.
Down syndrome can result from several different genetic mechanisms. This results in a wide variability in individual symptoms due to complex gene and environment interactions. Prior to birth, it is not possible to predict the symptoms that an individual with Down syndrome will develop. Some problems are present at birth, such as certain heart malformations. Others become apparent over time, such as epilepsy.
The most common manifestations of Down syndrome are the characteristic facial features, cognitive impairment, [[congenital heart disease]] (typically a [[ventricular septal defect]]), hearing deficits (maybe due to sensory-neural factors, or chronic serous [[otitis media]], also known as Glue-ear), [[short stature]], thyroid disorders, and [[Alzheimer's disease]]. Other less common serious illnesses include [[leukemia]], [[immune deficiency|immune deficiencies]], and [[epilepsy]].
However, health benefits of Down syndrome include greatly reduced incidence of many common malignancies except leukemia and testicular cancerYang Q, Rasmussen SA, Friedman JM. [http://www.ds-health.com/abst/a0205.htm Mortality associated with Down's syndrome in the USA from 1983 to 1997: a population-based study.] ''Lancet'' 2002 23 March;359(9311):1019–25. PMID 11937181 — although it is, as yet, unclear whether the reduced incidence of various fatal cancers among people with Down syndrome is as a direct result of tumor-suppressor genes on chromosome 21 (such as Ets2),[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20080102/hl_nm/cancer_down_dc ]{{Dead link|date=January 2009}} because of reduced exposure to [[environmental factor]]s that contribute to cancer risk, or some other as-yet unspecified factor. In addition to a reduced risk of most kinds of cancer, people with Down syndrome also have a much lower risk of [[atherosclerosis|hardening of the arteries]] and [[diabetic retinopathy]].","[1, 4, 9, 3]"
Dream,Color vs. black and white,303634794,2009-07-22T23:52:24Z,Gasta220,"Twelve percent of people dream only in black and white.{{cite journal
| author = Michael Schredl, Petra Ciric, Simon Götz, Lutz Wittmann
| year = 2004
| month = November
| title = Typical Dreams: Stability and Gender Differences
| journal = The Journal of Psychology
| volume = 138
| issue = 6
| pages = 485 ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15612605 Abstract])
}} Studies from 1915 through to the 1950s maintained that the majority of dreams were in black and white, but these results began to change in the 1960s. Today, only 4.4% of the dreams of under-25 year-olds are in black and white {{Fact|date=March 2009}}. Recent research has suggested that those changing results may be linked to the switch from black-and-white film and TV to color media.{{cite journal
| author = Richard Alleyne
| date= October 17, 2008
| title = Black and white TV generation have monochrome dreams
| journal = Telegraph
| volume =
| issue =
| pages = (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2008/10/17/scidream117.xml Article])
}}","Twelve percent of people dream only in black and white.{{cite journal
| author = Michael Schredl, Petra Ciric, Simon Götz, Lutz Wittmann
| year = 2004
| month = November
| title = Typical Dreams: Stability and Gender Differences
| journal = The Journal of Psychology
| volume = 138
| issue = 6
| pages = 485 ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15612605 Abstract])
}} Recent research has suggested that those changing results may be linked to the switch from black-and-white film and TV to color media.{{cite journal
| author = Richard Alleyne
| date= October 17, 2008
| title = Black and white TV generation have monochrome dreams
| journal = Telegraph
| volume =
| issue =
| pages = (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2008/10/17/scidream117.xml Article])
}}",[2]
Circadian rhythm,See also,304081893,2009-07-25T07:05:39Z,81.157.21.245,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Biological clock in mammals,304650402,2009-07-28T10:06:57Z,Stevenfruitsmaak,"The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) ([[SCN]])), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 2| issue = | pages = e721| publisher = | location = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000721 }}","[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of dark-light rythms on circadian rythms and related [[physiology]] and behavior through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) ([[SCN]]), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 2| issue = | pages = e721| publisher = | location = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000721 }}",[11]
Prion,Heavy metal poisoning hypothesis,304826494,2009-07-29T06:12:30Z,216.234.170.71,"Autoclavure destroys protein and viruses, not the agent of disease.
The protein that can become protease resistant [[amyloidosis]] may gain [[superoxide dismutase]] activity when bound to copper ions. {{cite web| url=http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf |format=PDF|
title=Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry}}
Mark Purdey has provided epidemiology to support the idea that low concentrations of copper and high concentrations of [[manganism|manganese]] in the environment or animal feed lead to disease.","Autoclavure destroys protein and genetic material, not the agent of disease.
The protein that can become protease resistant [[amyloidosis]] may gain [[superoxide dismutase]] activity when bound to copper ions. {{cite web| url=http://www.bseinquiry.gov.uk/files/ws/s638.pdf |format=PDF|
title=Normal Function of Prions, Statement to the BSE Inquiry}}
Mark Purdey has provided epidemiology to support the idea that low concentrations of copper and high concentrations of [[manganism|manganese]] in the environment or animal feed lead to disease.",[3]
Medical cannabis,Alzheimer's disease,307314709,2009-08-11T06:43:03Z,Chris Capoccia,"Research done by the [[Scripps Research Institute]] in California shows that the active ingredient in marijuana, [[THC]], prevents the formation of deposits in the brain associated with [[Alzheimer's disease]]. THC was found to prevent an enzyme called [[acetylcholinesterase]] from accelerating the formation of ""Alzheimer plaques"" in the brain more effectively than commercially marketed drugs. THC is also more effective at blocking clumps of protein that can inhibit memory and cognition in Alzheimer’s patients, as reported in [[Molecular Pharmaceutics]].{{cite web|url=http://www.scripps.edu/news/press/080906.html |title=The Scripps Research Institute |publisher=Scripps.edu |date=2006-08-09 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}{{cite web|author=7:10 p.m. ET |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15145917/ |title=Marijuana may help stave off Alzheimer’s - Alzheimer's Disease- msnbc.com |publisher=MSNBC |date=2006-10-10 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}","Research done by the [[Scripps Research Institute]] in California shows that the active ingredient in marijuana, [[THC]], prevents the formation of deposits in the brain associated with [[Alzheimer's disease]]. THC was found to prevent an enzyme called [[acetylcholinesterase]] from accelerating the formation of ""Alzheimer plaques"" in the brain more effectively than commercially marketed drugs. THC is also more effective at blocking clumps of protein that can inhibit memory and cognition in Alzheimer’s patients, as reported in [[Molecular Pharmaceutics]].{{cite journal |author=Eubanks LM, Rogers CJ, Beuscher AE, ''et al.'' |title=A molecular link between the active component of marijuana and Alzheimer's disease pathology |journal=Molecular Pharmaceutics |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=773–7 |year=2006 |pmid=17140265 |pmc=2562334 |doi=10.1021/mp060066m}}",[7]
Code injection,Preventing code injection,307613816,2009-08-12T19:49:02Z,209.195.86.225,"To prevent code injection problems, utilize [[secure input and output handling]], such as:
* Input validation
* Escaping dangerous characters. For instance, in PHP, using the htmlentities() function to protect general inputs into your web application, and mysql_real_escape_string() to protect inputs which will be included in a SQL request, to protect against SQL Injection.
* Input encoding
* Output encoding
* Other coding practices which are not prone to code injection vulnerabilities, such as ""parameterized SQL queries"" (also known as ""prepared statements"" and sometimes ""bind variables"").","To prevent code injection problems, utilize [[secure input and output handling]], such as:
* Input validation
* Escaping dangerous characters. For instance, in PHP, using the htmlentities() function to protect general inputs into your web application, and mysql_real_escape_string() to protect inputs which will be included in a SQL request, to protect against SQL Injection.
* Input encoding
* Output encoding
* Other coding practices which are not prone to code injection vulnerabilities, such as ""parameterized SQL queries"" (also known as ""prepared statements"" and sometimes ""bind variables"").
* Modular shell disassociation from kernel","[1, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Biological clock in mammals,308122934,2009-08-15T13:58:36Z,Hordaland,"[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [[physiology]] and behavior through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) ([[SCN]]), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on day length from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 2| issue = | pages = e721| publisher = | location = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000721 }}","[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [[physiology]] and behavior through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) ([[SCN]]), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep/wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eyes contains not only ""classical"" [[photoreceptor]]s but also photoresponsive retinal [[ganglion cells]]. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [[melanopsin]], follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{cite journal | last = Scheer | first = Frank A. J. L. | coauthors = Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler | date = 2007-08-08 | title = Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 2| issue = | pages = e721| publisher = | location = | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000721 | accessdate = 2007-12-31 | quote = | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000721 }}","[1, 3]"
Methadone,Methadone maintenance treatment,308814195,2009-08-19T03:31:41Z,OlEnglish,"MMT (Methadone Maintenance Treatment) reduces and/or eliminates the use of heroin and abused prescription based opiates, and criminality associated with heroin and abused prescription based opiate use, and allows patients to improve their health and social productivity. In addition, enrollment in methadone maintenance has the potential to reduce the transmission of infectious diseases associated with heroin injection, such as hepatitis and HIV. The principal effects of methadone maintenance are to relieve narcotic craving, suppress the abstinence syndrome, and block the euphoric effects associated with heroin and abused prescription based opiate use. Methadone maintenance has been found to be medically safe and [[non-sedating]]. It is also indicated for pregnant women addicted to heroin and abused prescription based opiate use. {{cite journal |author=Joseph H, Stancliff S, Langrod J |title=Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT): a review of historical and clinical issues |journal=Mt. Sinai J. Med. |volume=67 |issue=5-6 |pages=347–64 |year=2000 |pmid=11064485 |doi=}}
In [[Russia]], methadone treatment is illegal. Health officials are not convinced of the treatment's efficacy. Instead, doctors encourage immediate abstinence from drug use, rather than the gradual process that methadone substitution therapy entails. Patients are often given sedatives and painkillers to cope with withdrawal symptoms.M Schwirtz. ""Russia Scorns Methadone for Heroin Addiction."" The New York Times. July 22, 2008.","MMT (Methadone Maintenance Treatment) reduces and/or eliminates the use of heroin, and criminality associated with heroin use, and allows patients to improve their health and social productivity. In addition, enrollment in methadone maintenance has the potential to reduce the transmission of infectious diseases associated with heroin injection, such as hepatitis and HIV. The principal effects of methadone maintenance are to relieve narcotic craving, suppress the abstinence syndrome, and block the euphoric effects associated with heroin. Methadone maintenance has been found to be medically safe and [[non-sedating]]. It is also indicated for pregnant women addicted to heroin. {{cite journal |author=Joseph H, Stancliff S, Langrod J |title=Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT): a review of historical and clinical issues |journal=Mt. Sinai J. Med. |volume=67 |issue=5-6 |pages=347–64 |year=2000 |pmid=11064485 |doi=}}
In [[Russia]], methadone treatment is illegal. Health officials are not convinced of the treatment's efficacy. Instead, doctors encourage immediate abstinence from drug use, rather than the gradual process that methadone substitution therapy entails. Patients are often given sedatives and painkillers to cope with withdrawal symptoms.M Schwirtz. ""Russia Scorns Methadone for Heroin Addiction."" The New York Times. July 22, 2008.",[11]
DNA sequencing,Large-scale sequencing strategies,310819242,2009-08-30T02:14:20Z,Xook1kai Choa6aur,"Current methods can directly sequence only relatively short (300-1000 [[nucleotides]] long) DNA fragments in a single reaction.[http://www.appliedbiosystems.com/catalog/myab/StoreCatalog/products/CategoryDetails.jsp?hierarchyID=102&category1st=a50&category2nd=a51&category3rd=111907 3730xl DNA Analyzer] The main obstacle to sequencing DNA fragments above this size limit is insufficient power of separation for resolving large DNA fragments that differ in length by only one nucleotide.
[[Image:DNA Sequencing gDNA libraries.jpg|thumb|left|Genomic DNA is fragmented into random pieces and cloned as a bacterial library. DNA from individual bacterial clones is sequenced and the sequence is assembled by using overlapping DNA regions.(click to expand)]] Large-scale sequencing aims at sequencing very long DNA pieces, such as whole [[chromosome]]s. Common approaches consist of cutting (with [[restriction enzyme]]s) or shearing (with mechanical forces) large DNA fragments into shorter DNA fragments. The fragmented DNA is [[clone (genetics)|cloned]] into a [[Vector DNA|DNA vector]], and amplified in ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Short DNA fragments purified from individual bacterial colonies are individually sequenced and [[sequence assembly|assembled electronically]] into one long, contiguous sequence. This method does not require any pre-existing information about the sequence of the DNA and is referred to as ''de novo'' sequencing. Gaps in the assembled sequence may be filled by [[primer walking]]. The different strategies have different tradeoffs in speed and accuracy; ''[[Shotgun sequencing|shotgun methods]]'' are often used for sequencing large genomes, but its assembly is complex and difficult, particularly with [[microsatellites|sequence repeat]]s often causing gaps in genome assembly.","DNA can be sequenced with little sample preparation. ''[[Shotgun sequencing|shotgun methods]]'' are often used for sequencing large genomes, but shotgun methods my fail with [[sequence repeat]]s often causing gaps in genome assembly.
More complex are methods when DNA before sequencing is stored into gnomic library. Cloned into vector DNA was also used frequently in early sequencing method when DNA particles were aligned one by one.
[[Image:DNA Sequencing gDNA libraries.jpg|thumb|left|[[Metagenomic library]]: Genomic DNA is fragmented into random pieces and cloned as a bacterial library. DNA from individual bacterial clones is sequenced and the sequence is assembled by using overlapping DNA regions.(click to expand)]] Common approaches to prepare library consist of cutting (with [[restriction enzyme]]s) or shearing (with mechanical forces) large DNA fragments into shorter DNA fragments. The fragmented DNA is [[clone (genetics)|cloned]] into a [[Vector DNA|DNA vector]], and amplified in ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Short DNA fragments purified from individual bacterial colonies are individually sequenced and [[sequence assembly|assembled electronically]] into one long, contiguous sequence. This method does not require any pre-existing information about the sequence of the DNA and is referred to as ''de novo'' sequencing. Gaps in the assembled sequence may be filled by [[primer walking]]. Methods utilizing DNA library may be also useful in sequencing on low throughput equipment or manually.","[1, 2, 4, 9]"
DNA sequencing,(Top),310844324,2009-08-30T05:59:04Z,Xook1kai Choa6aur,"The term '''DNA sequencing''' refers to [[sequencing]] methods to read genetic information - the order of the [[nucleotide]] bases, [[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]], in a molecule of [[DNA]].
Knowledge of [[DNA sequence]]s of [[gene]]s has become indispensable for [[molecular biology]] and basic research studying biological 'processes'.
The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery. The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of the [[human genome]], in the [[Human Genome Project]]. Related projects, often by scientific collaboration across continents, have generated the complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial genomes.
[[Image:Mutation Surveyor Trace.jpg|thumb|500px|DNA Sequence Trace]]","The term '''DNA sequencing''' refers to [[sequencing]] methods to read genetic information - the order of the [[nucleotide]] bases, [[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]], in a molecule of [[DNA]].
Knowledge of DNA sequences has become indispensable for basic biological research, other research branches utilizing DNA sequencing, and in numerous applied fields such as diagnostic, [[biotechnology]] or [[forensic biology]]. The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery. The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of the [[human genome]], in the [[Human Genome Project]]. Related projects, often by scientific collaboration across continents, have generated the complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial genomes.
[[Image:Mutation Surveyor Trace.jpg|thumb|500px|DNA Sequence Trace]]","[1, 2, 3, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light-dark cycle,312798203,2009-09-09T15:48:33Z,130.63.242.156,"The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[Free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [[endogenous]] period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep/wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Fact|date=January 2009}}","The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[Free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day,"" their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [[endogenous]] period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[Zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web | Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA | title =Circadian rhythms | publisher=Armenian Medical Network | work = Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. This is because although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well they do surface periodically.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep/wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Fact|date=January 2009}}","[1, 3, 4]"
Human brain,Language,312910032,2009-09-10T03:17:26Z,Bcjordan,"[[Image:BrocasAreaSmall.png|thumb|right|250px|Location of two brain areas that play a critical role in language, Broca's area and Wernicke's area]]
In human beings, it is the left hemisphere that usually contains the specialized language areas. While this holds true for 97% of right-handed people, about 19% of left-handed people have their language areas in the right hemisphere and as many as 68% of them have some language abilities in both the left and the right hemisphere. The two hemispheres are thought to contribute to the processing and understanding of language: the left hemisphere processes the [[linguistic meaning]] of [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] (or, the rhythm, stress, and intonation of [[connected speech]]), while the right hemisphere processes the emotions conveyed by prosody.{{cite web|url=http://umainetoday.umaine.edu/issues/v5i1/stroke.html| title=Deleted Words| first=George| last=Manlove| publisher=UMaine Today Magazine| month=February | year=2005| accessdate=2007-02-09}} Studies of children have shown that if a child has damage to the left hemisphere, the child may develop language in the right hemisphere instead. The younger the child, the better the recovery. So, although the ""natural"" tendency is for language to develop on the left, human brains are capable of adapting to difficult circumstances, if the damage occurs early enough.
The first language area within the left hemisphere to be discovered is called Broca's Area, after [[Paul Broca]]. The Broca's area doesn't just handle getting language out in a motor sense, though. It seems to be more generally involved in the ability to deal with grammar itself, at least the more complex aspects of grammar. For example, it handles distinguishing a sentence in passive form from a simpler subject-verb-object sentence — the difference between ""The boy was hit by the girl"" and ""The boy hit the girl.""
The second language area to be discovered is called Wernicke's Area, after [[Carl Wernicke]], a German neurologist. The problem of not understanding the speech of others is known as Wernicke’s Aphasia.
Wernicke's is not just about speech comprehension. People with Wernicke's Aphasia also have difficulty naming things, often responding with words that sound similar, or the names of related things, as if they are having a very hard time with their mental ""dictionaries.""","[[Image:BrocasAreaSmall.png|thumb|right|250px|Location of two brain areas that play a critical role in language, Broca's area and Wernicke's area]]
In human beings, it is the left hemisphere that usually contains the specialized language areas. While this holds true for 97% of right-handed people, about 19% of left-handed people have their language areas in the right hemisphere and as many as 68% of them have some language abilities in both the left and the right hemisphere. The two hemispheres are thought to contribute to the processing and understanding of language: the left hemisphere processes the [[linguistic meaning]] of [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] (or, the rhythm, stress, and intonation of [[connected speech]]), while the right hemisphere processes the emotions conveyed by prosody.{{cite web|url=http://umainetoday.umaine.edu/issues/v5i1/stroke.html| title=Deleted Words| first=George| last=Manlove| publisher=UMaine Today Magazine| month=February | year=2005| accessdate=2007-02-09}} Studies of children have shown that if a child has damage to the left hemisphere, the child may develop language in the right hemisphere instead. The younger the child, the better the recovery. So, although the ""natural"" tendency is for language to develop on the left, human brains are capable of adapting to difficult circumstances, if the damage occurs early enough.
The first language area within the left hemisphere to be discovered is called Broca's Area, after [[Paul Broca]], who discovered the area while studying patients with [[aphasia]], a language disorder. The Broca's area doesn't just handle getting language out in a motor sense, though. It seems to be more generally involved in the ability to deal with grammar itself, at least the more complex aspects of grammar. For example, it handles distinguishing a sentence in passive form from a simpler subject-verb-object sentence — the difference between ""The boy was hit by the girl"" and ""The boy hit the girl.""
The second language area to be discovered is called Wernicke's Area, after [[Carl Wernicke]], a German neurologist. The problem of not understanding the speech of others is known as Wernicke’s Aphasia.
Wernicke's is not just about speech comprehension. People with Wernicke's Aphasia also have difficulty naming things, often responding with words that sound similar, or the names of related things, as if they are having a very hard time with their mental ""dictionaries.""","[3, 9, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,The human circadian period,313347402,2009-09-12T10:31:16Z,Thumperward,"Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler ''et al'' at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23 | quote= The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range. }}","Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler ''et al'' at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23 | quote= The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range. }}
The '''28-hour day''' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{cite web |url= http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title= 28 Hour Day |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997 |format= |work= |publisher= |quote= }} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{cite book|last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2|location=Chicago|publisher= University of Chicago Press|year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans|journal=Neurosci Lett|year=1994|volume=166|pages=63}}{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans |journal=J. Neurosci|year=1995|volume=15| pages=3526|url= http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/5/3526}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{cite web |url= http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title= Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= |last= Cromie |first= William J. |date= 1999-07-15 |format= |work= |publisher= The Harvard University Gazette |quote= }} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Michael S | title = Sleep medicine | year = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2}}
Early research into [[circadian rhythm]]s suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a re-setting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research has shown that adults have a built-in day which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Code injection,See also,313740979,2009-09-14T04:36:19Z,189.122.127.15,"* [[Buffer overflow]]
* [[Debugging]]
* [[Mobile code]]
* [[Monitoring]]
* [[SQL injection]]
* [[Trojan horse (computing)]]","* [[Remote File Inclusion]]
* [[Buffer overflow]]
* [[Debugging]]
* [[Mobile code]]
* [[Monitoring]]
* [[SQL injection]]
* [[Trojan horse (computing)]]","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Butterfly migration,316077650,2009-09-25T06:43:05Z,LittleHow,,"The navigation of the fall migration of the [[Monarch_(butterfly)|Eastern North American monarch butterfly]] (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated Sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. {{DOI|10.1126/science.1176221}}Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 {{DOI|10.1126/science.1178935}}","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Hypnosis,Historical figures,316596754,2009-09-28T00:55:17Z,N5iln,"{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Theodore X. Barber]]
* [[Deirdre Barrett]]
* [[David B. Cheek]]
* [[William C. Coe]]
* [[Harold B. Crasilneck]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
* [[Milton Erickson]]
* [[Hans Eysenck]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Erika Fromm]]
* [[Etzel Cardeña]]
* [[Jack Stanley Gibson]]
* [[Melvin A. Gravitz]]
* [[John Hartland]]
* [[Ernest R. Hilgard]]
* [[Josephine R. Hilgard]]
* [[Clark L. Hull]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Irving Kirsch]]
* [[Milton V. Kline]]
* [[William S. Kroger]]
* [[Ainslie Meares]]
* [[Martin Orne]]
* [[Theodore Sarbin]]
* [[Nicholas Spanos]]
* [[Lewis R.Wolberg]]
* [[Brian L. Weiss]]
{{col-end}}","{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Étienne Eugène Azam]]
* [[Charles Baudouin]]
* [[Vladimir Bekhterev]]
* [[Hippolyte Bernheim]]
* [[Alfred Binet]]
* [[James Braid (physician)]]
* [[John Milne Bramwell]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Émile Coué]]
{{col-break}}
* [[John Elliotson]]
* [[James Esdaile]]
* [[Abbé Faria]]
* [[William B. Fahnestock]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Pierre Janet]]
* [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault]]
* [[Franz Mesmer]]
* [[Albert Moll]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Julian Ochorowicz]]
* [[Ivan Pavlov]]
* [[Morton Prince]]
* [[Marquis de Puységur]]
* [[John D. Quackenbos]]
* [[Louis Satow]]
* [[Ferenc A.Völgyesi]]
* [[Otto Georg Wetterstrand]]
* [[Charles F. Winbigler]]
{{col-end}}","[1, 2, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Autonomic,317303042,2009-10-01T16:28:35Z,Garrondo,"*Oily skin and [[seborrheic dermatitis]]{{cite journal |author=Gupta A, Bluhm R |title=Seborrheic dermatitis |journal=Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=13–26; quiz 19–20 |year=2004 |pmid=14678527 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00693.x}}
*[[Urinary incontinence]], typically in later disease progression
*Nocturia (getting up in the night to pass urine) — up to 60% of cases
* Altered sexual function: characterized by profound impairment of sexual arousal, behavior, orgasm, and drive is found in mid and late Parkinson disease. Current data addresses male sexual function almost exclusively.
*[[Weight loss]], which is significant over a period of ten years.","*[[Orthostatic hypotension]]
*Oily skin and [[seborrheic dermatitis]]{{cite journal |author=Gupta A, Bluhm R |title=Seborrheic dermatitis |journal=Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=13–26; quiz 19–20 |year=2004 |pmid=14678527 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00693.x}}
*[[Urinary incontinence]] (typically in later disease progression) and [[nocturia]] (getting up in the night to pass urine)
* Altered sexual function: characterized by profound impairment of sexual arousal, behavior, orgasm, and drive is found in mid and late Parkinson disease.
*Sweating dysfunction","[2, 9, 4]"
Port (computer networking),Example,317582557,2009-10-03T03:33:22Z,Kbrose,"An example for the use of ports is the Internet mail system ([[e-mail]]). A server used for sending and receiving e-mail provides both an [[SMTP]] service (for sending) and a [[POP3]] service (for receiving). These are handled by different server processes, and the port number is used to determine which data is associated with which process. By convention, the SMTP server listens on port 25, while POP3 listens on port 110.
The concept of ports can be readily explained with an analogy: think of [[IP address]]es as the street address of an apartment building, and the port number as the number of a particular apartment within that building. If a letter (a data packet) is sent to the apartment building (IP) without an apartment number (port number) on it, then nobody knows whom (which service) it is intended for. In order for the delivery to be successful, the sender needs to include an apartment number along with the address to ensure the letter gets to the right domicile.","An example for the use of ports is the Internet mail system ([[e-mail]]). A server used for sending and receiving e-mail generally needs two services. The first service is used to transport e-mail to and from other servers. This is accomplished with the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP). The SMTP service application usually listens on port 25 for incoming requests. The second service is the [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP) which is used by [[e-mail client]] applications on user's personal computers to fetch e-mail message from the server. The POP service listens on port number 110. Both services may be running on the same host computer, in which case the port number distinguishes the service that was requested by a remote computer, be it a user's computer or another mail server.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Human cloning,two commonly discuss<,318295557,2009-10-06T18:38:53Z,92.3.104.6,,"cloning would involve making cloned humans. Such reproductive cloning has not been performed and is illegal in many countries. A third type of cloning called replacement cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.","[1, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,History,320270571,2009-10-16T19:38:14Z,169.230.72.189,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.Bretzl H. ''Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges.'' Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the mammalian circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719–725|doi=10.1126/science.8171325|volume=264}}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.Bretzl H. ''Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges.'' Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.. In humans, research done on [[Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndromes]] has begun to answer questions about the biology of human circadian rhythms regulation (see [[Louis Ptacek]] at [[UCSF]].
{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719–725|doi=10.1126/science.8171325|volume=264}}","[1, 3, 9, 5, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,History,320284160,2009-10-16T20:55:41Z,Hordaland,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.Bretzl H. ''Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges.'' Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.. In humans, research done on [[Familial Advanced Sleep Phase Syndromes]] has begun to answer questions about the biology of human circadian rhythms regulation (see [[Louis Ptacek]] at [[UCSF]].
{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719–725|doi=10.1126/science.8171325|volume=264}}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[Diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.Bretzl H. ''Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges.'' Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal | last = Danchin | first = Antoine | date = | year = | month = | title = Important dates 1900-1919 | journal = HKU-Pasteur Research Centre | publisher = | location = Paris | url = http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | quote = }} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal|last1=Vitaterna |first1=M.H. |first2=D.P. |last2=King |first3=A.M. |last3=Chang |first4=J.M. |last4=Kornhauser |first5=P.L. |last5=Lowrey |first6=J.D. |last6=McDonald |first7=W.F. |last7=Dove |first8=L.H. |last8=Pinto |first9=F.W. |last9=Turek |first10=J.S. |last10=Takahashi |year=1994|title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior. |journal=Science |issue=264 |pages=719–725|doi=10.1126/science.8171325|volume=264}}",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,321393874,2009-10-22T15:21:34Z,Hordaland,"{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating cyclic biochemical processes within an individual as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions (Sheeba et al. 1999), as well as the experimental elimination of behavioral but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999).
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture, input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
Heroine and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |last= Purves |first= Dale ''et al'' |title= NEUROSCIENCE |origdate= |origyear= 2001 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=.0-X5CQEZnQIQrizQvUwzgMbTAG |format= e-book |accessdate= 2008-05-30 |edition= second |series= |date= |year= |month= |publisher= Sinauer Associates |location= Sunderland, MA, U.S.A. |isbn= 0-87893-742-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |quote= }} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550250 Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this clock-regulated mechanism. Rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating cyclic biochemical processes within an individual as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions (Sheeba et al. 1999), as well as the experimental elimination of behavioral but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999).
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture, input - central oscillator - output, they do not share any homology. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behavior - one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |last= Purves |first= Dale ''et al'' |title= NEUROSCIENCE |origdate= |origyear= 2001 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=.0-X5CQEZnQIQrizQvUwzgMbTAG |format= e-book |accessdate= 2008-05-30 |edition= second |series= |date= |year= |month= |publisher= Sinauer Associates |location= Sunderland, MA, U.S.A. |isbn= 0-87893-742-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |quote= }} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later - underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. We now know many more genetic components of the biological clock. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550250 Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","[3, 5]"
Gene therapy,(Top),322729478,2009-10-29T13:39:37Z,204.82.112.100,"JAMES IS Gay'''Bold text'''is the insertion of [[gene]]s into an individual's [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s to treat a [[disease]], such as a [[hereditary disease]] in which a deleterious [[mutant]] [[allele]] is replaced with a functional one. Although controversial, Gene Therapy can also be used for human genetic enhancement changing one's genetic formula and function towards a desired goal of ""enhancement"". Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success and scientific break throughs continue to move Gene Therapy towards mainstream medicine. [[Antisense therapy]] is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods.
The road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering them to the correct site on the comparatively large [[human genome]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}. Today, most gene therapy studies are aimed at cancer and hereditary genetic diseases.","JAMES IS Gay AND LOVES LITTLE BOYS'''Bold text'''is the insertion of [[gene]]s into an individual's [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s to treat a [[disease]], such as a [[hereditary disease]] in which a deleterious [[mutant]] [[allele]] is replaced with a functional one. Although controversial, Gene Therapy can also be used for human genetic enhancement changing one's genetic formula and function towards a desired goal of ""enhancement"". Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success and scientific break throughs continue to move Gene Therapy towards mainstream medicine. [[Antisense therapy]] is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods.
The road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}
Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering them to the correct site on the comparatively large [[human genome]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}. Today, most gene therapy studies are aimed at cancer and hereditary genetic diseases.",[11]
Gene therapy,Viruses,323917609,2009-11-04T17:03:48Z,Alansohn,"{{to know the function of each. An example:
''A replaced by gene C, while allowing gene A to properly function, this virus could introduce the required gene - gene C into the host cell's ge cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed [[reverse transcription]]. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called [[reverse transcriptase]]. After this DNA copy is produced and is free in the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the host cell, it must be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. That is, it must be inserted into the large DNA molecules in the cell (the chromosomes). This process is done by another enzyme carried in the virus called [[integrase]].
Now that the genetic material of the virus has been inserted, it can be said that the host cell has been modified to contain a new genes. If this host cell divides later, its descendants will all contain the new genes. Sometimes the genes of the retrovirus do not express their information immediately.
One of the problems of gene therapy using retroviruses is that the integrase enzyme can insert the genetic material of the virus into any arbitrary position in the genome of the host; it randomly shoves the genetic material into a chromosome. If genetic material happens to be inserted in the middle of one of the original genes of the host cell, this gene will be disrupted ([[insertional mutagenesis]]). If the gene happens to be one regulating cell division, uncontrolled cell division (i.e., [[cancer]]) can occur. This problem has recently begun to be addressed by utilizing [[zinc finger nucleases]]{{cite journal |author=Durai S, Mani M, Kandavelou K, Wu J, Porteus MH, Chandrasegaran S |title=Zinc finger nucleases: custom-designed molecular scissors for genome engineering of plant and mammalian cells |journal=[[Nucleic Acids Research|Nucleic Acids Res.]] |volume=33 |issue=18 |pages=5978–90 |year=2005 |pmid=16251401 |pmc=1270952 |doi=10.1093/nar/gki912 }} or by including certain sequences such as the beta-globin locus control region to direct the site of integration to specific chromosomal sites.
Gene therapy trials using retroviral vectors to treat X-linked [[severe combined immunodeficiency]] (X-SCID) represent the most successful application of gene therapy to date. More than twenty patients have been treated in France and Britain, with a high rate of immune system reconstitution observed. Similar trials were halted or restricted in the USA when [[leukemia]] was reported in patients treated in the French X-SCID gene therapy trial. To date, four children in the French trial and one in the British trial have developed leukemia as a result of insertional mutagenesis by the retroviral vector. All but one of these children responded well to conventional anti-leukemia treatment. Gene therapy trials to treat SCID due to deficiency of the Adenosine Deaminase ([[Adenosine deaminase|ADA]]) enzyme continue with relative success in the USA, Britain, Italy and Japan.","{{Main|Viral vector}}
All [[virus]]es bind to their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hijacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of the virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Some types of viruses physically insert their genes into the host's genome (a defining feature of [[retrovirus]]es, the family of viruses that includes [[HIV]], is that the virus will introduce the enzyme [[reverse transcriptase]] into the host and thus use its RNA as the ""instructions""). This incorporates the genes of that virus among the genes of the host cell for the life span of that cell.
Doctors and molecular biologists realized that viruses like this could be used as vehicles to carry 'good' genes into a human cell. First, a scientist would remove the genes in the virus that cause disease. Then they would replace those genes with genes encoding the desired effect (for instance, insulin production in the case of diabetics). This procedure must be done in such a way that the genes which allow the virus to insert its genome into its host's genome are left intact. This can be confusing, and requires significant research and understanding of the virus' genes in order to know the function of each. An example:
''A virus is found which replicates by inserting its genes into the host cell's genome. This virus has two genes- A and B. Gene A encodes a protein which allows this virus to insert itself into the host's genome. Gene B causes the disease this virus is associated with. Gene C is the ""normal"" or ""desirable"" gene we want in the place of gene B. Thus, by re-engineering the virus so that gene B is replaced by gene C, while allowing gene A to properly function, this virus could introduce the required gene - gene C into the host cell's genome without causing any disease.''
All this is clearly an oversimplification, and numerous problems exist that prevent gene therapy using viral vectors, such as: trouble preventing undesired effects, ensuring the virus will infect the correct target cell in the body, and ensuring that the inserted gene doesn't disrupt any vital genes already in the genome. However, this basic mode of gene introduction currently shows much promise and doctors and scientists are working hard to fix any potential problems that could exist.","[1, 2, 4, 8, 9]"
Dream,Recalling dreams,324279710,2009-11-06T14:27:54Z,ClueBot,"While the content of most dreams is dreamt only once, many people experience recurring dreams — that is, the same dream narrative is experienced over different occasions of sleep. Up to 70% of females and 65% of males report recurrent dreams.","The recall of dreams is extremely unreliable, though it is a skill that can be trained. Dreams can usually be recalled if a person is awakened while dreaming. Women tend to have more frequent dream recall than men.[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15778923 The Science Behind Dreams and Nightmares] Dreams that are difficult to recall may be characterized by relatively little [[affect (psychology)|affect]], and factors such as [[salience (neuroscience)|salience]], [[arousal]], and interference play a role in dream recall. Often, a dream may be recalled upon viewing or hearing a random trigger or stimulus. A [[dream journal]] can be used to assist dream recall, for [[psychotherapy]] or entertainment purposes. For some people, vague images or sensations from the previous night's dreams are sometimes spontaneously experienced in falling asleep. However they are usually too slight and fleeting to allow dream recall. At least 95% of all dreams are not remembered. Certain brain chemicals necessary for converting short-term memories into long-term ones are suppressed during REM sleep. Unless a dream is particularly vivid and you wake during or immediately after it, the content of the dream will not be remembered. Hobson, J.A., and McCarly, R.W. (1977). The brain as a dream-state generator: An activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', 134, 1335-1348.","[1, 7, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),324709775,2009-11-08T20:54:36Z,Hordaland,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]]. These rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes (extrinsic adaptive value) and to coordinate internal metabolic processes (intrinsic adaptive value).{{cite journal | last = Sharma | first = Vijay Kumar | date = | year = 2003 | month = | title = Adaptive significance of circadian clocks | journal = Chronobiology international | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 901-919 | publisher = | issn = 0742-0528 | pmid = | doi = | id = | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15334192 | language = | format = Abstract | accessdate = 2009-11-08 | quote = }}","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly-24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[2, 8]"
Context-free grammar,Example 2,325157237,2009-11-11T00:55:24Z,128.59.15.74,":S → a
:S → aS
:S → bS
The terminals here are ''a'' and ''b'', while the only non-terminal is S.
The language described is all nonempty strings of s and s that end in .
This grammar is [[regular grammar|regular]]: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side.
Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a [[nondeterministic finite automaton]], so we know that this is a [[regular language]].
It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using | to separate them, like this:
:S → a | aS | bS
Technically, this is the same grammar as above.","In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with [[bracket]]s. The simplest example:
:S → aSb
:S → ab
This grammar generates the language , which is not [[regular language|regular]] according to [[Pumping Lemma For Regular Languages]]
The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to
:S → aSb | ε
we obtain a grammar generating the language instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Notable sufferers,325347178,2009-11-12T00:24:54Z,Sesame Stick,"{{Citations missing|date=August 2008}}
{{Trivia|date=August 2008}}
{{further|[[:Category:People with Parkinson's disease|People with Parkinson's disease]]}}
One famous sufferer of young-onset Parkinson's is [[Michael J. Fox]], whose book, ''Lucky Man'' (2000), focused on his experiences with the disease and his career and family travails in the midst of it. Fox established ''[[The Michael J. Fox Foundation|The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research]]'' to develop a cure for Parkinson's disease within this decade.
Another foundation that supports Parkinson's research was established by [[Davis Phinney]], a notable figure in the cycling world. Phinney has competed in the Olympics, Pan-Am Games and has competed as a pro-cyclist for nearly twenty years. The [[Davis Phinney Foundation]] strives to improve the lives of those living with Parkinson's disease.
Other famous sufferers include [[Pope John Paul II]], playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]], artist
[[Salvador Dalí]], boxer [[Muhammad Ali]], evangelist [[Billy Graham]] and former US Attorney General [[Janet Reno]]. Political figures suffering from it have included [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Francisco Franco]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Mao Zedong]], and former Prime Minister of Canada [[Pierre Trudeau]]. Numerous actors have also been afflicted with Parkinson's such as: [[Terry-Thomas]], [[Deborah Kerr]], [[Kenneth More]], [[Vincent Price]], [[Jim Backus]] and [[Michael Redgrave]]. [[Helen Beardsley]] (of ''[[Yours, Mine and Ours (1968 film)|Yours, Mine and Ours]]'' fame) also suffered from this disease toward the end of her life. [[James Doohan]] also suffered from Parkinson's Disease, and later, Alzheimer's. Director [[George Roy Hill]] ([[The Sting]], [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]) also suffered from Parkinson's disease.
The film ''[[Awakenings]]'' (starring [[Robin Williams]] and [[Robert De Niro]] and based on genuine cases reported by [[Oliver Sacks]]) deals sensitively and largely accurately with a similar disease, [[postencephalitic parkinsonism]].
[[Michael Gibson (TV presenter)]], host of [[MTV Select]], was diagnosed with Parkinson's at the age of 18. Gibson lived in denial about his condition for six years. He then pitched a documentary proposal to [[Channel 4]] who commissioned him to make a documentary following Michael's journey with Parkinson's. [http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/body/ill_parkinsons_shookup.html All shook up: Parkinson's at 25] aired on Channel 4 in 2006.
In addition, former Arsenal and [[Liverpool FC]] footballer [[Ray Kennedy]], who won every domestic English honour as well as the [[European Cup]] and [[UEFA Cup]], is a sufferer of the disease, having been diagnosed at 35.","{{Citations missing|date=August 2008}}
{{Trivia|date=August 2008}}
{{further|[[:Category:People with Parkinson's disease|People with Parkinson's disease]]}}
In addition to Fox and Phinney, other famous sufferers include [[Pope John Paul II]], playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]], artist
[[Salvador Dalí]], boxer [[Muhammad Ali]], evangelist [[Billy Graham]] and former US Attorney General [[Janet Reno]]. Political figures suffering from it have included [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Francisco Franco]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Mao Zedong]], and former Prime Minister of Canada [[Pierre Trudeau]]. Numerous actors have also been afflicted with Parkinson's such as: [[Terry-Thomas]], [[Deborah Kerr]], [[Kenneth More]], [[Vincent Price]], [[Jim Backus]] and [[Michael Redgrave]]. [[Helen Beardsley]] (of ''[[Yours, Mine and Ours (1968 film)|Yours, Mine and Ours]]'' fame) also suffered from this disease toward the end of her life. [[James Doohan]] also suffered from Parkinson's Disease, and later, Alzheimer's. Director [[George Roy Hill]] ([[The Sting]], [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]) also suffered from Parkinson's disease.
The film ''[[Awakenings]]'' (starring [[Robin Williams]] and [[Robert De Niro]] and based on genuine cases reported by [[Oliver Sacks]]) deals sensitively and largely accurately with a similar disease, [[postencephalitic parkinsonism]].
[[Michael Gibson (TV presenter)]], host of [[MTV Select]], was diagnosed with Parkinson's at the age of 18. Gibson lived in denial about his condition for six years. He then pitched a documentary proposal to [[Channel 4]] who commissioned him to make a documentary following Michael's journey with Parkinson's. [http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/body/ill_parkinsons_shookup.html All shook up: Parkinson's at 25] aired on Channel 4 in 2006.
In addition, former Arsenal and [[Liverpool FC]] footballer [[Ray Kennedy]], who won every domestic English honour as well as the [[European Cup]] and [[UEFA Cup]], is a sufferer of the disease, having been diagnosed at 35.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),325887363,2009-11-15T00:07:31Z,Hordaland,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 8 hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[3, 10]"
Parkinson's disease,Classification,326173633,2009-11-16T15:47:53Z,Rodhullandemu,"{{Mergefrom|Parkinson plus syndrome|date=September 2009}}
The term [[Parkinsonism]] is used for symptoms of tremor, stiffness, and slowing of movement caused by loss of [[dopamine]]. ""Micheal j. Fox is called 14 eyes because of parkinsons...LOL.
There are other disorders that are called ''[[Parkinson plus syndrome|Parkinson-plus diseases]]''. These include: [[multiple system atrophy]] (MSA), [[progressive supranuclear palsy]] (PSP) and [[corticobasal degeneration]] (CBD). Some include [[dementia with Lewy bodies]] (DLB) — while idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients also have [[Lewy body|Lewy bodies]] in their brain tissue, the distribution is denser and more widespread in DLB. Even so, the relationship between Parkinson disease, Parkinson disease with dementia (PDD), and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) might be most accurately conceptualized as a spectrum, with a discrete area of overlap between each of the three disorders. The natural history and role of Lewy bodies is little understood.
These Parkinson-plus diseases may progress more quickly than typical idiopathic Parkinson disease. If cognitive dysfunction occurs before or very early in the course of the movement disorder then DLBD may be suspected. Early postural instability with minimal tremor especially in the context of ophthalmoparesis should suggest PSP. Early autonomic dysfunction including erectile dysfunction and syncope may suggest MSA. The presence of extreme asymmetry with patchy cortical cognitive defects such as dysphasia and apraxias especially with ""alien limb"" phenomena should suggest CBD.
The usual anti-Parkinson's medications are typically either less effective or not effective at all in controlling symptoms; patients may be exquisitely sensitive to neuroleptic medications like [[haloperidol]]. Additionally, the [[Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor|cholinesterase inhibiting]] medications have shown preliminary efficacy in treating the cognitive, psychiatric, and behavioral aspects of the disease, so correct differential diagnosis is important.
[[Essential tremor]] may be mistaken for Parkinson's disease but lacks all other features besides tremor, and has particular characteristics distinguishing it from Parkinson's disease, such as improvement with [[beta blocker]]s and [[alcoholic beverage]]s.
[[Wilson's disease]] (hereditary copper accumulation) may present with parkinsonian features; young patients presenting with parkinsonism or any other movement disorder are frequently screened for this rare condition, because it may respond to medical treatment. Typical tests are [[liver enzymes|liver function]], slit lamp examination for [[Kayser-Fleischer ring]]s, and serum [[ceruloplasmin]] levels.","{{Mergefrom|Parkinson plus syndrome|date=September 2009}}
The term [[Parkinsonism]] is used for symptoms of tremor, stiffness, and slowing of movement caused by loss of [[dopamine]]. ""Parkinson's disease"" is the synonym of ""primary parkinsonism"", i.e. isolated parkinsonism due to a neurodegenerative process without any secondary systemic cause. In some cases, it would be inaccurate to say that the cause is ""unknown"", because a small proportion is caused by genetic mutations. It is possible for a patient to be initially diagnosed with Parkinson's disease but then to develop additional features, requiring revision of the diagnosis.
There are other disorders that are called ''[[Parkinson plus syndrome|Parkinson-plus diseases]]''. These include: [[multiple system atrophy]] (MSA), [[progressive supranuclear palsy]] (PSP) and [[corticobasal degeneration]] (CBD). Some include [[dementia with Lewy bodies]] (DLB) — while idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients also have [[Lewy body|Lewy bodies]] in their brain tissue, the distribution is denser and more widespread in DLB. Even so, the relationship between Parkinson disease, Parkinson disease with dementia (PDD), and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) might be most accurately conceptualized as a spectrum, with a discrete area of overlap between each of the three disorders. The natural history and role of Lewy bodies is little understood.
These Parkinson-plus diseases may progress more quickly than typical idiopathic Parkinson disease. If cognitive dysfunction occurs before or very early in the course of the movement disorder then DLBD may be suspected. Early postural instability with minimal tremor especially in the context of ophthalmoparesis should suggest PSP. Early autonomic dysfunction including erectile dysfunction and syncope may suggest MSA. The presence of extreme asymmetry with patchy cortical cognitive defects such as dysphasia and apraxias especially with ""alien limb"" phenomena should suggest CBD.
The usual anti-Parkinson's medications are typically either less effective or not effective at all in controlling symptoms; patients may be exquisitely sensitive to neuroleptic medications like [[haloperidol]]. Additionally, the [[Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor|cholinesterase inhibiting]] medications have shown preliminary efficacy in treating the cognitive, psychiatric, and behavioral aspects of the disease, so correct differential diagnosis is important.
[[Essential tremor]] may be mistaken for Parkinson's disease but lacks all other features besides tremor, and has particular characteristics distinguishing it from Parkinson's disease, such as improvement with [[beta blocker]]s and [[alcoholic beverage]]s.
[[Wilson's disease]] (hereditary copper accumulation) may present with parkinsonian features; young patients presenting with parkinsonism or any other movement disorder are frequently screened for this rare condition, because it may respond to medical treatment. Typical tests are [[liver enzymes|liver function]], slit lamp examination for [[Kayser-Fleischer ring]]s, and serum [[ceruloplasmin]] levels.","[1, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),326399498,2009-11-17T20:00:30Z,ClueBot,"kbhggg,m gjnhuiooooooooogjnswbgxsj","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Effect of drugs,326399498,2009-11-17T20:00:30Z,ClueBot,"Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{cite journal |author=Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H |title=The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=2117–23 |year=2003 |pmid=12865893 |doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1300254}}{{cite journal |author=Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T |title=Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice |journal=Eur J Pharmacol |volume=489 |issue=3 |pages=203–5 |year=2004 |pmid=15087244 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{cite journal |author=McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E |title=Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=102 |issue=26 |pages=9377–81 |year=2005 |pmid=15967985 | doi =10.1073/pnas.0503584102 |pmc=1166621 }}","Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{cite journal |author=Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H |title=The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=2117–23 |year=2003 |pmid=12865893 |doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1300254}}{{cite journal |author=Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T |title=Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice |journal=Eur J Pharmacol |volume=489 |issue=3 |pages=203–5 |year=2004 |pmid=15087244 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{cite journal |author=McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E |title=Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=102 |issue=26 |pages=9377–81 |year=2005 |pmid=15967985 | doi =10.1073/pnas.0503584102 |pmc=1166621 }}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,326399498,2009-11-17T20:00:30Z,ClueBot,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal | author=Leloup J.C. |title=Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=4 |issue= 3 |pages= 290–303 |year= 2009 |doi=10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1 }}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal | author=Leloup J.C. |title=Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=4 |issue= 3 |pages= 290–303 |year= 2009 |doi=10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1 }}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,References,326399498,2009-11-17T20:00:30Z,ClueBot,"{{Refimprovesect|date=March 2009}}
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}",,[11]
Alzheimer's disease,External links,326508672,2009-11-18T09:53:48Z,Garrondo,"* [http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/ResearchInformation/ResearchCenters/ Alzheimer's Disease Centers (ADCs)]
* [http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center]
* [http://www.alz.org/index.asp Alzheimer's Association]
* [http://memory.ucsf.edu/ UCSF Memory and Aging Center]
* [http://www.psychforums.com/alzheimer/ Psych Forums: Alzheimer's Disease Forum]
{{-}}
{{Mental and behavioral disorders}}
{{Diseases of the nervous system}}
{{Amyloidosis}}
{{featured article}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alzheimer's Disease}}
[[Category:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[Category:Aging-associated diseases]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]]
[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[af:Alzheimer se siekte]]
[[ar:داء ألزيمر]]
[[an:Malautía d'Alzheimer]]
[[ast:Alzheimer]]
[[bs:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[bg:Болест на Алцхаймер]]
[[ca:Malaltia d'Alzheimer]]
[[cs:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[cy:Clefyd Alzheimer]]
[[da:Alzheimers sygdom]]
[[de:Alzheimer-Krankheit]]
[[el:Αλτσχάιμερ]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Alzheimer]]
[[eo:Alchajmero]]
[[eu:Alzheimer]]
[[fa:آلزایمر]]
[[fr:Maladie d'Alzheimer]]
[[ga:Galar Alzheimer]]
[[gl:Alzhéimer]]
[[ko:알츠하이머병]]
[[hy:Ալցհայմերի հիվանդություն]]
[[hi:अलजाइमर रोग]]
[[hr:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[id:Alzheimer]]
[[is:Alsheimer]]
[[it:Morbo di Alzheimer]]
[[he:אלצהיימר]]
[[la:Morbus Alzheimer]]
[[lv:Alcheimera slimība]]
[[lb:Alzheimer]]
[[lt:Alzhaimerio liga]]
[[hu:Alzheimer-kór]]
[[mk:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[ml:അല്ഷൈമേഴ്സ് രോഗം]]
[[ms:Alzheimer]]
[[nl:Ziekte van Alzheimer]]
[[ja:アルツハイマー型認知症]]
[[no:Alzheimers sykdom]]
[[pl:Choroba Alzheimera]]
[[pt:Mal de Alzheimer]]
[[ro:Boala Alzheimer]]
[[ru:Болезнь Альцгеймера]]
[[si:ඇල්zසයිම' රෝගය]]
[[simple:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[sk:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[sl:Alzheimerjeva bolezen]]
[[sr:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[sh:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[su:Panyakit Alzheimer]]
[[fi:Alzheimerin tauti]]
[[sv:Alzheimers sjukdom]]
[[ta:ஆல்சைமர் நோய்]]
[[th:โรคอัลไซเมอร์]]
[[tr:Alzheimer hastalığı]]
[[uk:Хвороба Альцгеймера]]
[[yi:אלצהיימערס קרענק]]
[[bat-smg:Alzhaimere lėga]]
[[zh:阿兹海默病]]","* [http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/ResearchInformation/ResearchCenters/ Alzheimer's Disease Centers (ADCs)]
* [http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center]
* [http://www.alz.org/index.asp Alzheimer's Association]
* [http://memory.ucsf.edu/ UCSF Memory and Aging Center]
{{-}}
{{Mental and behavioral disorders}}
{{Diseases of the nervous system}}
{{Amyloidosis}}
{{featured article}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alzheimer's Disease}}
[[Category:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[Category:Aging-associated diseases]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]]
[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[af:Alzheimer se siekte]]
[[ar:داء ألزيمر]]
[[an:Malautía d'Alzheimer]]
[[ast:Alzheimer]]
[[bs:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[bg:Болест на Алцхаймер]]
[[ca:Malaltia d'Alzheimer]]
[[cs:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[cy:Clefyd Alzheimer]]
[[da:Alzheimers sygdom]]
[[de:Alzheimer-Krankheit]]
[[el:Αλτσχάιμερ]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Alzheimer]]
[[eo:Alchajmero]]
[[eu:Alzheimer]]
[[fa:آلزایمر]]
[[fr:Maladie d'Alzheimer]]
[[ga:Galar Alzheimer]]
[[gl:Alzhéimer]]
[[ko:알츠하이머병]]
[[hy:Ալցհայմերի հիվանդություն]]
[[hi:अलजाइमर रोग]]
[[hr:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[id:Alzheimer]]
[[is:Alsheimer]]
[[it:Morbo di Alzheimer]]
[[he:אלצהיימר]]
[[la:Morbus Alzheimer]]
[[lv:Alcheimera slimība]]
[[lb:Alzheimer]]
[[lt:Alzhaimerio liga]]
[[hu:Alzheimer-kór]]
[[mk:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[ml:അല്ഷൈമേഴ്സ് രോഗം]]
[[ms:Alzheimer]]
[[nl:Ziekte van Alzheimer]]
[[ja:アルツハイマー型認知症]]
[[no:Alzheimers sykdom]]
[[pl:Choroba Alzheimera]]
[[pt:Mal de Alzheimer]]
[[ro:Boala Alzheimer]]
[[ru:Болезнь Альцгеймера]]
[[si:ඇල්zසයිම' රෝගය]]
[[simple:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[sk:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[sl:Alzheimerjeva bolezen]]
[[sr:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[sh:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[su:Panyakit Alzheimer]]
[[fi:Alzheimerin tauti]]
[[sv:Alzheimers sjukdom]]
[[ta:ஆல்சைமர் நோய்]]
[[th:โรคอัลไซเมอร์]]
[[tr:Alzheimer hastalığı]]
[[uk:Хвороба Альцгеймера]]
[[yi:אלצהיימערס קרענק]]
[[bat-smg:Alzhaimere lėga]]
[[zh:阿兹海默病]]",[11]
Port (computer networking),Common port numbers,326886016,2009-11-20T06:48:33Z,110.93.43.228,"{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''Well Known Ports'', the ''Registered Ports'', and the ''Dynamic'' or ''Private Ports''.
The ''Well Known Ports'' are those from 0 through 1023.
The ''Registered Ports'' are those from 1024 through 49151.
A list of registered ports can be found on the IANA Website - http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[da:Ip-port]]
[[de:Port (Protokoll)]]
[[fr:Port (logiciel)]]
[[id:Port TCP dan UDP]]
[[it:Porta (reti)]]
[[nl:IP-poort]]
[[ja:ポート番号]]
[[no:Port (datakommunikasjon)]]
[[pl:Porty protokołu]]
[[ru:Порт (IP)]]
[[sk:port (TCP a UDP)]]
[[zh:TCP/IP端口列表]]","{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''Well Known Ports'', the ''Registered Ports'', and the ''Dynamic'' or ''Private Ports''.
The ''Well Known Ports'' are those from 0 through 1023.
example:21->File transfer
23->Telnet(remote login)
25->SMTP(Email)
69->TFTP(Trivial file transfer protocol)
79->Finger(Lookup Information about user)
80->HTTP(World Wide Web)
110->POP-3(Remote Email access)
The ''Registered Ports'' are those from 1024 through 49151.
A list of registered ports can be found on the IANA Website - http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[da:Ip-port]]
[[de:Port (Protokoll)]]
[[fr:Port (logiciel)]]
[[id:Port TCP dan UDP]]
[[it:Porta (reti)]]
[[nl:IP-poort]]
[[ja:ポート番号]]
[[no:Port (datakommunikasjon)]]
[[pl:Porty protokołu]]
[[ru:Порт (IP)]]
[[sk:port (TCP a UDP)]]
[[zh:TCP/IP端口列表]]","[1, 4]"
Hypnosis,Other uses,329680800,2009-12-04T15:56:38Z,ORSBY8,"Hypnotism has also been used in [[forensics]], [[sports]], [[education]], [[physical therapy]] and [[drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]].André M. Weitzenbhoffer. ''The Practice of Hypnotism'' 2nd ed, Toronto, John Wiley & Son Inc, Chapter 16, p. 583-587, 2000 ISBN 0-471-29790-9 Hypnotism has also been employed by artists for creative purposes most notably the surrealist circle of [[André Breton]] who employed hypnosis, [[automatic writing]] and sketches for creative purposes. Hypnotic methods have been used to re-experience drug states, and mystical experiences. [http://counselinginoregon.com/mysticalexperience]
Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures.{{cite book
| last = Wier
| first = Dennis R
| year = 1996
| title = Trance: from magic to technology
| publisher = TransMedia
| location = Ann Arbor, Michigan
| isbn = 1888428384}}
{{page number}}","Hypnotism has also been used in [[forensics]], [[sports]], [[education]], [[physical therapy]] and [[drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]].André M. Weitzenbhoffer. ''The Practice of Hypnotism'' 2nd ed, Toronto, John Wiley & Son Inc, Chapter 16, p. 583-587, 2000 ISBN 0-471-29790-9 Hypnotism has also been employed by artists for creative purposes most notably the surrealist circle of [[André Breton]] who employed hypnosis, [[automatic writing]] and sketches for creative purposes. Hypnotic methods have been used to re-experience drug states [Fogel, S., & Hoffer, A. (1962). The use of hypnosis to interrupt and to reproduce an LSD-25 experience. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Psychopathology, 23, 11-16] , and mystical experiences [Van Quekelberghe, R., & Gobel, P., & Hertweck, E. (1995). Simulation of near-death and out-of-body experiences under hypnosis. Imagination, Cognition & Personality, 14(2), 151-164] . [http://counselinginoregon.com/mysticalexperience]
Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures.{{cite book
| last = Wier
| first = Dennis R
| year = 1996
| title = Trance: from magic to technology
| publisher = TransMedia
| location = Ann Arbor, Michigan
| isbn = 1888428384}}
{{page number}}",[7]
Circadian rhythm,See also,330224925,2009-12-07T10:55:57Z,Hordaland,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian Oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]
* [[Second wind]]","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian Oscillator|Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]
* [[Second wind]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,See also,330225142,2009-12-07T10:59:13Z,Hordaland,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian Oscillator|Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]
* [[Second wind]]","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian Oscillator|Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]",[2]
Methamphetamine,Academic Sources,330552180,2009-12-08T22:42:28Z,98.217.73.212,"*[http://abc.net.au/4corners/special_eds/20060320/ The Ice Age] - ABC Australia - 4 Corners — Australian methamphetamine use.
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/meth/ Frontline - The Meth Epidemic] - PBS United States — Frontline.
*[http://shop.nationalgeographic.com/product/1167/3408/1074.html The World's Most Dangerous Drug] - National Geographic.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00m572d/Louis_Theroux_The_City_Addicted_to_Crystal_Meth The City Addicted to Crystal Meth - BBC (Louis Theroux)]
{{Methamphetamine}}
{{Drug use}}
{{Stimulants}}
{{Antihyperkinetics}}
{{Anorectics}}
{{Adrenergics}}
{{Dopaminergics}}
{{Phenethylamines}}
[[Category:Anorectics]]
[[Category:Japanese inventions]]
[[Category:Methamphetamine]]
[[Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors]]
[[Category:Dopamine agonists]]
[[Category:Serotonin receptor agonists]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Drugs acting on the nervous system]]
[[Category:Drugs acting on the cardiovascular system]]
[[af:Metamfetamien]]
[[bg:Метамфетамин]]
[[ca:Metamfetamina]]
[[cs:Metamfetamin]]
[[da:Metamfetamin]]
[[de:N-Methylamphetamin]]
[[es:Metanfetamina]]
[[eo:N-metilamfetamino]]
[[eu:Metanfetamina]]
[[fa:متآمفتامین]]
[[fr:Méthamphétamine]]
[[gl:Metanfetamina]]
[[ko:메스앰페터민]]
[[hr:Metamfetamin]]
[[id:Metamfetamina]]
[[it:Metanfetamina]]
[[he:מתאמפטמין]]
[[hu:Metamfetamin]]
[[ms:Metamfetamin]]
[[nl:Methamfetamine]]
[[ja:メタンフェタミン]]
[[no:Metamfetamin]]
[[pl:Metamfetamina]]
[[pt:Metanfetamina]]
[[ro:Pervitin]]
[[ru:Метамфетамин]]
[[simple:Methamphetamine]]
[[sk:Metamfetamín]]
[[sr:Метамфетамин]]
[[fi:Metamfetamiini]]
[[sv:Metamfetamin]]
[[tr:Metamfetamin]]
[[zh:甲基苯丙胺]]","*[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gVw_wzZU4x8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA113&dq=history+methamphetamine&ots=qAxtq4m1HZ&sig=najz_xcJJ782gsd41TEqXm40igo#v=onepage&q=history%20methamphetamine&f=false History and Epidemiology of Amphetamine Abuse in United States]
*[http://studentpulse.com/articles/77/the-methamphetamine-crisis-in-american-indian-and-native-alaskan-communities-toward-a-new-research-agenda The Methamphetamine Crisis in American Indian and Native Alaskan Communities]
{{Methamphetamine}}
{{Drug use}}
{{Stimulants}}
{{Antihyperkinetics}}
{{Anorectics}}
{{Adrenergics}}
{{Dopaminergics}}
{{Phenethylamines}}
[[Category:Anorectics]]
[[Category:Japanese inventions]]
[[Category:Methamphetamine]]
[[Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors]]
[[Category:Dopamine agonists]]
[[Category:Serotonin receptor agonists]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Drugs acting on the nervous system]]
[[Category:Drugs acting on the cardiovascular system]]
[[af:Metamfetamien]]
[[bg:Метамфетамин]]
[[ca:Metamfetamina]]
[[cs:Metamfetamin]]
[[da:Metamfetamin]]
[[de:N-Methylamphetamin]]
[[es:Metanfetamina]]
[[eo:N-metilamfetamino]]
[[eu:Metanfetamina]]
[[fa:متآمفتامین]]
[[fr:Méthamphétamine]]
[[gl:Metanfetamina]]
[[ko:메스앰페터민]]
[[hr:Metamfetamin]]
[[id:Metamfetamina]]
[[it:Metanfetamina]]
[[he:מתאמפטמין]]
[[hu:Metamfetamin]]
[[ms:Metamfetamin]]
[[nl:Methamfetamine]]
[[ja:メタンフェタミン]]
[[no:Metamfetamin]]
[[pl:Metamfetamina]]
[[pt:Metanfetamina]]
[[ro:Pervitin]]
[[ru:Метамфетамин]]
[[simple:Methamphetamine]]
[[sk:Metamfetamín]]
[[sr:Метамфетамин]]
[[fi:Metamfetamiini]]
[[sv:Metamfetamin]]
[[tr:Metamfetamin]]
[[zh:甲基苯丙胺]]",[11]
Human cloning,United Kingdom,330758114,2009-12-09T23:39:08Z,Gabbe,"The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed [[therapeutic]] cloning in a debate in January 14, 2001 in an amendment to the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990]]. However, on November 15, 2001, a [[pro-life]] group won a [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] legal challenge that effectively left cloning unregulated in the UK.{{Vague|date=September 2008}} Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.{{cite |title=Medical Law and Ethics |author=SD Pattinson |date=2006 |publisher=Sweet & Maxwell |isbn=9780421889507}}{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1657707.stm |title=Campaigners win cloning challenge |publisher=BBC News |date=15 November 2001 |accessdate=2008-09-06}} The government was quick to pass legislation prohibiting reproductive cloning [[Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001]]. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}
The first licence was granted on August 11, 2004 to researchers at the [[University of Newcastle upon Tyne|University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].{{cite web |url=http://www.hfea.gov.uk/en/1048.html |publisher=[[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority|HFEA]] |title=HFEA grants the first therapeutic cloning licence for research |date=11 August 2004 |accessdate=2008-09-06}}","On 14 January 2001 the [[British government]] passed the The Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001{{UK-SLD|2523310|the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001 (No. 188)}} to amend the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990]] by extending allowable reasons for embryo research to permit research around stem cells and cell nuclear replacement, thus allowing [[therapeutic cloning]]. However, on 15 November 2001, a [[pro-life]] group won a [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] legal challenge, which struck down the regulation and effectively left all forms of cloning unregulated in the UK. Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.{{cite |title=Medical Law and Ethics |author=SD Pattinson |date=2006 |publisher=Sweet & Maxwell |isbn=9780421889507}}{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1657707.stm |title=Campaigners win cloning challenge |publisher=BBC News |date=15 November 2001 |accessdate=2008-09-06}} Parliament was quick to pass [[Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001]] which explicitly prohibited reproductive cloning. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2846265.stm|title=Lords uphold cloning law|newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]|date=13 March 2003}}
The first licence was granted on August 11, 2004 to researchers at the [[University of Newcastle upon Tyne|University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].{{cite web |url=http://www.hfea.gov.uk/en/1048.html |publisher=[[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority|HFEA]] |title=HFEA grants the first therapeutic cloning licence for research |date=11 August 2004 |accessdate=2008-09-06}} The [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008]], a major review of fertility legislation, repealed the 2001 Cloning Act by making amendments of similar effect to the 1990 Act. The 2008 Act also allows experiments on hybrid human-animal embryos.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7682722.stm|title=MPs support embryology proposals|newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]|date=23 October 2008}}","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Context-free grammar,Example 3,330910735,2009-12-10T18:49:38Z,Rp,"In a context-free grammar, we can pair up characters the way we do with [[bracket]]s. The simplest example:
:S → aSb
:S → ab
This grammar generates the language , which is not [[regular language|regular]] (according to [[Pumping Lemma]] for regular languages).
The special character ε stands for the empty string. By changing the above grammar to
:S → aSb | ε
we obtain a grammar generating the language instead. This differs only in that it contains the empty string while the original grammar did not.","Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct [[Infix notation|infix]] algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
:S → x
:S → y
:S → z
:S → S + S
:S → S - S
:S → S * S
:S → S / S
:S → ( S )
This grammar can, for example, generate the string
:( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )
as follows:
:S (the start symbol)
: → S - S (by rule 5)
: → S * S - S (by rule 6, applied to the leftmost S)
: → S * S - S / S (by rule 7, applied to the rightmost S)
: → ( S ) * S - S / S (by rule 8, applied to the leftmost S)
: → ( S ) * S - S / ( S ) (by rule 8, applied to the rightmost S)
: → ( S + S ) * S - S / ( S ) (etc.)
: → ( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S )
: → ( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )
: → ( x + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )
: → ( x + y ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - S * y / ( S + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - S * y / ( x + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )
Note that many choices were made underway which S was going to be rewritten next.
These choices look quite arbitrary. As a matter of fact, they are.
Also, many choices were made on which rule to apply to the selected S.
These do not look so arbitrary: they usually affect which terminal string comes out at the end.
To see this we can look at the [[parse tree]] of this derivation:
S
|
/|\
S - S
/ \
/|\ /|\
S * S S / S
/ | | \
/|\ x /|\ /|\
( S ) S * S ( S )
/ | | \
/|\ z y /|\
S + S S + S
| | | |
x y x x
Starting at the top, step by step, an S in the tree is expanded, until no more unexpanded Ses remain.
Picking a different order of expansion will produce a different derivation, but the same parse tree.
The parse tree will only change if we pick a different rule to apply at some position in the tree.
But can a different parse tree still produce the same terminal string,
which is ( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x ) in this case?
Yes, for this grammar, this is possible.
Grammars with this property are called [[ambiguous grammar|ambiguous]].
For example, x + y * z can be produced with these two different parse trees:
S S
| |
/|\ /|\
S * S S + S
/ \ / \
/|\ z x /|\
x + y y + z
However, the ''language'' described by this grammar is not ambiguous:
an alternative, unambiguous grammar can be given for the language, for example:
:T → x
:T → y
:T → z
:S → S + T
:S → S - T
:S → S * T
:S → S / T
:T → ( S )
:S → T
(once again picking S as the start symbol).","[1, 2, 4, 9]"
Dream,Dreams as resonance in neural circuts,331017235,2009-12-11T03:26:04Z,75.54.84.20,"During sleep the eyes are closed, so that the brain to some degree becomes isolated from the outside world. Moreover all signals from the [[senses]] (except olfaction) must pass trough the [[thalamus]] before they reach the [[neocortex|brain cortex]], and during sleep thalamic activity is suppressed. {{cite journal |author=Rey M, Bastuji H, Garcia-Larrea L, Guillemant P, Mauguière F, Magnin M |title=Human thalamic and cortical activities assessed by dimension of activation and spectral edge frequency during sleep wake cycles |journal=Sleep |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=907–12 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17682662 |pmc=1978370 |doi= |url=}} This means that the brain mainly works with signals from itself. A well-known phenomena in dynamical [[physical system]]s where the level of input and output from the system is low is that [[oscillation]] makes spontaneus [[resonance]] patterns to occur. Hence, dreams may be the simple consequence of [[neural oscillations]].
Dreams show you what you are thinking subconciously.
How you subconciously feel about something is how you really feel. Sara, Garrett wins, deal with it!","During sleep the eyes are closed, so that the brain to some degree becomes isolated from the outside world. Moreover all signals from the [[senses]] (except olfaction) must pass trough the [[thalamus]] before they reach the [[neocortex|brain cortex]], and during sleep thalamic activity is suppressed. {{cite journal |author=Rey M, Bastuji H, Garcia-Larrea L, Guillemant P, Mauguière F, Magnin M |title=Human thalamic and cortical activities assessed by dimension of activation and spectral edge frequency during sleep wake cycles |journal=Sleep |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=907–12 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17682662 |pmc=1978370 |doi= |url=}} This means that the brain mainly works with signals from itself. A well-known phenomena in dynamical [[physical system]]s where the level of input and output from the system is low is that [[oscillation]] makes spontaneus [[resonance]] patterns to occur. Hence, dreams may be the simple consequence of [[neural oscillations]].",[11]
Human cloning,The current law on human cloning,332228114,2001-11-26T18:50:10Z,Sodium,"In August, 2001 the US [[House of Representatives]] voted to ban government funding for all human cloning. This includes not only reproductive but also theraputic cloning. President Bush is thought to be 100% opposed to human cloning in any form.
The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic but not reproductive cloning in a debate in January. However on 15th November opposition groups won a High Court legal challenge that effectively blocked cloning of embryos for therapeutic purposes. They discovered a loophole which allows reproductive cloning to be performed also. Scientists will now have to wait longer to apply for therapeutic cloning liscenses while the government appeals on the ruling. Pro-Life groups say that a new debate is necessary because of recent technologies having been developed that might circumvent the need for embryonic cloning.
Australia has a government comittee still considering the issues, having already introduced a variety of regulations on cloning in general. However organisations devoted to clone humans, such as the [[Raelites]] and the Las-Vegas based Clonaid, as well as Doctor's Antinori and Zavos, are very hard to control. Many think these groups would shift their operations to other countries, where a lack of regulation could bring dangerous results.
'''Useful resources:'''
* http://www.humancloning.org
* http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/cloning/cloning.jsp
* ""How Can Educated People Continue to be Radical Environmentalists?"" - A Talk by David Lykken http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/lykken/index.html
* http://www.puaf.umd.edu/IPPP/Fall97Report/cloning.htm
:''See also:'' [[cloning]] -- [[stem cell]] -- [[genetics]] -- [[genetic engineering]]
/Talk
/Todo","In August, 2001 the US [[House of Representatives]] voted to ban government funding for all human cloning. This includes not only reproductive but also theraputic cloning. President Bush is thought to be 100% opposed to human cloning in any form.
The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic but not reproductive cloning in a debate in January. However on 15th November opposition groups won a High Court legal challenge that effectively blocked cloning of embryos for therapeutic purposes. They discovered a loophole which allows reproductive cloning to be performed also. Scientists will now have to wait longer to apply for therapeutic cloning liscenses while the government appeals on the ruling. Pro-Life groups say that a new debate is necessary because of recent technologies having been developed that might circumvent the need for embryonic cloning.
Australia has a government comittee still considering the issues, having already introduced a variety of regulations on cloning in general. However organisations devoted to clone humans, such as the [[Raelites]] and the Las-Vegas based Clonaid, as well as Doctor's Antinori and Zavos, are very hard to control. Many think these groups would shift their operations to other countries, where a lack of regulation could bring dangerous results.
'''Useful resources:'''
* http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/cloning/cloning.jsp - New Scientists recent articles on stem cells and cloning
* http://www.advancedcell.com/ - Ther company who performed the first cloning of an human embryo
* ""How Can Educated People Continue to be Radical Environmentalists?"" - A Talk by David Lykken http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/lykken/index.html
* http://www.puaf.umd.edu/IPPP/Fall97Report/cloning.htm - Ethics of human cloning
* http://www.humancloning.org - a pro-human cloning website, mostly opinion
:''See also:'' [[cloning]] -- [[stem cell]] -- [[genetics]] -- [[genetic engineering]]
/Talk
/Todo","[1, 2]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,333579009,2009-12-23T16:53:01Z,SmackBot,"Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling. {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity. {{cite web | PILCHER June J., MICHALOWSKI Kristin R., CARRIGAN Renee D. | title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |publisher=Behavioral medicine|work=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep | url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14110524 | year=2001 | accessdate=2008-11-11}} {{cite web |Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley | title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | publisher=Liberty University | work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | url=http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{cite web |url= http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title= Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate= 2008-08-03 |last= Sinert |first= Richard |coauthors= Peter R Peacock, Jr |date= May 10, 2006 |work= |publisher= eMedicine from WebMD |doi= |quote= }} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].","Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodeling. {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{cite web | PILCHER June J., MICHALOWSKI Kristin R., CARRIGAN Renee D. | title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |publisher=Behavioral medicine|work=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep | url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14110524 | year=2001 | accessdate=2008-11-11}} {{cite web |Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley | title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | publisher=Liberty University | work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | url=http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{cite web |url= http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title= Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate= 2008-08-03 |last= Sinert |first= Richard |coauthors= Peter R Peacock, Jr |date= May 10, 2006 |work= |publisher= eMedicine from WebMD |doi= |quote= }} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].",[11]
Medical cannabis,History,334167275,2009-12-26T23:43:26Z,Keahapana,{{Split section|date=August 2009}},"{{Split section|date=August 2009}}
[[Image:Da-ma.png|thumb|right|The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in [[Taiwan]]. ""Dà má"" ([[Pinyin]] pronunciation) is the Chinese expression for cannabis, the first character meaning ""big"" and the second character meaning ""hemp.""]]
[[Image:Cannabissativadior.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' from ''[[Vienna Dioscurides]]'', 512 A.D.]]","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,334742592,2009-12-29T16:17:55Z,Luckas-bot,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal | author=Leloup J.C. |title=Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=4 |issue= 3 |pages= 290–303 |year= 2009 |doi=10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1 }}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal | author=Leloup J.C. |title=Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=4 |issue= 3 |pages= 290–303 |year= 2009 |doi=10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1 }}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Context-free grammar,Universality,335138442,2009-12-31T18:00:41Z,76.85.187.161,"Given a CFG, does it generate the language of all strings over the alphabet of terminal symbols used in its rules?
A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a [[Turing machine]] accepts a particular input (the [[Halting problem]]). The reduction uses the concept of a ''[[computation history]]'', a string describing an entire computation of a [[Turing machine]]. We can construct a CFG that generates all strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input.","Given a CFG, does it generate the language of all strings over the alphabet of terminal symbols used in its rules?
A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a [[Turing machine]] accepts a particular input (the [[Halting problem]]). The reduction uses the concept of a ''[[computation history]]'', a string describing an entire computation of a [[Turing machine]]. We can construct a CFG that generates all strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine accept that input.",[11]
Human cloning,History,335655958,2010-01-03T17:09:42Z,LDEBarnard,"Although the possibility of cloning humans has been the subject of speculation for much of the twentieth century, scientists and policy makers began to take the prospect seriously in the 1960s. Nobel Prize winning geneticist [[Joshua Lederberg]] advocated for cloning and genetic engineering in a seminal article in the ''American Naturalist'' in 1966 and again, the following year, in the ''Washington Post''.Joshua Lederberg. (1966). Experimental Genetics and Human Evolution. The American Naturalist 100, 915, pp. 519-531. He sparked a debate with conservative bioethicist [[Leon Kass]], who wrote at the time that ""the programmed reproduction of man will, in fact, dehumanize him."" Another Nobel Laureate, [[James D. Watson]], publicized the potential and the perils of cloning in his ''Atlantic Monthly'' essay, ""Moving Toward the Clonal Man"", in 1971.Watson, James. ""Moving Toward a Clonal Man: Is This What We Want?"" The Atlantic Monthly (1971).
Human cloning also gained a foothold in popular culture, starting in the 1970s. [[Alvin Toffler]]'s ''Future Shock'', [[David Rorvik]]'s ''In His Image: Toward Cloning of a Man'', [[Woody Allen]]'s film ''[[Sleeper]]'' and ''[[The Boys from Brazil (film)|The Boys from Brazil]]'' all helped to make the public aware of the ethical issues surrounding human cloning.","Although the possibility of cloning humans has been the subject of speculation for much of the twentieth century, scientists and policy makers began to take the prospect seriously in the 1960s. Nobel Prize winning geneticist [[Joshua Lederberg]] advocated for cloning and genetic engineering in a seminal article in the ''American Naturalist'' in 1966 and again, the following year, in the ''Washington Post''.Joshua Lederberg. (1966). Experimental Genetics and Human Evolution. The American Naturalist 100, 915, pp. 519-531. He sparked a debate with conservative bioethicist [[Leon Kass]], who wrote at the time that ""the programmed reproduction of man will, in fact, dehumanize him."" Another Nobel Laureate, [[James D. Watson]], publicized the potential and the perils of cloning in his ''Atlantic Monthly'' essay, ""Moving Toward the Clonal Man"", in 1971.Watson, James. ""Moving Toward a Clonal Man: Is This What We Want?"" The Atlantic Monthly (1971).
The tachnology of cloning mammals, although far from reliable has reached the point where many scientists are knowledgable, the literature is readily availalbe and the implementation of the technology is not very expensive compared to many other scientific processes. For that reason [http://http://scriptamus.wordpress.com/2010/01/03/human-clones-may-be-among-us-now-who-is-ready/ Lewis D. Eigen] has argued that human cloning attempts will be made in the next few years and may well have been already begun. The ethical and moral issues cannot wait and should be discussed, debated and guidelines and laws be developed now.
''""By waiting until the first clone is among us or about to be born, we complicate the problem immensely and guarantee that we will not be able to have the national and international conversation and debate to arrive at particularly good decisions.""''Lewis D. Eigen, Human Clones May Be Among Us Now! Who Is Ready?, ''Scriptamus'', 2010, http://scriptamus.wordpress.com/2010/01/03/human-clones-may-be-among-us-now-who-is-ready/
Human cloning also gained a foothold in popular culture, starting in the 1970s. [[Alvin Toffler]]'s ''Future Shock'', [[David Rorvik]]'s ''In His Image: Toward Cloning of a Man'', [[Woody Allen]]'s film ''[[Sleeper]]'' and ''[[The Boys from Brazil (film)|The Boys from Brazil]]'' all helped to make the public aware of the ethical issues surrounding human cloning.","[1, 5]"
K-d tree,External links,335781998,2010-01-04T09:21:39Z,94.245.127.11,"* [http://codingplayground.blogspot.com/2009/12/kd-tree-c-and-boost-implementation.html kdtree], a Boost based implementation of ''k''d-trees in C++.
* [http://libkdtree.alioth.debian.org libkdtree++], an open-source STL-like implementation of ''k''d-trees in C++.
* [http://www.autonlab.org/autonweb/14665/version/2/part/5/data/moore-tutorial.pdf?branch=main&language=en A tutorial on KD Trees]
* [http://babel.isa.uma.es/mrpt/index.php/The_hierarchical_model_of_metric_maps#Point_maps A C++ implementation of ''k''d-trees for 3D point clouds], part of the [[Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit | Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit (MRPT)]]
{{CS-Trees}}
[[Category:Computer graphics data structures]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]
[[de:K-d-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol kd]]
[[fr:Arbre kd]]
[[he:עץ kd]]
[[ja:Kd木]]
[[pl:Drzewa kd]]","* [http://codingplayground.blogspot.com/2009/12/kd-tree-c-and-boost-implementation.html kdtree], a Boost based implementation of ''k''d-trees in C++ by Antonio Gulli
* [http://libkdtree.alioth.debian.org libkdtree++], an open-source STL-like implementation of ''k''d-trees in C++.
* [http://www.autonlab.org/autonweb/14665/version/2/part/5/data/moore-tutorial.pdf?branch=main&language=en A tutorial on KD Trees]
* [http://babel.isa.uma.es/mrpt/index.php/The_hierarchical_model_of_metric_maps#Point_maps A C++ implementation of ''k''d-trees for 3D point clouds], part of the [[Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit | Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit (MRPT)]]
{{CS-Trees}}
[[Category:Computer graphics data structures]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]
[[de:K-d-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol kd]]
[[fr:Arbre kd]]
[[he:עץ kd]]
[[ja:Kd木]]
[[pl:Drzewa kd]]",[5]
Dream,Déjà vu,336034373,2010-01-05T17:54:15Z,74.33.44.35,"{{Main|Déjà vu}}
move it kid or go to jail","{{Main|Déjà vu}}
already seen""; also called paramnesia, from Greek παρα ""para,"" ""near, against, contrary to"" + μνήμη ""mnēmē,"" ""memory"") or promnesia, is the experience of feeling sure that one has witnessed or experienced a new situation previously (an individual feels as though an event has already happened or has happened in the recent past), although the exact circumstances of the previous encounter are uncertain. The term was coined by a French psychic researcher, Émile Boirac (1851–1917) in his book L'Avenir des sciences psychiques (""The Future of Psychic Sciences""), which expanded upon an essay he wrote while an undergraduate. The experience of déjà vu is usually accompanied by a compelling sense of familiarity, and also a sense of ""eeriness"", ""strangeness"", or ""weirdness"". The ""previous"" experience is most frequently attributed to a dream, although in some cases there is a firm sense that the experience ""genuinely happened"" in the past.[1]","[1, 5, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),336112238,2010-01-06T01:00:03Z,Thinking Stone,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].
Arran tate talks shit. wiki can be changed.","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioral processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],http://www.msi.umn.edu/~halberg Halberg Chronobiology Centre comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around,"" and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day."" The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]]ly generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,336592850,2010-01-08T13:34:33Z,Closedmouth,"Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler ''et al'' at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23 | quote= The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range. }}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{cite web |url= http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title= 28 Hour Day |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997 |work= |publisher= |quote= }} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{cite book|last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2|location=Chicago|publisher= University of Chicago Press|year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans|journal=Neurosci Lett|year=1994|volume=166|pages=63|doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9|pmid=8190360|issue=1}}{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans |journal=J. Neurosci|year=1995|volume=15| pages=3526|url= http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/5/3526|pmid=7751928|issue=5}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{cite web |url= http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title= Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= |last= Cromie |first= William J. |date= 1999-07-15 |work= |publisher= The Harvard University Gazette |quote= }} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Michael S | title = Sleep medicine | year = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2 | isbn = 0195129571 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a re-setting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.","Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler ''et al.'' at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23 | quote= The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range. }}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{cite web |url= http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title= 28 Hour Day |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997 |work= |publisher= |quote= }} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{cite book|last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2|location=Chicago|publisher= University of Chicago Press|year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans|journal=Neurosci Lett|year=1994|volume=166|pages=63|doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9|pmid=8190360|issue=1}}{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans |journal=J. Neurosci|year=1995|volume=15| pages=3526|url= http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/5/3526|pmid=7751928|issue=5}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{cite web |url= http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title= Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= |last= Cromie |first= William J. |date= 1999-07-15 |work= |publisher= The Harvard University Gazette |quote= }} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Michael S | title = Sleep medicine | year = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2 | isbn = 0195129571 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a re-setting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,338491117,2010-01-18T03:48:31Z,ClueBot,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420–440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective | url= http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | publisher= Milena Lighting Design }} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420–440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective | url= http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | publisher= Milena Lighting Design }} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,338491117,2010-01-18T03:48:31Z,ClueBot,"{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[Circadian Oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{cite journal | last = Sharma | first = Vijay Kumar | date = | year = 2003 | month = | title = Adaptive significance of circadian clocks | journal = Chronobiology international | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 901–919 | publisher = | issn = 0742-0528 | pmid = 14680135| doi = 10.1081/CBI-120026099| id = | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15334192 | language = | format = Abstract | accessdate = 2009-11-08 | quote = }} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,(Sheeba et al. 1999) as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.(Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999)
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input – [[Circadian Oscillator|central oscillator]] – output), they do not share any [[Homology (biology)|homology]]. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |last= Purves |first= Dale ''et al'' |title= NEUROSCIENCE |origdate= |origyear= 2001 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=.0-X5CQEZnQIQrizQvUwzgMbTAG |format= e-book |accessdate= 2008-05-30 |edition= second |series= |date= |year= 2001|month= |publisher= Sinauer Associates |location= Sunderland, MA, U.S.A. |isbn= 0-87893-742-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |quote= }} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550250 Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[Circadian Oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{cite journal | last = Sharma | first = Vijay Kumar | date = | year = 2003 | month = | title = Adaptive significance of circadian clocks | journal = Chronobiology international | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 901–919 | publisher = | issn = 0742-0528 | pmid = 14680135| doi = 10.1081/CBI-120026099| id = | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15334192 | language = | format = Abstract | accessdate = 2009-11-08 | quote = }} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,(Sheeba et al. 1999) as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.(Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999)
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input – [[Circadian Oscillator|central oscillator]] – output), they do not share any [[Homology (biology)|homology]]. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |last= Purves |first= Dale ''et al'' |title= NEUROSCIENCE |origdate= |origyear= 2001 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=.0-X5CQEZnQIQrizQvUwzgMbTAG |format= e-book |accessdate= 2008-05-30 |edition= second |series= |date= |year= 2001|month= |publisher= Sinauer Associates |location= Sunderland, MA, U.S.A. |isbn= 0-87893-742-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |quote= }} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550250 Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,References,338491117,2010-01-18T03:48:31Z,ClueBot,"
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}",,[11]
Methamphetamine,Terminology,338787076,2010-01-19T17:34:54Z,Seifip,"[[Slang|Nicknames]] for methamphetamine are numerous and vary significantly from region to region. Some common nicknames for methamphetamine include ""ice"", ""crystal meth"", ""crank"", ""glass"", ""speed"" (United States), ""shabu"" [[Philippines]]) and ""tik"" ([[South Africa]])http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/DrugFact/methamphetamine/methamphetamine_ff.html{{cite news|work=UCT|accessdate=2009-08-13 |last=Plüddemann|first=Andreas| date=2005-06|title=Tik, memory loss and stroke|journal=Science in Africa|publisher=Science magazine for Africa CC|location=South Africa|url=http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/june/tik.htm}}, and ""[[ya ba]]"" ([[Thailand]]).","[[Slang|Nicknames]] for methamphetamine are numerous and vary significantly from region to region. Some common nicknames for methamphetamine include ""ice"", ""crystal meth"", ""crank"", ""glass"", ""speed"" (United States), ""shabu"" ([[Japan]], [[Philippines]]) and ""tik"" ([[South Africa]])http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/DrugFact/methamphetamine/methamphetamine_ff.html{{cite news|work=UCT|accessdate=2009-08-13 |last=Plüddemann|first=Andreas| date=2005-06|title=Tik, memory loss and stroke|journal=Science in Africa|publisher=Science magazine for Africa CC|location=South Africa|url=http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/june/tik.htm}}, and ""[[ya ba]]"" ([[Thailand]]).",[9]
Methamphetamine,(Top),339343273,2010-01-22T13:54:05Z,Wickey-nl,"{{Redirect4|Meth|Tik}}
{{About|the [[psychostimulant]] drug, methamphetamine, in both [[racemic]] and [[dextrorotatory]] forms|the CNS inactive [[over-the-counter drug|OTC]] nasal decongestant|levomethamphetamine}}
{{Drugbox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 306452948
|IUPAC_name = ''N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine''
| image = Methamphetamine.svg
| image2 = Methamphetamine-3d-CPK.png
| width=200
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}}
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=1206
| ChemSpiderID = 1169
| DrugBank=DB01577
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.233 g/mol
| smiles = CC(CC1=CC=CC=C1)NC
| synonyms = Desoxyephedrine Pervitin Anadrex Methedrine Methylamphetamine Syndrox Desoxyn
| bioavailability= 62.7% oral; 79% nasal; 90.3% smoked; 99% rectally; 100% IV
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 9–15 hours
| excretion = [[Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU = S8
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_UK =
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status = Class A([[New Zealand|NZ]]) Schedule 5([[South Africa|SA]]) Injectable:Class A, Oral: A([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| routes_of_administration= Medical: Oral Recreational: Oral, [[Intravenous therapy|I.V.]], [[Intramuscular injection|I.M.]], Insufflation, Inhalation, Rectal
}}
'''Methamphetamine''' ({{pron-en|ˌmɛθæmˈfɛtəmiːn}} [http://cougar.eb.com/soundc11/m/metham01.wav listen]) also known as '''metamfetamine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]), '''dextromethamphetamine''', '''methylamphetamine''', '''N-methylamphetamine''', and '''desoxyephedrine''') is a [[psychoactive]] [[stimulant]] [[drug]]. It increases alertness and energy and in high doses may induce [[euphoria]], enhance self-esteem and heighten sexuality.{{cite book |author=Mack, Avram H.; Frances, Richard J.; Miller, Sheldon I. |title=Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders, Third Edition |publisher=The Guilford Press |location=New York |year=2005 |pages= 207|isbn=1-59385-174-X}} Methamphetamine has a high potential for [[abuse]], activating the physiological [[reward system]] by increasing levels of [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] in the brain. Methamphetamine has medical uses for [[ADHD]], [[narcolepsy]] and [[obesity]].","{{Redirect4|Meth|Tik}}
{{About|the [[psychostimulant]] drug, methamphetamine, in both [[racemic]] and [[dextrorotatory]] forms|the CNS inactive [[over-the-counter drug|OTC]] nasal decongestant|levomethamphetamine}}
{{Drugbox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 306452948
|IUPAC_name = ''N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine''
| image = Methamphetamine.svg
| image2 = Methamphetamine-3d-CPK.png
| width=200
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}}
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=1206
| ChemSpiderID = 1169
| DrugBank=DB01577
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.233 g/mol
| smiles = CC(CC1=CC=CC=C1)NC
| synonyms = Desoxyephedrine Pervitin Anadrex Methedrine Methylamphetamine Syndrox Desoxyn
| bioavailability= 62.7% oral; 79% nasal; 90.3% smoked; 99% rectally; 100% IV
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 9–15 hours
| excretion = [[Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU = S8
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_UK =
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status = Class A([[New Zealand|NZ]]) Schedule 5([[South Africa|SA]]) Injectable:Class A, Oral: A([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| routes_of_administration= Medical: Oral Recreational: Oral, [[Intravenous therapy|I.V.]], [[Intramuscular injection|I.M.]], Insufflation, Inhalation, Rectal
}}
'''Methamphetamine''' ({{pron-en|ˌmɛθæmˈfɛtəmiːn}} [http://cougar.eb.com/soundc11/m/metham01.wav listen]) also known as '''metamfetamine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]), '''dextromethamphetamine''', '''methylamphetamine''', '''N-methylamphetamine''', and '''desoxyephedrine''') is a [[psychoactive]] [[stimulant]] [[drug]]. In high doses it may induce [[euphoria]], [[wakefulness]], energy and increased feelings of physical and mental capacity, self-esteem and intense sexual arousal.
B.K. Logan. ''Methamphetamine - Effects on Human Performance and Behavior''. Forensic Science Review, Vol. 14, no. 1/2 (2002), p. 142 [http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/ntlc_meth.pdf Full PDF]
Methamphetamine has a high potential for [[abuse]], activating the psychological [[reward system]] by increasing levels of [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] in the brain. Methamphetamine has medical uses for [[ADHD]], [[narcolepsy]] and [[obesity]].","[1, 9]"
Human cloning,Bibliography,339532010,2010-01-23T13:54:16Z,Vsmith,"* [[Robert Araujo (Jurist)|Araujo, Robert John]],“The UN Declaration on Human Cloning: a survey and assesment of the debate,” 7 The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly 129 - 149 (2007).
* [[John Charles Kunich (Law Professor and Author)|Kunich, John Charles]],“The Naked Clone: How Cloning Bans Threaten Our Personal Rights,” Greenwood/Praeger (2003).","* [[Robert Araujo (Jurist)|Araujo, Robert John]],“The UN Declaration on Human Cloning: a survey and assesment of the debate,” 7 The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly 129 - 149 (2007).",[11]
Parkinson's disease,Notable sufferers,341934812,2010-02-04T18:36:06Z,Kittybrewster,"{{Citations missing|date=August 2008}}
In addition to [[Michael J. Fox]] and [[Davis Phinney]], famous sufferers include [[Pope John Paul II]], playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]], political commentator [[Michael Kinsley]], artist [[Salvador Dalí]], hockey player [[Brent Peterson]], boxer [[Muhammad Ali]], evangelist [[Billy Graham]] and former US Attorney General [[Janet Reno]]. Political figures suffering from it have included [[Adolf Hitler]] (not confirmed), [[Francisco Franco]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Mao Zedong]], and former Prime Minister of Canada [[Pierre Trudeau]]. Numerous actors have also been afflicted with Parkinson's such as: [[Terry-Thomas]], [[Deborah Kerr]], [[Kenneth More]], [[Vincent Price]], [[Jim Backus]] and [[Michael Redgrave]]. [[Helen Beardsley]] (of ''[[Yours, Mine and Ours (1968 film)|Yours, Mine and Ours]]'' fame) also suffered from this disease toward the end of her life. [[James Doohan]] also suffered from Parkinson's Disease, and later, Alzheimer's. Director [[George Roy Hill]] ([[The Sting]], [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]) also suffered from Parkinson's disease.
The film ''[[Awakenings]]'' (starring [[Robin Williams]] and [[Robert De Niro]] and based on genuine cases reported by [[Oliver Sacks]]) deals sensitively and largely accurately with a similar disease, [[postencephalitic parkinsonism]].
[[Michael Gibson (TV presenter)]], host of [[MTV Select]], was diagnosed with Parkinson's at the age of 18. Gibson lived in denial about his condition for six years. He then pitched a documentary proposal to [[Channel 4]] who commissioned him to make a documentary following Michael's journey with Parkinson's. [http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/body/ill_parkinsons_shookup.html ''All shook up: Parkinson's at 25''] aired on Channel 4 in 2006.
In addition, former Arsenal and [[Liverpool FC]] footballer [[Ray Kennedy]], who won every domestic English honour as well as the [[European Cup]] and [[UEFA Cup]], is a sufferer of the disease, having been diagnosed at 35.
In late 2009, [[Toni Tennille]] announced that her husband [[Daryl Dragon]], also known as the ''Captain'' of the pop band ''[[The Captain and Tennille]]'' had developed a mild form of Parkinson's disease which has manifested through a familial tremorhttp://www.dcourier.com/Main.asp?SectionID=1&SubSectionID=1&ArticleID=74139. According to Tennille, the disease will neither be debilitating nor terminal for Dragon. Rather, the disease has causes a noticeable tremor that is exacerbated by stress and anxiety; subsequently, the disease has limited most of public appearances of the ''Captain and Tennille''. As of November 2009, Dragon was under physicians' care to best determine treatment for his Parkinson's, including the experimental drug, [[Sinemet]]http://captainandtennille.net/.","{{Citations missing|date=August 2008}}
In addition to [[Michael J. Fox]] and [[Davis Phinney]], famous sufferers include [[Pope John Paul II]], playwright [[Eugene O'Neill]], political commentator [[Michael Kinsley]], artist [[Salvador Dalí]], hockey player [[Brent Peterson]], boxer [[Muhammad Ali]], evangelist [[Billy Graham]] and former US Attorney General [[Janet Reno]]. Political figures suffering from it have included [[Adolf Hitler]] (not confirmed), [[Francisco Franco]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Mao Zedong]], and former Prime Minister of Canada [[Pierre Trudeau]]. Numerous actors have also been afflicted with Parkinson's such as: [[Terry-Thomas]], [[Deborah Kerr]], [[Kenneth More]], [[Vincent Price]], [[Jim Backus]] and [[Michael Redgrave]]. [[Helen Beardsley]] (of ''[[Yours, Mine and Ours (1968 film)|Yours, Mine and Ours]]'' fame) also suffered from this disease toward the end of her life. [[James Doohan]] also suffered from Parkinson's Disease, and later, Alzheimer's. Director [[George Roy Hill]] ([[The Sting]], [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]) also suffered from Parkinson's disease.
The film ''[[Awakenings]]'' (starring [[Robin Williams]] and [[Robert De Niro]] and based on genuine cases reported by [[Oliver Sacks]]) deals sensitively and largely accurately with a similar disease, [[postencephalitic parkinsonism]].
[[Michael Gibson (TV presenter)]], host of [[MTV Select]], was diagnosed with Parkinson's at the age of 18. Gibson lived in denial about his condition for six years. He then pitched a documentary proposal to [[Channel 4]] who commissioned him to make a documentary following Michael's journey with Parkinson's. [http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/body/ill_parkinsons_shookup.html ''All shook up: Parkinson's at 25''] aired on Channel 4 in 2006.
In addition, former Arsenal and [[Liverpool FC]] footballer [[Ray Kennedy]], who won every domestic English honour as well as the [[European Cup]] and [[UEFA Cup]], is a sufferer of the disease, having been diagnosed at 35.
In late 2009, [[Toni Tennille]] announced that her husband [[Daryl Dragon]], also known as the ''Captain'' of the pop band ''[[The Captain and Tennille]]'' had developed a mild form of Parkinson's disease which has manifested through a familial tremorhttp://www.dcourier.com/Main.asp?SectionID=1&SubSectionID=1&ArticleID=74139.",[11]
Alzheimer's disease,Further reading,343164591,2010-02-10T15:38:44Z,207.138.251.2,"{{Spoken Wikipedia|Alzheimer's Disease.ogg|2008-09-12}}
*{{cite book
| title=Alzheimer's Disease: Unraveling the Mystery
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/UnravelingTheMystery
| publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH
| year=2008
}}
*{{cite book
|url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/ADPrevented/
|title=Can Alzheimer's Disease Be Prevented?
|publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH
|year=2009
}}
*{{cite book
| title=Caring for a Person with Alzheimer's Disease: Your Easy-to-Use Guide from the National Institute on Aging
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/CaringAD/
| publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH
| year=2009
}}
*{{cite journal
|author=Cummings JL, Frank JC, Cherry D, Kohatsu ND, Kemp B, Hewett L, Mittman B
|title=Guidelines for managing Alzheimer's disease: Part I. Assessment
|journal=American Family Physician
|volume=65
|issue=11
|pages=2263–2272
|year=2002
|pmid=12074525
|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020601/2263.html
}}
*{{cite journal
|author= Cummings JL, Frank JC, Cherry D, Kohatsu ND, Kemp B, Hewett L, Mittman B
|title=Guidelines for managing Alzheimer's disease: Part II. Treatment
|journal=American Family Physician
|volume=65
|issue=12
|pages=2525–2534
|year=2002
|pmid=12086242
|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020615/2525.html
}}
*{{cite web
| title=Alzheimer’s Behavior Management: Learn to manage common behavior problems
| url=http://www.helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_behavior_problems.htm
| author=Russell D, Barston S, White M
| publisher=helpguide.org
| date=2007-12-19
| accessdate=2008-02-29
}}","{{Spoken Wikipedia|Alzheimer's Disease.ogg|2008-09-12}}
*{{cite book
| title=Alzheimer's Disease: Unraveling the Mystery
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/UnravelingTheMystery
| publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH
| year=2008
}}
*{{cite book
|url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/ADPrevented/
|title=Can Alzheimer's Disease Be Prevented?
|publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH
|year=2009
}}
*{{cite book
| title=Caring for a Person with Alzheimer's Disease: Your Easy-to-Use Guide from the National Institute on Aging
| url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/CaringAD/
| publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH
| year=2009
}}
*{{cite journal
|author=Cummings JL, Frank JC, Cherry D, Kohatsu ND, Kemp B, Hewett L, Mittman B
|title=Guidelines for managing Alzheimer's disease: Part I. Assessment
|journal=American Family Physician
|volume=65
|issue=11
|pages=2263–2272
|year=2002
|pmid=12074525
|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020601/2263.html
}}
*{{cite journal
|author= Cummings JL, Frank JC, Cherry D, Kohatsu ND, Kemp B, Hewett L, Mittman B
|title=Guidelines for managing Alzheimer's disease: Part II. Treatment
|journal=American Family Physician
|volume=65
|issue=12
|pages=2525–2534
|year=2002
|pmid=12086242
|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020615/2525.html
}}
*{{cite web
| title=Alzheimer’s Behavior Management: Learn to manage common behavior problems
| url=http://www.helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_behavior_problems.htm
| author=Russell D, Barston S, White M
| publisher=helpguide.org
| date=2007-12-19
| accessdate=2008-02-29
}}
*{{cite web
|title=Alzheimer Disease: Differential Diagnoses & Workup
|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1134817-diagnosis
|author= Heather S Anderson, MD, Assistant Professor, Staff Neurologist, Department of Neurology, Alzheimer and Memory Center, University of Kansas Medical Center
|publisher=medscape.com
|date=2009-08-27",[11]
Bubble sort,External links,343500658,2010-02-12T06:28:36Z,Dcoetzee,"{{wikibooks|Algorithm implementation|Sorting/Bubble_sort|Bubble sort}}
{{sorting}}
[[Category:Articles with example pseudocode]]
[[Category:Sorting algorithms]]
[[Category:Comparison sorts]]
[[Category:Stable sorts]]
[[ar:ترتيب الفقاعات]]
[[bg:Метод на мехурчето]]
[[cs:Bubble sort]]
[[da:Boblesortering]]
[[de:Bubblesort]]
[[et:Mullisortimine]]
[[el:Ταξινόμηση φυσαλίδας]]
[[es:Ordenamiento de burbuja]]
[[fa:مرتبسازی حبابی]]
[[fr:Tri à bulles]]
[[ko:거품 정렬]]
[[is:Bóluröðun]]
[[it:Bubble sort]]
[[he:מיון בועות]]
[[ku:Rêzkerdişê çimokan]]
[[lt:Burbulo rikiavimo algoritmas]]
[[hu:Buborékrendezés]]
[[ml:ബബിൾ സോർട്ട്]]
[[nl:Bubblesort]]
[[ja:バブルソート]]
[[no:Sorteringsalgoritme#Boblesortering]]
[[pl:Sortowanie bąbelkowe]]
[[pt:Bubble sort]]
[[ru:Сортировка пузырьком]]
[[sk:Bublinkové triedenie]]
[[sl:Mehurčno urejanje]]
[[fi:Kuplalajittelu]]
[[sv:Bubbelsortering]]
[[tr:Kabarcık sıralaması]]
[[uk:Сортування бульбашкою]]
[[vi:Sắp xếp nổi bọt]]
[[zh:冒泡排序]]","{{wikibooks|Algorithm implementation|Sorting/Bubble_sort|Bubble sort}}
* [http://www.sorting-algorithms.com/bubble-sort Animated Sorting Algorithms: Bubble Sort] – graphical demonstration and discussion of bubble sort
* [http://lecture.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~ueda/JavaApplet/BubbleSort.html Lafore's Bubble Sort] (Java applet animation)
* [http://tide4javascript.com/?s=Bubble Analyze Bubble Sort in an online Javascript IDE]
* [http://coderaptors.com/?BubbleSort A colored graphical Java applet] which allows experimentation with initial state and shows statistics
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxENKlcs2Tw An animated video] that explains bubble sort and quick sort and compares their performance.
{{sorting}}
[[Category:Articles with example pseudocode]]
[[Category:Sorting algorithms]]
[[Category:Comparison sorts]]
[[Category:Stable sorts]]
[[ar:ترتيب الفقاعات]]
[[bg:Метод на мехурчето]]
[[cs:Bubble sort]]
[[da:Boblesortering]]
[[de:Bubblesort]]
[[et:Mullisortimine]]
[[el:Ταξινόμηση φυσαλίδας]]
[[es:Ordenamiento de burbuja]]
[[fa:مرتبسازی حبابی]]
[[fr:Tri à bulles]]
[[ko:거품 정렬]]
[[is:Bóluröðun]]
[[it:Bubble sort]]
[[he:מיון בועות]]
[[ku:Rêzkerdişê çimokan]]
[[lt:Burbulo rikiavimo algoritmas]]
[[hu:Buborékrendezés]]
[[ml:ബബിൾ സോർട്ട്]]
[[nl:Bubblesort]]
[[ja:バブルソート]]
[[no:Sorteringsalgoritme#Boblesortering]]
[[pl:Sortowanie bąbelkowe]]
[[pt:Bubble sort]]
[[ru:Сортировка пузырьком]]
[[sk:Bublinkové triedenie]]
[[sl:Mehurčno urejanje]]
[[fi:Kuplalajittelu]]
[[sv:Bubbelsortering]]
[[tr:Kabarcık sıralaması]]
[[uk:Сортування бульбашкою]]
[[vi:Sắp xếp nổi bọt]]
[[zh:冒泡排序]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,344674688,2010-02-17T20:08:50Z,Sherazade96,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420–440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective | url= http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | publisher= Milena Lighting Design }} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420–440 nmNewman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: ""Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment"", ''Biochemistry.'' 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{cite web | last=Semjonova | first=Milena | title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective | url= http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf | year = 2003 | publisher= Milena Lighting Design }} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.
According to a 2010 study completed by the Lighting Research Centerwww.lrc.rpi.edu, daylight has a direct effect on circadian rhythms and, consequently, on performance and well-being. The research showed that students who experience disruption in lighting schemes in the morning consequently experience disruption in sleeping patterns. The change in sleeping patterns may lead to negatively impacted student performance and alertness. Removing circadian light in the morning delays the dim light melatonin onset by 6 minutes a day, for a total of 30 minutes for five days.Figueiro MG & Rea MS. “Lack of short-wavelength light during the school day delays dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) in middle school students.” NeuroEndocrinology Letters, 2010; 31(1): 92-96.","[1, 4, 7, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,344674688,2010-02-17T20:08:50Z,Sherazade96,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light_in_school_buildings|Impact of Lighting and Daylight in K-12 School Buildings]]
* Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program: http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes
* [[Power-nap]]","[1, 9]"
Instruction cycle,Fetch data from main memory,344787173,2010-02-18T09:30:31Z,195.33.114.129,Read the effective address from main memory if the instruction has an [[indirect address]]. Fetch required data from main memory to be processed and place it into data registers. After this has been done a 12inch dick leaps out from the computer and rams the user in the anus.,Read the effective address from main memory if the instruction has an [[indirect address]]. Fetch required data from main memory to be processed and place it into data registers.,[11]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,344987300,2010-02-19T09:05:26Z,Chris Capoccia,"Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.[http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/lithiumenzyme.cfm NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells’ Clocks Keep On Tickin’]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18272659?ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group.
Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [http://www.iarc.fr/en/Media-Centre/IARC-Press-Releases/Recent-Releases/IARC-Monographs-Programme-finds-cancer-hazards-associated-with-shiftwork-painting-and-firefighting] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066.[http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer?src=RSS_PUBLIC WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer]","Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.{{cite journal |author=Yin L, Wang J, Klein PS, Lazar MA |title=Nuclear receptor Rev-erbalpha is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5763 |pages=1002–5 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16484495 |doi=10.1126/science.1121613 |laysummary=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/lithium-blocks-enzyme-to-help-cells-clocks-keep-on-tickin.shtml |laysource=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |laydate=February 17, 2006}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cite journal |author=Martino TA, Oudit GY, Herzenberg AM, ''et al.'' |title=Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=294 |issue=5 |pages=R1675–83 |year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18272659 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00829.2007}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{cite journal |author=Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, ''et al.'' |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=November 30, 2007}}",[7]
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,344987300,2010-02-19T09:05:26Z,Chris Capoccia,"Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler ''et al.'' at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23 | quote= The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range. }}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{cite web |url= http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title= 28 Hour Day |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997 |work= |publisher= |quote= }} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{cite book|last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2|location=Chicago|publisher= University of Chicago Press|year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans|journal=Neurosci Lett|year=1994|volume=166|pages=63|doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9|pmid=8190360|issue=1}}{{cite journal|last=Dijk|first=Derk-Jan|coauthors=Czeisler Charles|title=Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans |journal=J. Neurosci|year=1995|volume=15| pages=3526|url= http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/5/3526|pmid=7751928|issue=5}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{cite web |url= http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title= Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= |last= Cromie |first= William J. |date= 1999-07-15 |work= |publisher= The Harvard University Gazette |quote= }} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Michael S | title = Sleep medicine | year = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2 | isbn = 0195129571 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.","Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler ''et al.'' at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{cite web | Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD | title =Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour | url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html | year = 1999 | accessdate=2007-09-23 | quote= The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range. }}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{cite web |url= http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title= 28 Hour Day |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997 |work= |publisher= |quote= }} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{cite book|last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2|location=Chicago|publisher= University of Chicago Press|year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{cite journal |author=Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |year=1994 |month=January |pmid=8190360 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{cite journal |author=Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA |title=Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |year=1995 |month=May |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{cite web |url= http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title= Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate= 2008-02-19 |author= |last= Cromie |first= William J. |date= 1999-07-15 |work= |publisher= The Harvard University Gazette |quote= }} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Michael S | title = Sleep medicine | year = 1999 | url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2 | isbn = 0-19-512957-1 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,344987300,2010-02-19T09:05:26Z,Chris Capoccia,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal | author=Leloup J.C. |title=Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=4 |issue= 3 |pages= 290–303 |year= 2009 |doi=10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1 }}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Cent. Eur. J. Biol. |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal |author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","[7, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,344987300,2010-02-19T09:05:26Z,Chris Capoccia,"Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling. {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{cite web | PILCHER June J., MICHALOWSKI Kristin R., CARRIGAN Renee D. | title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |publisher=Behavioral medicine|work=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep | url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14110524 | year=2001 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}{{cite web |Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley | title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | publisher=Liberty University | work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | url=http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{cite web |url= http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title= Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate= 2008-08-03 |last= Sinert |first= Richard |coauthors= Peter R Peacock, Jr |date= May 10, 2006 |work= |publisher= eMedicine from WebMD |doi= |quote= }} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms. Plitnick B, Figueiro MG, Wood B, Rea MS. 2010. The effects of long-wavelength red and short-wavelength blue lights on alertness and mood at night. Lighting Research and Technology. In press.Figueiro MG, Rea MS, Bullough JD. 2006. Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? Journal of Carcinogenesis 5:20 (10 August 2006).Sloane PD, Figueiro MG, Cohen L. 2008. Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults. Clinical Geriatrics, March 2008:2-8.Figueiro, MG, Bierman, A, Plitnick B, Rea MS. 2009. Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night. BMC Neuroscience, 10:105 (28 Aug 2009).","Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling. {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{cite journal |author=Pilcher JJ, Michalowski KR, Carrigan RD |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |url=http://heldref.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&issn=0896-4289&volume=27&issue=2&spage=71}}{{cite web |Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley | title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | publisher=Liberty University | work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students | url=http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{cite web | Sabah Quraishi | title =Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | publisher=Serendip | work = Circadian Rhythms and Sleep | url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html | year = 2007 | accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{cite web |url= http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title= Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate= 2008-08-03 |last= Sinert |first= Richard |coauthors= Peter R Peacock, Jr |date= May 10, 2006 |work= |publisher= eMedicine from WebMD |doi= |quote= }} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{cite journal |author=Figueiro MG, Bierman A, Plitnick B, Rea MS |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue= |pages=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{cite journal |author=Figueiro MG, Rea MS, Bullough JD |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |issue= |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid=16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}Sloane PD, Figueiro MG, Cohen L. 2008. Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults. Clinical Geriatrics, March 2008:2-8.{{cite journal |author=Figueiro MG, Bierman A, Plitnick B, Rea MS |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue= |pages=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),345359371,2010-02-21T05:37:58Z,SmackBot,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],{{fact}} comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),345936369,2010-02-23T19:50:59Z,Hordaland,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"", coined by [[Franz Halberg]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,346278351,2010-02-25T11:50:47Z,CapitalLetterBeginning,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal |author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
*{{cite journal |author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
*{{cite journal | author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–253 |year= 2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z }}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),346984779,2010-03-01T00:08:14Z,98.169.100.221,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 25-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[3, 10]"
Gene therapy,Problems and ethics,349709508,2010-03-14T00:28:00Z,151.204.243.26,"For the safety of gene therapy, the [[Weismann barrier]] is fundamental in the current thinking. [[Soma-to-germline feedback]] should therefore be impossible. However, there are indications{{cite web |url=http://home.planet.nl/~gkorthof/kortho39a.htm |title=The implications of Steele's soma-to-germline feedback for human gene therapy |author=Korthof G}} that the Weissman barrier can be breached. One way it might possibly be breached is if the treatment were somehow misapplied and spread to the testes and therefore would infect the germline against the intentions of the therapy.
Some of the problems of gene therapy include:
*Short-lived nature of gene therapy – Before gene therapy can become a permanent cure for any condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be long-lived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any long-term benefits. Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.
*Immune response – Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues, the immune system has evolved to attack the invader. The risk of stimulating the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always a possibility. Furthermore, the [[immune system]]'s enhanced response to invaders that it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients.
*Problems with viral vectors – Viruses, the carrier of choice in most gene therapy studies, present a variety of potential problems to the patient —toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may recover its ability to cause disease.
*[[Multigene disorders]] – Conditions or disorders that arise from [[mutations]] in a single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some of the most commonly occurring disorders, such as [[heart disease]], [[high blood pressure]], [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[arthritis]], and [[diabetes]], are caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially difficult to treat effectively using gene therapy.
*Chance of inducing a [[tumor]] (insertional mutagenesis) - If the [[DNA]] is integrated in the wrong place in the [[genome]], for example in a [[tumor suppressor gene]], it could induce a tumor. This has occurred in clinical trials for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-[[SCID|SCID)]] patients, in which hematopoietic stem cells were transduced with a corrective transgene using a retrovirus, and this led to the development of T cell leukemia in 3 of 20 patients.{{cite journal |author=Woods NB, Bottero V, Schmidt M, von Kalle C, Verma IM |title=Gene therapy: therapeutic gene causing lymphoma |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7088 |pages=1123 |year=2006 |month=Apr |pmid=16641981 |doi=10.1038/4401123a }} {{cite journal |author=Thrasher AJ, Gaspar HB, Baum C, ''et al.'' |title=Gene therapy: X-SCID transgene leukaemogenicity |journal=Nature |volume=443 |issue=7109 |pages=E5–6; discussion E6–7 |year=2006 |month=Sep |pmid=16988659 |doi=10.1038/nature05219 |url=}}
Once proven effective, viral gene thearpy technology could be applied to create ""smart"" biological weapons that would target groups or individuals based on their general or particular DNA pattern and trigger either a naturally occuring or man made ""designer"" genetic disease.
Deaths have occurred due to gene therapy, including that of [[Jesse Gelsinger]].http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml#status","For the safety of gene therapy, the [[Weismann barrier]] is fundamental in the current thinking. [[Soma-to-germline feedback]] should therefore be impossible. However, there are indications{{cite web |url=http://home.planet.nl/~gkorthof/kortho39a.htm |title=The implications of Steele's soma-to-germline feedback for human gene therapy |author=Korthof G}} that the Weissman barrier can be breached. One way it might possibly be breached is if the treatment were somehow misapplied and spread to the testes and therefore would infect the germline against the intentions of the therapy.
Some of the problems of gene therapy include:
*Short-lived nature of gene therapy – Before gene therapy can become a permanent cure for any condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be long-lived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any long-term benefits. Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.
*Immune response – Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues, the immune system has evolved to attack the invader. The risk of stimulating the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always a possibility. Furthermore, the [[immune system]]'s enhanced response to invaders that it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients.
*Problems with viral vectors – Viruses, the carrier of choice in most gene therapy studies, present a variety of potential problems to the patient —toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may recover its ability to cause disease.
*[[Multigene disorders]] – Conditions or disorders that arise from [[mutations]] in a single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some of the most commonly occurring disorders, such as [[heart disease]], [[high blood pressure]], [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[arthritis]], and [[diabetes]], are caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially difficult to treat effectively using gene therapy.
*Chance of inducing a [[tumor]] (insertional mutagenesis) - If the [[DNA]] is integrated in the wrong place in the [[genome]], for example in a [[tumor suppressor gene]], it could induce a tumor. This has occurred in clinical trials for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-[[SCID|SCID)]] patients, in which hematopoietic stem cells were transduced with a corrective transgene using a retrovirus, and this led to the development of T cell leukemia in 3 of 20 patients.{{cite journal |author=Woods NB, Bottero V, Schmidt M, von Kalle C, Verma IM |title=Gene therapy: therapeutic gene causing lymphoma |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7088 |pages=1123 |year=2006 |month=Apr |pmid=16641981 |doi=10.1038/4401123a }} {{cite journal |author=Thrasher AJ, Gaspar HB, Baum C, ''et al.'' |title=Gene therapy: X-SCID transgene leukaemogenicity |journal=Nature |volume=443 |issue=7109 |pages=E5–6; discussion E6–7 |year=2006 |month=Sep |pmid=16988659 |doi=10.1038/nature05219 |url=}}
Deaths have occurred due to gene therapy, including that of [[Jesse Gelsinger]].http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml#status
Once proven to be effective, viral gene therapy technology could ""theoretically"" be applied to create ""smart"" biological weapons that would target groups or individuals based on their general or particular DNA pattern and trigger either a naturally occurring or man made ""designer"" genetically engineered disease.",[11]
Bubble sort,References,351699684,2010-03-24T03:04:42Z,78.3.84.15,"* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 106–110 of section 5.2.2: Sorting by Exchanging.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Problem 2-2, pg.38.
* [https://www.cs.tcd.ie/publications/tech-reports/reports.05/TCD-CS-2005-57.pdf Sorting in the Presence of Branch Prediction and Caches]
* [http://adria.fesb.hr/~imarzic/aisp/ help]","* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 106–110 of section 5.2.2: Sorting by Exchanging.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Problem 2-2, pg.38.
* [https://www.cs.tcd.ie/publications/tech-reports/reports.05/TCD-CS-2005-57.pdf Sorting in the Presence of Branch Prediction and Caches]",[11]
Asperger syndrome,Characteristics,352364878,2010-03-27T17:18:15Z,WLU,"A [[pervasive developmental disorder]], Asperger syndrome is distinguished by a pattern of symptoms rather than a single symptom. It is characterized by qualitative impairment in social interaction, by stereotyped and restricted patterns of behavior, activities and interests, and by no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or general delay in language.{{cite book |title= Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |edition= 4th, text revision ([[DSM-IV-TR]]) |author= American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |isbn=0-89042-025-4 |chapter= Diagnostic criteria for 299.80 Asperger's Disorder (AD) |chapterurl=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm |accessdate=2007-06-28 |publisher= |location= }} Intense preoccupation with a narrow subject, one-sided verbosity, restricted [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], and physical clumsiness are typical of the condition, but are not required for diagnosis.{{cite journal |journal= Rev Bras Psiquiatr |year=2006 |volume=28 |issue= suppl 1 |pages=S3–S11 |title= Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview |author= Klin A |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 |pmid=16791390 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en}}It includes Cognitive Characteristics, Social Characteristics, Work Characteristics and Physical Manifestations of Asperger’s Syndrome.{{cite web |url=http://www.autism-world.com/index.php/2007/09/13/list-of-aspergers-syndrome-characteristics/|accessdate=2007-09-13 |author= Echo Armman |title= List of Asperger’s Syndrome characteristics |publisher= Autism-World }}","A [[pervasive developmental disorder]], Asperger syndrome is distinguished by a pattern of symptoms rather than a single symptom. It is characterized by qualitative impairment in social interaction, by stereotyped and restricted patterns of behavior, activities and interests, and by no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or general delay in language.{{cite book |title= Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |edition= 4th, text revision ([[DSM-IV-TR]]) |author= American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |isbn=0-89042-025-4 |chapter= Diagnostic criteria for 299.80 Asperger's Disorder (AD) |chapterurl=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm |accessdate=2007-06-28 |publisher= |location= }} Intense preoccupation with a narrow subject, one-sided verbosity, restricted [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], and physical clumsiness are typical of the condition, but are not required for diagnosis.{{cite journal |journal= Rev Bras Psiquiatr |year=2006 |volume=28 |issue= suppl 1 |pages=S3–S11 |title= Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview |author= Klin A |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 |pmid=16791390 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en}}",[2]
Trie,Dictionary representation,352507629,2010-03-28T10:13:02Z,Pombredanne,"A common application of a trie is storing a dictionary, such as one found on a [[mobile telephone]]. Such applications take advantage of a trie's ability to quickly search for, insert, and delete entries; however, if storing dictionary words is all that is required (i.e. storage of information auxiliary to each word is not required), a minimal [[acyclic deterministic finite automaton]] would use less space than a trie.{{Fact|date=February 2009}}
Tries are also well suited for implementing approximate matching algorithms, including those used in [[spell checking]] software.","A common application of a trie is storing a dictionary, such as one found on a [[mobile telephone]]. Such applications take advantage of a trie's ability to quickly search for, insert, and delete entries; however, if storing dictionary words is all that is required (i.e. storage of information auxiliary to each word is not required), a minimal [[acyclic deterministic finite automaton]] would use less space than a trie.{{Fact|date=February 2009}}
Tries are also well suited for implementing approximate matching algorithms, including those used in [[spell checking]] and [[hyphenation]] software.","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),352958829,2010-03-30T14:47:42Z,93.172.24.43,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","''Sleep: Unceasing Display Of Stubborn Ignorance'''
A. ""Keeping Time, New findings show how circadian clocks make the body tick""
http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/57591/title/Keeping_Time
An additional long-winded verbiage to the unceasing displays of stubborn ignorance re the origin and nature of sleep.
B. Again and again:
""Unconfuse sleep-health comprehension""
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/260/122.page#4775
Sleep origin: Sleep is inherent for genes. The earliest, RNAs, genes, in pre-metabolism life period, were active only during direct sunlight hours. They evolved their DNA workbooklog manuals in their own image.
Sleep-Health: Early monocellular organisms communities evolved serotinin, from tryptophan, for between-cells communications (from which evolved later the neural system) and followed with evolving melatonin from serotinin. Melatonin evolved to signal between-cells clean-up and maintenance time, timed during DNA genes inactivity-sleep. These processes persisted into multicell organisms, and are naturally most intense in growing organisms.
Dov Henis
(Comments From The 22nd Century)
03.2010 Updated Life Manifest
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/54.page#5065
Cosmic Evolution Simplified
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/240/122.page#4427
[[Special:Contributions/93.172.24.43|93.172.24.43]] ([[User talk:93.172.24.43|talk]]) 14:47, 30 March 2010 (UTC)",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),352958829,2010-03-30T14:47:42Z,93.172.24.43,,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",12
Circadian rhythm,(Top),352973186,2010-03-30T16:12:35Z,BillTunell,"'''Sleep: Unceasing Display Of Stubborn Ignorance'''
A. ""Keeping Time, New findings show how circadian clocks make the body tick""
http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/57591/title/Keeping_Time
An additional long-winded verbiage to the unceasing displays of stubborn ignorance re the origin and nature of sleep.
B. Again and again:
""Unconfuse sleep-health comprehension""
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/260/122.page#4775
Sleep origin: Sleep is inherent for genes. The earliest, RNAs, genes, in pre-metabolism life period, were active only during direct sunlight hours. They evolved their DNA workbooklog manuals in their own image.
Sleep-Health: Early monocellular organisms communities evolved serotinin, from tryptophan, for between-cells communications (from which evolved later the neural system) and followed with evolving melatonin from serotinin. Melatonin evolved to signal between-cells clean-up and maintenance time, timed during DNA genes inactivity-sleep. These processes persisted into multicell organisms, and are naturally most intense in growing organisms.
Dov Henis
(Comments From The 22nd Century)
03.2010 Updated Life Manifest
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/54.page#5065
Cosmic Evolution Simplified
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/240/122.page#4427
[[Special:Contributions/93.172.24.43|93.172.24.43]] ([[User talk:93.172.24.43|talk]]) 14:47, 30 March 2010 (UTC)","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.PNG|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tide|tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[1, 2, 4, 9, 10]"
Methadone,External links,353541472,2010-04-02T13:14:47Z,ItalianChef,"* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://dpt2.samhsa.gov/treatment/ Clinic Locator, United States]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/IDU/facts/MethadoneFin.pdf DHHS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)]
* [http://www.methadone.org/ Methadone.org]
* [http://www.MethadoneSupport.org Methadone Support]
* [http://www.pubpk.org/index.php?title=Methadone Methadone Pharmacokinetics - PubPK]
* [http://www.HARMD.org HARMD Inc. Helping America Reduce Methadone Deaths]
* [http://www.tampabay.com/specials/2008/reports/drug-deaths/index.shtml St. Petersburg Times Investigation: Deadly Combinations]
* [http://www.camh.net/Care_Treatment/Resources_clients_families_friends/Methadone_Maintenance_Treatment/mmt_clienthndbk_ch8.html]
* [http://www.oatc.ca/research/Slow.tapering.from.methadone.maintenance.in.a.program.pdf]
* [http://www.aegisuniversity.com/Aegis%20Documents/Tapering%20off%20of%20Methadone%20Maintenance%205-24-02.pdf]
* [http://www.bcpharmacists.org/library/H-Resources/H-4_Pharmacy_Resources/5058-Methadone_Maintenance_Program_Overview.pdf]
* [http://pharmaceuticals.mallinckrodt.com/_attachments/PackageInserts/18_Methadone%20Hydrochloride%20Tab_REV011309.pdf]
* [http://edocs.lib.sfu.ca/projects/chodarr/documents/chodarr1448.pdf]
* [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/alt_formats/hecs-sesc/pdf/pubs/adp-apd/methadone-bp-mp/methadone-bp-mp-eng.pdf]
{{Opioids}}
{{Analgesics}}
{{Drugs used in addictive disorders}}
{{Cough and cold preparations}}
{{Cholinergics}}
{{Serotonergics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Eli Lilly and Company]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Drug rehabilitation]]
[[Category:German inventions]]
[[Category:Ketones]]
[[Category:Amines]]
[[be:Метадон]]
[[bs:Metadon]]
[[ca:Metadona]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[et:Metadoon]]
[[es:Metadona]]
[[eo:Metadono]]
[[eu:Metadona]]
[[fa:متادون]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[ga:Meatadón]]
[[gl:Metadona]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[he:מתאדון]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[simple:Methadone]]
[[sk:Metadón]]
[[sl:Metadon]]
[[sr:Метадон]]
[[sh:Metadon]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[tr:Methadon]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]","* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/methadone/index.html ONDCP Fact Sheet]
* [http://dpt2.samhsa.gov/treatment/ Clinic Locator, United States]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/IDU/facts/MethadoneFin.pdf DHHS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)]
* [http://www.methadone.org/ Methadone.org]
* [http://www.MethadoneSupport.org Methadone Support]
* [http://www.thesite.org/drinkanddrugs/drugsafety/drugsatoz/methadone TheSite.org Methadone Helpsheet]
* [http://www.pubpk.org/index.php?title=Methadone Methadone Pharmacokinetics - PubPK]
* [http://www.HARMD.org HARMD Inc. Helping America Reduce Methadone Deaths]
* [http://www.tampabay.com/specials/2008/reports/drug-deaths/index.shtml St. Petersburg Times Investigation: Deadly Combinations]
* [http://www.camh.net/Care_Treatment/Resources_clients_families_friends/Methadone_Maintenance_Treatment/mmt_clienthndbk_ch8.html]
* [http://www.oatc.ca/research/Slow.tapering.from.methadone.maintenance.in.a.program.pdf]
* [http://www.aegisuniversity.com/Aegis%20Documents/Tapering%20off%20of%20Methadone%20Maintenance%205-24-02.pdf]
* [http://www.bcpharmacists.org/library/H-Resources/H-4_Pharmacy_Resources/5058-Methadone_Maintenance_Program_Overview.pdf]
* [http://pharmaceuticals.mallinckrodt.com/_attachments/PackageInserts/18_Methadone%20Hydrochloride%20Tab_REV011309.pdf]
* [http://edocs.lib.sfu.ca/projects/chodarr/documents/chodarr1448.pdf]
* [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/alt_formats/hecs-sesc/pdf/pubs/adp-apd/methadone-bp-mp/methadone-bp-mp-eng.pdf]
{{Opioids}}
{{Analgesics}}
{{Drugs used in addictive disorders}}
{{Cough and cold preparations}}
{{Cholinergics}}
{{Serotonergics}}
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Eli Lilly and Company]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Drug rehabilitation]]
[[Category:German inventions]]
[[Category:Ketones]]
[[Category:Amines]]
[[be:Метадон]]
[[bs:Metadon]]
[[ca:Metadona]]
[[cs:Metadon]]
[[da:Metadon]]
[[de:Methadon]]
[[et:Metadoon]]
[[es:Metadona]]
[[eo:Metadono]]
[[eu:Metadona]]
[[fa:متادون]]
[[fr:Méthadone]]
[[ga:Meatadón]]
[[gl:Metadona]]
[[it:Metadone]]
[[he:מתאדון]]
[[hu:Metadon]]
[[nl:Methadon]]
[[ja:メタドン]]
[[no:Metadon]]
[[pl:Metadon]]
[[pt:Metadona]]
[[ru:Метадон]]
[[simple:Methadone]]
[[sk:Metadón]]
[[sl:Metadon]]
[[sr:Метадон]]
[[sh:Metadon]]
[[fi:Metadoni]]
[[sv:Metadon]]
[[th:เมทาโดน]]
[[tr:Methadon]]
[[uk:Метадон]]
[[zh:美沙酮]]",[11]
Methamphetamine,(Top),353578832,2010-04-02T17:33:07Z,Naijaboy777,"{{Redirect4|Meth|Tik}}
{{About|the [[psychostimulant]] drug, methamphetamine, in both [[racemic]] and [[dextrorotatory]] forms|the CNS inactive [[over-the-counter drug|OTC]] nasal decongestant|levomethamphetamine}}
{{Drugbox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 306452948
|IUPAC_name = ''N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine''
| image = Methamphetamine.svg
| image2 = Methamphetamine-3d-CPK.png
| width=200
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}}
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=1206
| ChemSpiderID = 1169
| DrugBank=DB01577
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.233 g/mol
| smiles = CC(CC1=CC=CC=C1)NC
| synonyms = Desoxyephedrine Pervitin Anadrex Methedrine Methylamphetamine Syndrox Desoxyn
| bioavailability= 62.7% oral; 79% nasal; 90.3% smoked; 99% rectally; 100% IV
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 9–15 hours[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12507968&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Methamphetamine and amphetamine pharmacokinetics in oral fluid and plasma after controlled oral methamphetamine administration to human volunteers.]
| excretion = [[Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU = S8
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_UK =
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status = Class A([[New Zealand|NZ]]) Schedule 5([[South Africa|SA]]) Injectable:Class A, Oral: A([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| routes_of_administration= Medical: Oral Recreational: Oral, [[Intravenous therapy|I.V.]], [[Intramuscular injection|I.M.]], Insufflation, Inhalation, Rectal
}}
'''Methamphetamine''' ({{pron-en|ˌmɛθæmˈfɛtəmiːn}} [http://cougar.eb.com/soundc11/m/metham01.wav listen]) also known as '''metamfetamine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]), '''dextromethamphetamine''', '''methylamphetamine''', '''N-methylamphetamine''', and '''desoxyephedrine''') is a [[psychoactive]] [[stimulant]] [[drug]]. It increases [[alertness]] and energy, and in high doses, can induce [[euphoria]], enhance [[self-esteem]], and increase [[sexual pleasure]].{{cite book |author=Mack, Avram H.; Frances, Richard J.; Miller, Sheldon I. |title=Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders, Third Edition |publisher=The Guilford Press |location=New York |year=2005 |pages= 207|isbn=1-59385-174-X}}B.K. Logan. ''Methamphetamine - Effects on Human Performance and Behavior''. Forensic Science Review, Vol. 14, no. 1/2 (2002), p. 142 [http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/ntlc_meth.pdf Full PDF]
Methamphetamine has high potential for [[abuse]], activating the psychological [[reward system]] by increasing levels of [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]] and [[serotonin]] in the brain. Methamphetamine is [[FDA|FDA approved]] in the United States for the treatment of [[ADHD]] and [[exogenous obesity]], under the trademark name [[Desoxyn]].[http://www.rxlist.com/desoxyn-drug.htm ''Desoxyn (Methamphetamine Hydrochloride) - RxList'']","{{Redirect4|Meth|Tik}}
{{About|the [[psychostimulant]] drug, methamphetamine, in both [[racemic]] and [[dextrorotatory]] forms|the CNS inactive [[over-the-counter drug|OTC]] nasal decongestant|levomethamphetamine}}
{{Drugbox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 306452948
|IUPAC_name = ''N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine''
| image = Methamphetamine.svg
| image2 = Methamphetamine-3d-CPK.png
| width=200
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}}
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=1206
| ChemSpiderID = 1169
| DrugBank=DB01577
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.233 g/mol
| smiles = CC(CC1=CC=CC=C1)NC
| synonyms = Desoxyephedrine Pervitin Anadrex Methedrine Methylamphetamine Syndrox Desoxyn
| bioavailability= 62.7% oral; 79% nasal; 90.3% smoked; 99% rectally; 100% IV
| metabolism = [[Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 9–15 hours[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12507968&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Methamphetamine and amphetamine pharmacokinetics in oral fluid and plasma after controlled oral methamphetamine administration to human volunteers.]
| excretion = [[Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU = S8
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_UK =
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_status = Class A([[New Zealand|NZ]]) Schedule 5([[South Africa|SA]]) Injectable:Class A, Oral: A([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| routes_of_administration= Medical: Oral Recreational: Oral, [[Intravenous therapy|I.V.]], [[Intramuscular injection|I.M.]], Insufflation, Inhalation, Rectal
}}
'''Methamphetamine''' ({{pron-en|ˌmɛθæmˈfɛtəmiːn}} [http://cougar.eb.com/soundc11/m/metham01.wav listen]) also known as '''metamfetamine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]), '''dextromethamphetamine''', '''methylamphetamine''', '''N-methylamphetamine''', and '''desoxyephedrine''') is a [[psychoactive]] [[stimulant]] [[drug]]. It increases [[alertness]] and energy, and in high doses, can induce [[euphoria]], enhance [[self-esteem]], and increase [[sexual pleasure]].If you are from Ms. Epsteins class you should try this drug it will change your moms life. Close your legs please there is a pungent smell being emitted. Your mom is a goofy goober bitch.{{cite book |author=Mack, Avram H.; Frances, Richard J.; Miller, Sheldon I. |title=Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders, Third Edition |publisher=The Guilford Press |location=New York |year=2005 |pages= 207|isbn=1-59385-174-X}}B.K. Logan. ''Methamphetamine - Effects on Human Performance and Behavior''. Forensic Science Review, Vol. 14, no. 1/2 (2002), p. 142 [http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/ntlc_meth.pdf Full PDF]
Methamphetamine has high potential for [[abuse]], activating the psychological [[reward system]] by increasing levels of [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]] and [[serotonin]] in the brain. Methamphetamine is [[FDA|FDA approved]] in the United States for the treatment of [[ADHD]] and [[exogenous obesity]], under the trademark name [[Desoxyn]].[http://www.rxlist.com/desoxyn-drug.htm ''Desoxyn (Methamphetamine Hydrochloride) - RxList'']",[11]
Von Neumann architecture,von Neumann bottleneck,355296463,2010-04-11T08:09:43Z,Citation bot,"The separation between the CPU and memory leads to the ''von Neumann bottleneck'', the limited [[throughput]] (data transfer rate) between the CPU and memory compared to the amount of memory. In most modern computers, throughput is much smaller than the rate at which the CPU can work. This seriously limits the effective processing speed when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data. The CPU is continuously [[Wait state|forced to wait]] for needed data to be transferred to or from memory. Since CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between them, the bottleneck has become more of a problem, a problem whose severity increases with every newer generation of CPU.
The term ""von Neumann bottleneck"" was coined by [[John Backus]] in his 1977 ACM [[Turing Award]] lecture. According to Backus:
Surely there must be a less primitive way of making big changes in the store than by pushing vast numbers of [[Word (computing)|words]] back and forth through the von Neumann bottleneck. Not only is this tube a literal bottleneck for the data traffic of a problem, but, more importantly, it is an intellectual bottleneck that has kept us tied to word-at-a-time thinking instead of encouraging us to think in terms of the larger conceptual units of the task at hand. Thus programming is basically planning and detailing the enormous traffic of words through the von Neumann bottleneck, and much of that traffic concerns not significant data itself, but where to find it. {{ cite web |url = http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD692.html | title = E. W. Dijkstra Archive: A review of the 1977 Turing Award Lecture | accessdate = 2008-07-11 }}
The performance problem can be alleviated (to some extent) by several mechanisms. Providing a [[cache]] between the CPU and the main memory, providing separate caches with separate access paths for data and instructions (the so-called [[Harvard architecture]]), and using [[branch predictor]] algorithms and logic are three of the ways performance is increased. The problem can also be sidestepped somewhat by using [[parallel computing]], using for example the [[Non-Uniform Memory Access|NUMA]] architecture—this approach is commonly employed by supercomputers. It is less clear whether the ''intellectual bottleneck'' that Backus criticized has changed much since 1977. Backus's proposed solution has not had a major influence. Modern [[functional programming]] and [[object-oriented programming]] are much less geared towards ""pushing vast numbers of words back and forth"" than earlier languages like [[Fortran]] were, but internally, that is still what computers spend much of their time doing, even highly parallel supercomputers.","The separation between the CPU and memory leads to the ''von Neumann bottleneck'', the limited [[throughput]] (data transfer rate) between the CPU and memory compared to the amount of memory. In most modern computers, throughput is much smaller than the rate at which the CPU can work. This seriously limits the effective processing speed when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data. The CPU is continuously [[Wait state|forced to wait]] for needed data to be transferred to or from memory. Since CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between them, the bottleneck has become more of a problem, a problem whose severity increases with every newer generation of CPU.
The term ""von Neumann bottleneck"" was coined by [[John Backus]] in his 1977 ACM [[Turing Award]] lecture. According to Backus:
Surely there must be a less primitive way of making big changes in the store than by pushing vast numbers of [[Word (computing)|words]] back and forth through the von Neumann bottleneck. Not only is this tube a literal bottleneck for the data traffic of a problem, but, more importantly, it is an intellectual bottleneck that has kept us tied to word-at-a-time thinking instead of encouraging us to think in terms of the larger conceptual units of the task at hand. Thus programming is basically planning and detailing the enormous traffic of words through the von Neumann bottleneck, and much of that traffic concerns not significant data itself, but where to find it. {{ Citation |url = http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD692.html | title = E. W. Dijkstra Archive: A review of the 1977 Turing Award Lecture | accessdate = 2008-07-11 }}
The performance problem can be alleviated (to some extent) by several mechanisms. Providing a [[cache]] between the CPU and the main memory, providing separate caches with separate access paths for data and instructions (the so-called [[Harvard architecture]]), and using [[branch predictor]] algorithms and logic are three of the ways performance is increased. The problem can also be sidestepped somewhat by using [[parallel computing]], using for example the [[Non-Uniform Memory Access|NUMA]] architecture—this approach is commonly employed by supercomputers. It is less clear whether the ''intellectual bottleneck'' that Backus criticized has changed much since 1977. Backus's proposed solution has not had a major influence. Modern [[functional programming]] and [[object-oriented programming]] are much less geared towards ""pushing vast numbers of words back and forth"" than earlier languages like [[Fortran]] were, but internally, that is still what computers spend much of their time doing, even highly parallel supercomputers.",[11]
Methadone,Dosage,356410125,2010-04-16T16:59:02Z,74.140.49.125,"A majority of patients require 80–120 mg/d of methadone, or more, to achieve these effects and require treatment for an indefinite period of time, since methadone maintenance is a corrective but not a curative treatment for opiate addiction. Lower doses are sometimes not as effective, or do not provide an equivalent blockade effect as higher dosages can. Some patients will be prescribed as much as 500 mg of methadone a day, though a person without a methadone tolerance may get sick from a dose as low as 20 mg.
In the United States clinics typically start patients at a low dose, generally only starting patients on methadone when they are in withdrawal and providing a small test dose, after which the patients are observed for possible adverse effects. Assuming there are no complications, the remaining portion of the first day's dose is then given. After this the doses are titrated until they reach either a clinically sufficient level that prevents withdrawal, cravings and possible continued use of illicit opioids, or until they reach a maximum dose set by clinic policy. For example, a clinic may start patients at 30 mg and raise the dosage 5 mg a day until the patient feels at a comfortable level, or will stop at 80 mg and allowing the patient to move up by 5 mg or 10 mg every 2 or 3 days, free from withdrawal symptoms and intense cravings. Once stabilized patients may require occasional dose adjustments as their clinical or subjective tolerance changes.
The most common and traditional dosing regimens, however, tend to fall far short of providing optimum or even sufficient results for a number of patients. This is due to the ceilings many clinics place on dose levels.{{cite journal |author=Donny EC, Brasser SM, Bigelow GE, Stitzer ML, Walsh SL |title=Methadone doses of 100 mg or greater are more effective than lower doses at suppressing heroin self-administration in opioid-dependent volunteers |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=100 |issue=10 |pages=1496–509 |year=2005 |pmid=16185211 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01232.x}}{{cite journal |author=Latowsky M |title=Methadone death, dosage and torsade de pointes: risk-benefit policy implications |journal=Journal of psychoactive drugs |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=513–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17373567 |doi=}}
Until recently a 100-mg/d dose was regarded as a 'glass ceiling,' rarely to be penetrated. In practice much lower thresholds were maintained even though the optimal dose varies greatly between patients, often quite higher than this and with no inherent threshold in the possible dose, as the toxic dose for patients with very high tolerance can exceed this ten-fold or more. The blood concentrations of patients on an equivalent dose (when adjusted for body weight) can vary as much as 17-fold, or up to 41-fold when influenced by other medications, leading to a vast range of potentially required doses.{{cite journal |author=Leavitt SB, Shinderman M, Maxwell S, Eap CB, Paris P |title=When ""Enough"" Is Not Enough: New Perspectives on Optimal Methadone Maintenance Dose|journal= Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine |volume=67 |issue=5&6 |pages=404–411 |year=2000}}{{cite journal |author=Faggiano F, Vigna-Taglianti F, Versino E, Lemma P |title=Methadone maintenance at different dosages for opioid dependence |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD002208 |year=2003 |pmid=12917925 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002208}}
In the United States, federal law was changed in 2001 to eliminate some restrictions imposed on patients dosed on more than 100 mg per day.","A majority of patients require 80–120 mg/d of methadone, or more, to achieve these effects and require treatment for an indefinite period of time, since methadone maintenance is a corrective but not a curative treatment for opiate addiction. Lower doses are sometimes not as effective, or do not provide an equivalent blockade effect as higher dosages can. Some patients will be prescribed as much as 500 mg of methadone a daasd y, though a person without a methadone tolerance may get sick from a dose as low as 20 mg.
In the United States clinics typically start patients at a low dose, generally only starting patients on methadone when they are in withdrawal and providing a small test dose, after which the patients are observed for possible adverse effects. Assuming there are no complications, the remaining portion of the first day's dose is then given. After this the doses are titrated until they reach either a clinically sufficient level that prevents withdrawal, cravings and possible continued use of illicit opioids, or until they reach a maximum dose set by clinic policy. For example, a clinic may start patients at 30 mg and raise the dosage 5 mg a day until the patient feels at a comfortable level, or will stop at 80 mg and allowing the patient to move up by 5 mg or 10 mg every 2 or 3 days, free from withdrawal symptoms and intense cravings. Once stabilized patients may require occasional dose adjustments as their clinical or subjective tolerance changes.
The most common and traditional dosing regimens, however, tend to fall far short of providing optimum or even sufficient results for a number of patients. This is due to the ceilings many clinics place on dose levels.{{cite journal |author=Donny EC, Brasser SM, Bigelow GE, Stitzer ML, Walsh SL |title=Methadone doses of 100 mg or greater are more effective than lower doses at suppressing heroin self-administration in opioid-dependent volunteers |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=100 |issue=10 |pages=1496–509 |year=2005 |pmid=16185211 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01232.x}}{{cite journal |author=Latowsky M |title=Methadone death, dosage and torsade de pointes: risk-benefit policy implications |journal=Journal of psychoactive drugs |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=513–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17373567 |doi=}}
Until recently a 100-mg/d dose was regarded as a 'glass ceiling,' rarely to be penetrated. In practice much lower thresholds were maintained even though the optimal dose varies greatly between patients, often quite higher than this and with no inherent threshold in the possible dose, as the toxic dose for patients with very high tolerance can exceed this ten-fold or more. The blood concentrations of patients on an equivalent dose (when adjusted for body weight) can vary as much as 17-fold, or up to 41-fold when influenced by other medications, leading to a vast range of potentially required doses.{{cite journal |author=Leavitt SB, Shinderman M, Maxwell S, Eap CB, Paris P |title=When ""Enough"" Is Not Enough: New Perspectives on Optimal Methadone Maintenance Dose|journal= Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine |volume=67 |issue=5&6 |pages=404–411 |year=2000}}{{cite journal |author=Faggiano F, Vigna-Taglianti F, Versino E, Lemma P |title=Methadone maintenance at different dosages for opioid dependence |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD002208 |year=2003 |pmid=12917925 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002208}}
In the United States, federal law was changed in 2001 to eliminate some restrictions imposed on patients dosed on more than 100 mg per day.",[11]
Context-free grammar,Example 1,357552792,2010-04-22T04:10:25Z,67.252.132.136,"Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct [[Infix notation|infix]] algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
# S → x
# S → y
# S → z
# S → S + S
# S → S - S
# S → S * S
# S → S / S
# S → ( S )
This grammar can, for example, generate the string
:( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )
as follows:
:S (the start symbol)
: → S - S (by rule 5)
: → S * S - S (by rule 6, applied to the leftmost S)
: → S * S - S / S (by rule 7, applied to the rightmost S)
: → ( S ) * S - S / S (by rule 8, applied to the leftmost S)
: → ( S ) * S - S / ( S ) (by rule 8, applied to the rightmost S)
: → ( S + S ) * S - S / ( S ) (etc.)
: → ( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S )
: → ( S + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )
: → ( x + S ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )
: → ( x + y ) * S - S * S / ( S + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - S * y / ( S + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - S * y / ( x + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + S )
: → ( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )
Note that many choices were made underway which S was going to be rewritten next.
These choices look quite arbitrary. As a matter of fact, they are.
Also, many choices were made on which rule to apply to the selected S.
These do not look so arbitrary: they usually affect which terminal string comes out at the end.
To see this we can look at the [[parse tree]] of this derivation:
S
|
/|\
S - S
/ \
/|\ /|\
S * S S / S
/ | | \
/|\ x /|\ /|\
( S ) S * S ( S )
/ | | \
/|\ z y /|\
S + S S + S
| | | |
x y x x
Starting at the top, step by step, an S in the tree is expanded, until no more unexpanded Ses remain.
Picking a different order of expansion will produce a different derivation, but the same parse tree.
The parse tree will only change if we pick a different rule to apply at some position in the tree.
But can a different parse tree still produce the same terminal string,
which is ( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x ) in this case?
Yes, for this grammar, this is possible.
Grammars with this property are called [[ambiguous grammar|ambiguous]].
For example, x + y * z can be produced with these two different parse trees:
S S
| |
/|\ /|\
S * S S + S
/ \ / \
/|\ z x /|\
x + y y * z
However, the ''language'' described by this grammar is not inherently ambiguous:
an alternative, unambiguous grammar can be given for the language, for example:
:T → x
:T → y
:T → z
:S → S + T
:S → S - T
:S → S * T
:S → S / T
:T → ( S )
:S → T
(once again picking S as the start symbol).","The canonical example of a context free grammar is parentheses matching, which is representative of the general case. There are two terminal symbols ( and ) and one nonterminal symbol S. The production rules are
:S → SS
:S → (S)
:S → ()
The first rule allows S's to multiply, The second rule allows S's to become enclosed by matching parentheses, and the third rule terminates the recursion.
Starting with S, applying the rules, one can construct:
:S → SS → SSS → (S)SS → ((S))SS → ((SS))S(S)
:→ ((()S))S(S) → ((()()))S(S) → ((()()))()(S)
:→ ((()()))()(())","[1, 2, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,358299543,2010-04-25T23:26:55Z,Skefos,"To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]].","Historically, to differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]].
However, criterion 2 (that circadian rhythms persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures) is now understood to not be a factor. Thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes, and likewise, temperature changes applied to the circadian clock mechanisms of many organisms (including fungi and even the SCN of mammals) has been shown to affect the frequency of the rhythm, as would be expected. In some instances, heat can provide a stronger zeitgeber than light.","[1, 4, 6]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,358302943,2010-04-25T23:49:04Z,Skefos,"{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[Circadian Oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{cite journal |author=Sharma VK |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{cite journal |author=Sheeba V, Sharma VK, Chandrashekaran MK, Joshi A |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h C, Lumineau S, Richard JP |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=219–30 |year=1998 |month=May |pmid=9653576}}{{cite journal |author=Zivkovic BD, Underwood H, Steele CT, Edmonds K |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=378–90 |year=1999 |month=October |pmid=10511005 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input{{ndash}} [[Circadian Oscillator|central oscillator]]{{ndash}} output), they do not share any [[Homology (biology)|homology]]. This implies probable independent origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |chapter=Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |editor1-first=Dale |editor1-last=Purves |editor2-first=George J. |editor2-last=Augustine |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Fitzpatrick |editor4-first=Laurence C. |editor4-last=Katz |editor5-first=Anthony-Samuel |editor5-last=LaMantia |edior6-first=James O. |editor6-last=McNamara |editor7-first=S. Mark |editor7-last=Williams |title=Neuroscience |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2001 |pages=666–7 |isbn=0-87893-742-0}} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{cite journal |author=Nagoshi E, Saini C, Bauer C, Laroche T, Naef F, Schibler U |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[Circadian Oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{cite journal |author=Sharma VK |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{cite journal |author=Sheeba V, Sharma VK, Chandrashekaran MK, Joshi A |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h C, Lumineau S, Richard JP |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=219–30 |year=1998 |month=May |pmid=9653576}}{{cite journal |author=Zivkovic BD, Underwood H, Steele CT, Edmonds K |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=378–90 |year=1999 |month=October |pmid=10511005 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ''[[period (gene)|period]]''.{{cite book |chapter=Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |editor1-first=Dale |editor1-last=Purves |editor2-first=George J. |editor2-last=Augustine |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Fitzpatrick |editor4-first=Laurence C. |editor4-last=Katz |editor5-first=Anthony-Samuel |editor5-last=LaMantia |edior6-first=James O. |editor6-last=McNamara |editor7-first=S. Mark |editor7-last=Williams |title=Neuroscience |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2001 |pages=666–7 |isbn=0-87893-742-0}} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{cite journal |author=Nagoshi E, Saini C, Bauer C, Laroche T, Naef F, Schibler U |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[2]
Von Neumann architecture,Non-von Neumann processors,358484542,2010-04-26T20:24:35Z,WulfTheSaxon,"The NEC µPD7281D [[digital image processing | pixel processor]] was the first non-von Neumann microprocessor.{{citation needed}}
Perhaps the most common kind of non-von Neumann structure used in modern computers is [[content-addressable memory]] (CAM).
In some cases, emerging [[memristor]] technology may be able to circumvent the von Neumann bottleneck
{{citation
|last=Mouttet |first=Blaise L
|title=Memristor Pattern Recognition Circuit Architecture for Robotics
|journal=Proceedings of the 2nd International Multi-Conference on Engineering and Technological Innovation
|volume=II
|pages=65–70
|year=2009
|url=http://www.iiis2009.org/imeti/program/HTML/program-20.htm}} (July 13, 2009)
* The physical realization of an electrically modifiable array of memristive neural synapses is achieved by researchers at the [[Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology]] as reported in the journal Nanotechnology.
{{citation
|journal=Nanotechnology
|volume=20
|pages=345201
|year=2009
|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0957-4484/20/34/345201
}}","The NEC µPD7281D [[digital image processing | pixel processor]] was the first non-von Neumann microprocessor.{{citation needed}}
Perhaps the most common kind of non-von Neumann structure used in modern computers is [[content-addressable memory]] (CAM).
In some cases, emerging [[memristor]] technology may be able to circumvent the von Neumann bottleneck
{{citation
|last=Mouttet |first=Blaise L
|title=Memristor Pattern Recognition Circuit Architecture for Robotics
|journal=Proceedings of the 2nd International Multi-Conference on Engineering and Technological Innovation
|volume=II
|pages=65–70
|year=2009
|url=http://www.iiis2009.org/imeti/program/HTML/program-20.htm}}","[2, 8]"
Context-free grammar,Example 1,358733328,2010-04-27T22:02:16Z,207.118.111.149,"The canonical example of a context free grammar is parentheses matching, which is representative of the general case. There are two terminal symbols ( and ) and one nonterminal symbol S. The production rules are
:S → SS
:S → (S)
:S → ()
The first rule allows Ss to multiply, The second rule allows Ss to become enclosed by matching parentheses, and the third rule terminates the recursion.
Starting with S, applying the rules, one can construct:
:S → SS → SSS → (S)SS → ((S))SS → ((SS))S(S)
:→ ((()S))S(S) → ((()()))S(S) → ((()()))()(S)
:→ ((()()))()(())","The canonical example of a context free grammar is parentheses matching, which is representative of the general case. There are two terminal symbols ( and ) and one nonterminal symbol S. The production rules are
:S → SS
:S → (S)
:S → ()
The first rule allows Ss to multiply; the second rule allows Ss to become enclosed by matching parentheses; and the third rule terminates the recursion.
Starting with S, and applying the rules, one can construct:
:S → SS → SSS → (S)SS → ((S))SS → ((SS))S(S)
:→ ((()S))S(S) → ((()()))S(S) → ((()()))()(S)
:→ ((()()))()(())",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,360208204,2010-05-05T03:11:46Z,66.235.77.21,"{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{cite journal |author=Sharma VK |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{cite journal |author=Sheeba V, Sharma VK, Chandrashekaran MK, Joshi A |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal= Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h C, Lumineau S, Richard JP |title= Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=219–30 |year=1998 |month=May |pmid=9653576}}{{cite journal |author=Zivkovic BD, Underwood H, Steele CT, Edmonds K |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=378–90 |year=1999 |month= October |pmid=10511005 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ""[[period (gene)|period]]"".{{cite book |chapter=Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |editor1-first=Dale |editor1-last=Purves |editor2-first=George J. |editor2-last=Augustine |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Fitzpatrick |editor4-first=Laurence C. |editor4-last=Katz |editor5-first= Anthony-Samuel |editor5-last=LaMantia |edior6-first=James O. |editor6-last=McNamara |editor7-first=S. Mark |editor7-last=Williams |title=Neuroscience |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2001 |pages=666–7 |isbn=0-87893-742-0}} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{cite journal |author=Nagoshi E, Saini C, Bauer C, Laroche T, Naef F, Schibler U |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15550250 |doi= 10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Refimprovesect|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
cicadian rhythm is a cycle in wich your mood rapidly changes to one form or another.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ""[[period (gene)|period]]"".{{cite book |chapter=Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |editor1-first=Dale |editor1-last=Purves |editor2-first=George J. |editor2-last=Augustine |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Fitzpatrick |editor4-first=Laurence C. |editor4-last=Katz |editor5-first= Anthony-Samuel |editor5-last=LaMantia |edior6-first=James O. |editor6-last=McNamara |editor7-first=S. Mark |editor7-last=Williams |title=Neuroscience |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2001 |pages=666–7 |isbn=0-87893-742-0}} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{cite journal |author=Nagoshi E, Saini C, Bauer C, Laroche T, Naef F, Schibler U |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15550250 |doi= 10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","[8, 2, 1]"
Circadian rhythm,Circadian Rhythm and Airline Pilots,360211133,2010-05-05T03:35:14Z,Keepitreal74,,"Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often traverse multiple timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm, this situation can easily lead to [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]]. the [[NTSB]] cites this situation as the contributing factor to many accidentshttp://www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_includes/articlePrint.jsp?storyID=news/FATIGex.xml&headLine=null Aviation Week Article and has conducted multiple researches in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots. http://aeromedical.org/Articles/Pilot_Fatigue.html Pilot Fatigue Studyhttp://www.cnn.com/2009/TRAVEL/05/15/pilot.fatigue.buffalo.crash/index.html CNN Article","[1, 9]"
Human cloning,United Kingdom,360832433,2010-05-08T02:14:33Z,71.224.251.184,"On 14 January 2001 the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] passed the The Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001{{UK-SLD|2523310|the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001 (No. 188)}} to amend the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990]] by extending allowable reasons for embryo research to permit research around stem cells and cell nuclear replacement, thus allowing [[Somatic cell nuclear transfer|therapeutic cloning]]. However, on 15 November 2001, a [[Pro-life movement|pro-life]] group won a [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] legal challenge, which struck down the regulation and effectively left all forms of cloning unregulated in the UK. Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.{{cite |title=Medical Law and Ethics |author=SD Pattinson |year=2006 |publisher=Sweet & Maxwell |isbn=9780421889507}}{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1657707.stm |title=Campaigners win cloning challenge |publisher=BBC News |date=15 November 2001 |accessdate=2008-09-06 | location=London}} Parliament was quick to pass [[Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001]] which explicitly prohibited reproductive cloning. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2846265.stm|title=Lords uphold cloning law|newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]|date=13 March 2003 | location=London}} jh
The first licence was granted on August 11, 2004 to researchers at the [[Newcastle University|University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].{{cite web |url=http://www.hfea.gov.uk/en/1048.html |publisher=[[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority|HFEA]] |title=HFEA grants the first therapeutic cloning licence for research |date=11 August 2004 |accessdate=2008-09-06}} The [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008]], a major review of fertility legislation, repealed the 2001 Cloning Act by making amendments of similar effect to the 1990 Act. The 2008 Act also allows experiments on hybrid human-animal embryos.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7682722.stm|title=MPs support embryology proposals|newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]|date=23 October 2008 | location=London}}","On 14 January 2001 the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] passed the The Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001{{UK-SLD|2523310|the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001 (No. 188)}} to amend the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990]] by extending allowable reasons for embryo research to permit research around stem cells and cell nuclear replacement, thus allowing [[Somatic cell nuclear transfer|therapeutic cloning]]. However, on 15 November 2001, a [[Pro-life movement|pro-life]] group won a [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] legal challenge, which struck down the regulation and effectively left all forms of cloning unregulated in the UK. Their hope was that Parliament would fill this gap by passing prohibitive legislation.{{cite |title=Medical Law and Ethics |author=SD Pattinson |year=2006 |publisher=Sweet & Maxwell |isbn=9780421889507}}{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1657707.stm |title=Campaigners win cloning challenge |publisher=BBC News |date=15 November 2001 |accessdate=2008-09-06 | location=London}} Parliament was quick to pass [[Human Reproductive Cloning Act 2001]] which explicitly prohibited reproductive cloning. The remaining gap with regard to therapeutic cloning was closed when the appeals courts reversed the previous decision of the High Court.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2846265.stm|title=Lords uphold cloning law|newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]|date=13 March 2003 | location=London}}
The first licence was granted on August 11, 2004 to researchers at the [[Newcastle University|University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].{{cite web |url=http://www.hfea.gov.uk/en/1048.html |publisher=[[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority|HFEA]] |title=HFEA grants the first therapeutic cloning licence for research |date=11 August 2004 |accessdate=2008-09-06}} The [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008]], a major review of fertility legislation, repealed the 2001 Cloning Act by making amendments of similar effect to the 1990 Act. The 2008 Act also allows experiments on hybrid human-animal embryos. After the recent discovery of a cloning slave trade in Iran, the government is starting to pass laws that will make cloning illegal. {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7682722.stm|title=MPs support embryology proposals|newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]|date=23 October 2008 | location=London}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,360939273,2010-05-08T18:01:04Z,Darkwind,"Blah Blah Blah=Blah Blah Blah The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander Ovechkin the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{cite book |author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{pn}} The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918,hello my name is J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{cite book |author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{pn}} The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[11]
Instruction cycle,2. Decode the program,361984777,2010-05-13T23:16:43Z,121.98.225.82,,"The program decoder interprets and implements the program. The [[program register]] (IR) holds the current program, while the [[program counter]] (PC) holds the next program to be executed.","[1, 4, 9]"
Methadone,Similar drugs,362532267,2010-05-17T00:46:03Z,92.2.211.221,"{{See also|Heroin-assisted Treatment|Buprenorphine}}
There are two methadone isomers. The [[racemic]] mixture is more common as it is cheaper to produce. The [[laevorotary]] isomer, which is isolated by several recrystalisations from racemic methadone, is more expensive to produce. It is stronger than the racemic mixture and is marketed especially in continental Europe as an analgesic under the trade names '''Levo-Polamidone, Polamidone, Heptanone, Heptadone, Heptadon''' and others. It is used as the hydrochloride salt almost exclusively with some uncommon pharmaceuticals and research subjects consisting of the tartrate.
The closest chemical relative of methadone in clinical use is [[LAAM|levo-α-acetylmethadol]] or LAAM. It has a longer duration of action (from 48 to 72 hours), permitting a reduction in frequency of use. In 1994, it was approved as a narcotic addiction treatment. In the Netherlands, like methadone and all other strong opioids, LAAM is a List I drug of the [[Opium Law]], and in Schedule II of the United States [[Controlled Substances Act]]. LAAM has since been removed from the US and European markets due to reports of rare cardiac side effects.
Other drugs which are not structurally related to methadone are also used in maintenance treatment, particularly Subutex ([[buprenorphine]]) and Suboxone (buprenorphine combined with [[naloxone]]). In the [[Netherlands|NL]], Switzerland, the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and a few other European countries, however, not only buprenorphine and oral methadone but also injectable methadone and pharmaceutical [[diamorphine]] (heroin) or other opioids may be used for outpatient maintenance treatment of opiate addiction, and treatment is generally provided in much less heavily regulated environments than in the United States. A study from Austria indicated that oral morphine (in the form of MS-Contin) provides better results than oral methadone, and studies of heroin maintenance have indicated that a low background dose of methadone combined with heroin maintenance may significantly improve outcomes for less-responsive patients.Michels II, Stover H, Gerlach R. Substitution treatment for opioid addicts in Germany. Harm Reduction Journal. 2007 February 2;4:5. Other opiates such as [[dihydrocodeine]] in both extended-release and immediate-release form are also sometimes used for maintenance treatment as an alternative to methadone or buprenorphine in some European countries.Robertson JR, Raab GM, Bruce M, McKenzie JS, Storkey HR, Salter A. Addressing the efficacy of dihydrocodeine versus methadone as an alternative maintenance treatment for opiate dependence: A randomized controlled trial. Addiction. 2006 December;101(12):1752-9.
Another close relative of methadone is [[dextropropoxyphene]], first marketed in 1957 under the trade name of Darvon. Oral analgesic potency is one-half to one-third that of [[codeine]], with 65 mg approximately equivalent to about 600 mg of aspirin. Dextropropoxyphene is prescribed for relief of mild to moderate pain. Bulk dextropropoxyphene is in Schedule II of the United States Controlled Substances Act, while preparations containing it are in Schedule IV. More than 100 tons of dextropropoxyphene are produced in the United States annually, and more than 25 million prescriptions are written for the products. Since dextropropoxyphene produces relatively modest pain relief compared to other opioids but still produces severe respiratory depression at high doses, it is particularly dangerous when abused, as drug users may take dangerously high doses in an attempt to achieve narcotic effects. This narcotic is among the top 10 drugs reported by medical examiners in recreational drug use deaths. However, dextropropoxyphene is still prescribed for the short term relief of opiate withdrawal symptoms, particularly when the aim of treatment is to smooth detoxification to a drug free state rather than a switch to maintenance treatment.
Other analogues of methadone which are still in clinical use are [[dipipanone]] (Diconal) and [[dextromoramide]] (Palfium) which are shorter-lasting but considerably more effective as analgesics. In the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, before pharmaceutical grade IV heroin treatment became available to heroin addicts, as either single drug replacement for street heroin, or to be used alongside prescribed methadone, oral dextromoramide was prescribed to heroin addicts instead, because even when taken orally it still produces a strong, so called ""rush"", without the need of IV administration and any of the risks involved with it. These drugs have a high potential for abuse and dependence and were notorious for being widely abused and sought after by drug addicts in the 1970s. They are still rarely used for the relief of severe pain in the treatment of terminal cancer or other serious medical conditions.","{{See also|Heroin-assisted Treatment|Buprenorphine}}
There are two methadone isomers. The [[racemic]] mixture is more common as it is cheaper to produce. The [[laevorotary]] isomer, which is isolated by several recrystalisations from racemic methadone, is more expensive to produce. It is stronger than the racemic mixture and is marketed especially in continental Europe as an analgesic under the trade names '''Levo-Polamidone, Polamidone, Heptanone, Heptadone, Heptadon''' and others. It is used as the hydrochloride salt almost exclusively with some uncommon pharmaceuticals and research subjects consisting of the tartrate.
The closest chemical relative of methadone in clinical use is [[LAAM|levo-α-acetylmethadol]] or LAAM. It has a longer duration of action (from 48 to 72 hours), permitting a reduction in frequency of use. In 1994, it was approved as a narcotic addiction treatment. In the Netherlands, like methadone and all other strong opioids, LAAM is a List I drug of the [[Opium Law]], and in Schedule II of the United States [[Controlled Substances Act]]. LAAM has since been removed from the US and European markets due to reports of rare cardiac side effects.
Other drugs which are not structurally related to methadone are also used in maintenance treatment, particularly Subutex ([[buprenorphine]]) and Suboxone (buprenorphine combined with [[naloxone]]). In the [[Netherlands|NL]], Switzerland, the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and a few other European countries, however, not only buprenorphine and oral methadone but also injectable methadone and pharmaceutical [[diamorphine]] (heroin) or other opioids may be used for outpatient maintenance treatment of opiate addiction, and treatment is generally provided in much less heavily regulated environments than in the United States. In the United Kingdom, diamorhpine is used extremely selectively and is not available on prescription to addicts; except in specialist trils which involved no more than 300 participants. A study from Austria indicated that oral morphine (in the form of MS-Contin) provides better results than oral methadone, and studies of heroin maintenance have indicated that a low background dose of methadone combined with heroin maintenance may significantly improve outcomes for less-responsive patients.Michels II, Stover H, Gerlach R. Substitution treatment for opioid addicts in Germany. Harm Reduction Journal. 2007 February 2;4:5. Other opiates such as [[dihydrocodeine]] in both extended-release and immediate-release form are also sometimes used for maintenance treatment as an alternative to methadone or buprenorphine in some European countries.Robertson JR, Raab GM, Bruce M, McKenzie JS, Storkey HR, Salter A. Addressing the efficacy of dihydrocodeine versus methadone as an alternative maintenance treatment for opiate dependence: A randomized controlled trial. Addiction. 2006 December;101(12):1752-9.
Another close relative of methadone is [[dextropropoxyphene]], first marketed in 1957 under the trade name of Darvon. Oral analgesic potency is one-half to one-third that of [[codeine]], with 65 mg approximately equivalent to about 600 mg of aspirin. Dextropropoxyphene is prescribed for relief of mild to moderate pain. Bulk dextropropoxyphene is in Schedule II of the United States Controlled Substances Act, while preparations containing it are in Schedule IV. More than 100 tons of dextropropoxyphene are produced in the United States annually, and more than 25 million prescriptions are written for the products. Since dextropropoxyphene produces relatively modest pain relief compared to other opioids but still produces severe respiratory depression at high doses, it is particularly dangerous when abused, as drug users may take dangerously high doses in an attempt to achieve narcotic effects. This narcotic is among the top 10 drugs reported by medical examiners in recreational drug use deaths. However, dextropropoxyphene is still prescribed for the short term relief of opiate withdrawal symptoms, particularly when the aim of treatment is to smooth detoxification to a drug free state rather than a switch to maintenance treatment.
Other analogues of methadone which are still in clinical use are [[dipipanone]] (Diconal) and [[dextromoramide]] (Palfium) which are shorter-lasting but considerably more effective as analgesics. In the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, before pharmaceutical grade IV heroin treatment became available to heroin addicts, as either single drug replacement for street heroin, or to be used alongside prescribed methadone, oral dextromoramide was prescribed to heroin addicts instead, because even when taken orally it still produces a strong, so called ""rush"", without the need of IV administration and any of the risks involved with it. These drugs have a high potential for abuse and dependence and were notorious for being widely abused and sought after by drug addicts in the 1970s. They are still rarely used for the relief of severe pain in the treatment of terminal cancer or other serious medical conditions.","[1, 10]"
Hypnosis,Modern researchers,363191989,2010-05-20T13:07:04Z,84.193.228.186,"{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Deirdre Barrett]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
* [[Milton Erickson]]
* [[Hans Eysenck]]
* [[Etzel Cardeña]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Jack Stanley Gibson]]
* [[Ernest R. Hilgard]]
* [[Clark L. Hull]]
* [[Irving Kirsch]]
* [[John Gruzelier]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Ainslie Meares]]
* [[Martin Orne]]
* [[Theodore Sarbin]]
* [[Nicholas Spanos]]
* [[Tom & David Kraft]]
{{col-end}}","{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Deirdre Barrett]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
* [[Milton Erickson]]
* [[Hans Eysenck]]
* [[Etzel Cardeña]]
* [[Dave Elman]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Jack Stanley Gibson]]
* [[Ernest R. Hilgard]]
* [[Clark L. Hull]]
* [[Irving Kirsch]]
* [[John Gruzelier]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Ainslie Meares]]
* [[Martin Orne]]
* [[Theodore Sarbin]]
* [[Nicholas Spanos]]
* [[Tom & David Kraft]]
{{col-end}}","[5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),364420605,2010-05-27T03:31:02Z,216.201.66.220,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters.]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 25-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]], they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[3, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,History,365222821,2010-05-31T14:17:42Z,Hordaland,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{cite book |author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{pn}} The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{cite book |author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{pn}} The first modern observation of endogenous [[Circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[9]
Circadian rhythm,See also,365224007,2010-05-31T14:26:15Z,Hordaland,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[Advanced sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Chronobiology]]
* [[Chronotype]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings|Impact of Lighting and Daylight in K-12 School Buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes","[2, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,366228126,2010-06-05T18:05:05Z,Hordaland,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day"", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [[endogenous]] period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''Time Givers'').{{cite web |author=Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as [[temperature]] and [[digestion]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day"", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [[endogenous]] period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''time-givers'').{{cite web |author=Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{cite journal | last = Regestein | first = Quentin R. | coauthors = Pavlova, Milena | date = | year = 1995 | month = September | title = Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome | journal = General Hospital Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 335-345 | publisher = Elsevier Science Inc. | issn = | pmid = | doi = 10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V | bibcode = | oclc =|| id = | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/
2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 | format = Abstract | accessdate = | quote = }}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}","[1, 3, 4, 7]"
Circadian rhythm,History,367455395,2010-06-11T17:35:13Z,Hordaland,"The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{cite book |author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{pn}} The first modern observation of endogenous [[Circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{cite book |author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{pn}} The first modern observation of endogenous [[Circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness.
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[3]
Instruction cycle,Initiating the cycle,372633289,2010-07-09T19:53:23Z,Eamonnca1,,"The cycle is usually managed in modern computers by the [[Operating System]] (OS). However, since the OS usually resides on a disk, it cannot operate immediately on bootup. Therefore when a computer is initially booted, the cycle begins by searching for the code at a specific starting memory address, (0xfffffff0 in the [[Read Only Memory]] (ROM) in the case of an Intel CPU) from where the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is loaded. The BIOS then manages bootup, performing a number of functions such as making sure that all the different chips, hard drives, and the CPU function together as an entity. It also loads the OS which takes over the running of the instruction cycle.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Instruction cycle,Initiating the cycle,372633723,2010-07-09T19:56:21Z,Eamonnca1,"The cycle is usually managed in modern computers by the [[Operating System]] (OS). However, since the OS usually resides on a disk, it cannot operate immediately on bootup. Therefore when a computer is initially booted, the cycle begins by searching for the code at a specific starting memory address, (0xfffffff0 in the [[Read Only Memory]] (ROM) in the case of an Intel CPU) from where the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is loaded. The BIOS then manages bootup, performing a number of functions such as making sure that all the different chips, hard drives, and the CPU function together as an entity. It also loads the OS which takes over the running of the instruction cycle.","The cycle is usually managed in modern computers by the [[Operating System]] (OS). However, since the OS usually resides on a disk, it cannot operate immediately on bootup. Therefore when a computer is initially booted, the cycle begins by searching for the code at a specific starting memory address, (0xfffffff0 in the [[Read Only Memory]] (ROM) in the case of an Intel CPU) from where the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is loaded. The BIOS then manages bootup, performing a number of functions such as making sure that all the different chips, hard drives, and the CPU function together as an entity. It also loads the OS which takes over the running of the instruction cycle.{{cite web
| title=Instruction Fetch Execute Cycle
| url=http://www.cs.montana.edu/~bosky/cs518/ife/IFE.pdf
| author=Bosky Agarwal
| date=2004
| accessdate=2010-07-09
}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the ""master clock""",373413412,2010-07-14T09:26:13Z,24.237.197.254,"More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the [[skin]].{{cite journal |author=Zanello SB, Jackson DM, Holick MF |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{cite journal |author=Kawara S, Mydlarski R, Mamelak AJ, et al. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12485420 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x}}{{cite journal |author=Campbell SS, Murphy PJ |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |year=1998 |month=January |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396}} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.","More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [[esophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the [[skin]].{{cite journal |author=Zanello SB, Jackson DM, Holick MF |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{cite journal |author=Kawara S, Mydlarski R, Mamelak AJ, et al. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12485420 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x}}{{cite journal |author=Campbell SS, Murphy PJ |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |year=1998 |month=January |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396}} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [[light]]. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.",[11]
Context-free grammar,Algorithms,374744752,2010-07-21T21:28:49Z,1&only,"* [[CYK_algorithm|CYK algorithm]]
* [[GLR_parser|GLR parser]]","* [[CYK_algorithm|CYK algorithm]]
* [[GLR_parser|GLR parser]]
* [[Earley_algorithm|Earley algorithm]]",[9]
Von Neumann architecture,External links,375467120,2010-07-26T01:39:40Z,TXiKiBoT,"*[http://www.pic24micro.com/harvard_vs_von_neumann.html Harvard vs von Neumann]
*[http://home.gna.org/vov/ A tool that emulates the behavior of a von Neumann machine]
{{CPU technologies}}
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:Flynn's Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Reference models]]
[[Category:Classes of computers]]
{{Link FA|uk}}
[[ar:هيكلة فون نيومان]]
[[ast:Arquiteutura von Neumann]]
[[be:Архітэктура фон Нэймана]]
[[bs:Von Neumannova arhitektura]]
[[ca:Arquitectura de von Neumann]]
[[cs:Von Neumannova architektura]]
[[de:Von-Neumann-Architektur]]
[[el:Αρχιτεκτονική φον Νόιμαν]]
[[es:Arquitectura de von Neumann]]
[[fr:Architecture de von Neumann]]
[[ko:폰 노이만 구조]]
[[hr:Von Neumannova arhitektura]]
[[id:Arsitektur von Neumann]]
[[is:Von Neumann arkitektúr]]
[[it:Architettura di von Neumann]]
[[he:ארכיטקטורת פון נוימן]]
[[lv:Fon Neimana arhitektūra]]
[[hu:Neumann-elvek]]
[[nl:Von Neumann-cyclus]]
[[ja:ノイマン型]]
[[no:Von Neumann-arkitektur]]
[[pl:Architektura von Neumanna]]
[[pt:Arquitetura de von Neumann]]
[[ru:Архитектура фон Неймана]]
[[sq:Arkitektura e Von Neumann]]
[[sk:Koncepcia Johna von Neumanna]]
[[sr:Фон Нојманова архитектура]]
[[sh:Von Neumannova arhitektura]]
[[fi:Von Neumannin arkkitehtuuri]]
[[sv:Von Neumann-arkitekturen]]
[[th:สถาปัตยกรรมฟอนนอยมันน์]]
[[tr:Neumann Mimarisi]]
[[uk:Архітектура фон Неймана]]
[[zh:冯·诺伊曼结构]]","*[http://www.pic24micro.com/harvard_vs_von_neumann.html Harvard vs von Neumann]
*[http://home.gna.org/vov/ A tool that emulates the behavior of a von Neumann machine]
{{CPU technologies}}
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:Flynn's Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Reference models]]
[[Category:Classes of computers]]
{{Link FA|uk}}
[[ar:هيكلة فون نيومان]]
[[ast:Arquiteutura von Neumann]]
[[be:Архітэктура фон Нэймана]]
[[bs:Von Neumannova arhitektura]]
[[ca:Arquitectura de von Neumann]]
[[cs:Von Neumannova architektura]]
[[de:Von-Neumann-Architektur]]
[[el:Αρχιτεκτονική φον Νόιμαν]]
[[es:Arquitectura de von Neumann]]
[[fa:معماری وان نیومن]]
[[fr:Architecture de von Neumann]]
[[ko:폰 노이만 구조]]
[[hr:Von Neumannova arhitektura]]
[[id:Arsitektur von Neumann]]
[[is:Von Neumann arkitektúr]]
[[it:Architettura di von Neumann]]
[[he:ארכיטקטורת פון נוימן]]
[[lv:Fon Neimana arhitektūra]]
[[hu:Neumann-elvek]]
[[nl:Von Neumann-cyclus]]
[[ja:ノイマン型]]
[[no:Von Neumann-arkitektur]]
[[pl:Architektura von Neumanna]]
[[pt:Arquitetura de von Neumann]]
[[ru:Архитектура фон Неймана]]
[[sq:Arkitektura e Von Neumann]]
[[sk:Koncepcia Johna von Neumanna]]
[[sr:Фон Нојманова архитектура]]
[[sh:Von Neumannova arhitektura]]
[[fi:Von Neumannin arkkitehtuuri]]
[[sv:Von Neumann-arkitekturen]]
[[th:สถาปัตยกรรมฟอนนอยมันน์]]
[[tr:Neumann Mimarisi]]
[[uk:Архітектура фон Неймана]]
[[zh:冯·诺伊曼结构]]",[9]
Meditation,Mindfulness,376075974,2010-07-29T12:13:34Z,Makeswell,,"{{Main|Mindfulness (psychology)}}
[[Mindfulness (psychology)| Mindfulness]] has become a part of mainstream Western psychology. Jon Kabat-Zinn has defined mindfulness as 'moment to moment non-judgmental awareness'.Jon Kabat-Zinn gives a Google Tech Talk about introductory mindfulness practice, online here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSU8ftmmhmw Several methods are used during time set aside specifically for mindfulness meditation, such as body scan techniques or letting thought arise and pass, and also during our daily lives, such as being aware of the taste and texture of the food that we eat.Kabat-Zinn gives the body scan and food meditations in ""Mindfulness for Beginners"" the 2CD set, and Matthieu Ricard gives the letting thoughts arise and pass away in his 2CD set ""Happiness: A Guide to Cultivating Life's Most Important Skill"" Scientifically demonstrated benefits of mindfulness practice include an increase in the body's ability to heal and a shift from a tendency to use the right prefrontal cortex to a tendency to use the left prefrontal cortex, associated with a trend away from depression and anxiety and towards happiness, relaxation, and emotional balance.
[[Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation]] was developed by American physician [[Edmund Jacobson]] in the early 1920s. In this practice on tenses and then relaxes muscle groups in a sequential pattern whilst concentrating on how they feel. The method has been seen to help people with many conditions especially extreme anxiety.see [[Progressive muscle relaxation]] from where these two references were taken showing that this method reduces extreme anxiety, 1) {{Citation
| last = Craske & Barlow
| first =
| title = Worry
| publication-date = 2006
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press, Inc.]]
| page = 53
| isbn = 0-19-530001-7
}} and 2) {{Citation | author = Chen WC; Chu H; Lu RB; Chou YH; Chen CH; Chang YC; O'Brien AP; Chou KR. | title = Efficacy of progressive muscle relaxation training in reducing anxiety in patients with acute schizophrenia. | journal = Journal of Clinical Nursing |year = 2009 | month = Aug | pages = 2187–96 | volume = 18 | issue = 15 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2008.02773.x | pmid = 19583651 | postscript = .}}","[1, 5, 7, 9, 4]"
Alzheimer's disease,Diagnostic tools,378158056,2010-08-10T10:47:42Z,Mikael Häggström,"[[File:InterlockingPentagons.svg|right|thumb|Neuropsychological screening tests can help in the diagnosis of AD. In them patients have to copy drawings similar to the one shown in the picture, remember words, read or sum.]]
[[Neuropsychological test]]s such as the [[mini-mental state examination]] (MMSE), are widely used to evaluate the cognitive impairments needed for diagnosis. More comprehensive test arrays are necessary for high reliability of results, particularly in the earliest stages of the disease.{{cite journal
|author=Tombaugh TN, McIntyre NJ
|title=The mini-mental state examination: a comprehensive review
|journal=J Am Geriatr Soc
|volume=40
|issue=9
|pages=922–35
|year=1992
|month=September
|pmid=1512391
}}{{cite journal
|author=Pasquier F
|title=Early diagnosis of dementia: neuropsychology
|journal=J. Neurol.
|volume=246
|issue=1
|pages=6–15
|year=1999
|month=January
|pmid=9987708
|doi=10.1007/s004150050299
}} [[Neurological examination]] in early AD will usually provide normal results, except for obvious cognitive impairment, which may not differ from that resulting from other diseases processes, including other causes of dementia.
Further neurological examinations are crucial in the [[differential diagnosis]] of AD and other diseases. Interviews with family members are also utilised in the assessment of the disease. Caregivers can supply important information on the daily living abilities, as well as on the decrease, over time, of the person's [[mental function]].{{cite journal
|author=Harvey PD, Moriarty PJ, Kleinman L, ''et al.''
|title=The validation of a caregiver assessment of dementia: the Dementia Severity Scale
|journal=Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord
|volume=19
|issue=4
|pages=186–94
|year=2005
|pmid=16327345
|doi=10.1097/01.wad.0000189034.43203.60
}} A caregiver's viewpoint is particularly important, since a person with AD is commonly unaware of his own [[anosognosia|deficits]].{{cite journal
|author=Antoine C, Antoine P, Guermonprez P, Frigard B
|title=[Awareness of deficits and anosognosia in Alzheimer's disease.]
|language=French
|journal=Encephale
|volume=30
|issue=6
|pages=570–7
|year=2004
|pmid=15738860
|doi=10.1016/S0013-7006(04)95472-3
}} Many times, families also have difficulties in the detection of initial dementia symptoms and may not communicate accurate information to a physician.{{cite journal
|author=Cruz VT, Pais J, Teixeira A, Nunes B
|title=[The initial symptoms of Alzheimer disease: caregiver perception]
|language=Portuguese
|journal=Acta Med Port
|volume=17
|issue=6
|pages=435–44
|year=2004
|pmid=16197855
}}
Supplemental testing provides extra information on some features of the disease or is used to rule out other diagnoses. [[Blood test]]s can identify other causes for dementia than AD—causes which may, in rare cases, be reversible.{{cite journal
|author=Clarfield AM
|title=The decreasing prevalence of reversible dementias: an updated meta-analysis
|journal=Arch. Intern. Med.
|volume=163
|issue=18
|pages=2219–29
|year=2003
|month=October
|pmid=14557220
|doi=10.1001/archinte.163.18.2219
}} It is common to perform [[thyroid function tests]], assess [[B12]], rule out [[syphillis]], rule out metabolic problems (including tests for kidney function, electrolyte levels and for diabetes), assess levels of heavy metals (eg. lead, mercury) and anemia. (See differential diagnosis for Dementia). (It is also necessary to rule out [[delirium]]).
[[Psychological testing|Psychological tests]] for [[clinical depression|depression]] are employed, since depression can either be concurrent with AD (see [[Depression of Alzheimer disease]]), an early sign of cognitive impairment,{{cite journal |author=Sun x, Steffens DC, Au R, ''et al.'' |title=Amyloid-Associated Depression: A Prodromal Depression of Alzheimer Disease? |journal=Arch Gen Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=542–550|year=2008 |url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/65/5/542 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.542 |pmid=18458206 |last1=Sun |first1=X |last2=Steffens |first2=DC |last3=Au |first3=R |last4=Folstein |first4=M |last5=Summergrad |first5=P |last6=Yee |first6=J |last7=Rosenberg |first7=I |last8=Mwamburi |first8=DM |last9=Qiu |first9=WQ}} or even the cause.{{cite journal
|author=Geldmacher DS, Whitehouse PJ
|title=Differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Neurology
|volume=48
|issue=5 Suppl 6
|pages=S2–9
|year=1997
|month=May
|pmid=9153154
}}{{cite journal
|author=Potter GG, Steffens DC
|title=Contribution of depression to cognitive impairment and dementia in older adults
|journal=Neurologist
|volume=13
|issue=3
|pages=105–17
|year=2007
|month=May
|pmid=17495754
|doi=10.1097/01.nrl.0000252947.15389.a9
}}
Another recent objective marker of the disease is the analysis of [[cerebrospinal fluid]] for amyloid beta or tau proteins.{{cite journal
|author=Marksteiner J, Hinterhuber H, Humpel C
|title=Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: beta-amyloid(1-42), tau, phospho-tau-181 and total protein
|journal=Drugs Today
|volume=43
|issue=6
|pages=423–31
|year=2007
|month=June
|pmid=17612711
|doi=10.1358/dot.2007.43.6.1067341
}} Searching of these proteins using a [[Lumbar puncture|spinal tap]] can predict the onset of Alzheimer's with up to 100 percent accuracy. When used in conjunction with existing [[Functional neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, doctors can identify patients with significant memory loss who are already developing the disease.{{cite journal
|author=De Meyer G, Shapiro F, Vanderstichele H, Vanmechelen E, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Coart E, Hansson O, Minthon L, Zetterberg H, Blennow K, Shaw L, Trojanowski JQ
|title=Diagnosis-Independent Alzheimer Disease Biomarker Signature in Cognitively Normal Elderly People
|journal=Arch Neurol.
|volume=67
|issue=8
|pages=949–56
|year=2010
|month=August
|doi=10.1001/archneurol.2010.179
}} Spinal fluid tests are commercially available, unlike the latest neuroimaging technology.{{cite news
|author=Kolata G
|title=Spinal-Fluid Test Is Found to Predict Alzheimer's
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/10/health/research/10spinal.html
|work=[[The New York Times]]
|date=August 9, 2010
|accessdate=August 10, 2010
}} Alzheimer's was diagnosed in one-third of the people who did not have any symptoms in a 2010 study, meaning that disease progression occurs well before symptoms occur.{{cite news
|author=Roan S
|title=Tapping into an accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
|url=http://www.latimes.com/health/boostershots/aging/la-heb-alzheimers-20100809,0,5683387.story
|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]
|date=August 9, 2010
|accessdate=August 10, 2010
}}","[[File:InterlockingPentagons.svg|right|thumb|Neuropsychological screening tests can help in the diagnosis of AD. In them patients have to copy drawings similar to the one shown in the picture, remember words, read or sum.]]
[[Neuropsychological test]]s such as the [[mini-mental state examination]] (MMSE), are widely used to evaluate the cognitive impairments needed for diagnosis. More comprehensive test arrays are necessary for high reliability of results, particularly in the earliest stages of the disease.{{cite journal
|author=Tombaugh TN, McIntyre NJ
|title=The mini-mental state examination: a comprehensive review
|journal=J Am Geriatr Soc
|volume=40
|issue=9
|pages=922–35
|year=1992
|month=September
|pmid=1512391
}}{{cite journal
|author=Pasquier F
|title=Early diagnosis of dementia: neuropsychology
|journal=J. Neurol.
|volume=246
|issue=1
|pages=6–15
|year=1999
|month=January
|pmid=9987708
|doi=10.1007/s004150050299
}} [[Neurological examination]] in early AD will usually provide normal results, except for obvious cognitive impairment, which may not differ from that resulting from other diseases processes, including other causes of dementia.
Further neurological examinations are crucial in the [[differential diagnosis]] of AD and other diseases. Interviews with family members are also utilised in the assessment of the disease. Caregivers can supply important information on the daily living abilities, as well as on the decrease, over time, of the person's [[mental function]].{{cite journal
|author=Harvey PD, Moriarty PJ, Kleinman L, ''et al.''
|title=The validation of a caregiver assessment of dementia: the Dementia Severity Scale
|journal=Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord
|volume=19
|issue=4
|pages=186–94
|year=2005
|pmid=16327345
|doi=10.1097/01.wad.0000189034.43203.60
}} A caregiver's viewpoint is particularly important, since a person with AD is commonly unaware of his own [[anosognosia|deficits]].{{cite journal
|author=Antoine C, Antoine P, Guermonprez P, Frigard B
|title=[Awareness of deficits and anosognosia in Alzheimer's disease.]
|language=French
|journal=Encephale
|volume=30
|issue=6
|pages=570–7
|year=2004
|pmid=15738860
|doi=10.1016/S0013-7006(04)95472-3
}} Many times, families also have difficulties in the detection of initial dementia symptoms and may not communicate accurate information to a physician.{{cite journal
|author=Cruz VT, Pais J, Teixeira A, Nunes B
|title=[The initial symptoms of Alzheimer disease: caregiver perception]
|language=Portuguese
|journal=Acta Med Port
|volume=17
|issue=6
|pages=435–44
|year=2004
|pmid=16197855
}}
Supplemental testing provides extra information on some features of the disease or is used to rule out other diagnoses. [[Blood test]]s can identify other causes for dementia than AD—causes which may, in rare cases, be reversible.{{cite journal
|author=Clarfield AM
|title=The decreasing prevalence of reversible dementias: an updated meta-analysis
|journal=Arch. Intern. Med.
|volume=163
|issue=18
|pages=2219–29
|year=2003
|month=October
|pmid=14557220
|doi=10.1001/archinte.163.18.2219
}} It is common to perform [[thyroid function tests]], assess [[B12]], rule out [[syphillis]], rule out metabolic problems (including tests for kidney function, electrolyte levels and for diabetes), assess levels of heavy metals (eg. lead, mercury) and anemia. (See differential diagnosis for Dementia). (It is also necessary to rule out [[delirium]]).
[[Psychological testing|Psychological tests]] for [[clinical depression|depression]] are employed, since depression can either be concurrent with AD (see [[Depression of Alzheimer disease]]), an early sign of cognitive impairment,{{cite journal |author=Sun x, Steffens DC, Au R, ''et al.'' |title=Amyloid-Associated Depression: A Prodromal Depression of Alzheimer Disease? |journal=Arch Gen Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=542–550|year=2008 |url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/65/5/542 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.542 |pmid=18458206 |last1=Sun |first1=X |last2=Steffens |first2=DC |last3=Au |first3=R |last4=Folstein |first4=M |last5=Summergrad |first5=P |last6=Yee |first6=J |last7=Rosenberg |first7=I |last8=Mwamburi |first8=DM |last9=Qiu |first9=WQ}} or even the cause.{{cite journal
|author=Geldmacher DS, Whitehouse PJ
|title=Differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
|journal=Neurology
|volume=48
|issue=5 Suppl 6
|pages=S2–9
|year=1997
|month=May
|pmid=9153154
}}{{cite journal
|author=Potter GG, Steffens DC
|title=Contribution of depression to cognitive impairment and dementia in older adults
|journal=Neurologist
|volume=13
|issue=3
|pages=105–17
|year=2007
|month=May
|pmid=17495754
|doi=10.1097/01.nrl.0000252947.15389.a9
}}
Another recent objective marker of the disease is the analysis of [[cerebrospinal fluid]] for amyloid beta or tau proteins,{{cite journal
|author=Marksteiner J, Hinterhuber H, Humpel C
|title=Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: beta-amyloid(1-42), tau, phospho-tau-181 and total protein
|journal=Drugs Today
|volume=43
|issue=6
|pages=423–31
|year=2007
|month=June
|pmid=17612711
|doi=10.1358/dot.2007.43.6.1067341
}} both total tau protein and phosphorylated tau181P protein concentrations. Searching of these proteins using a [[Lumbar puncture|spinal tap]] can predict the onset of Alzheimer's with a [[sensitivity and specificity|sensitivity]] of between 94% and 100%. When used in conjunction with existing [[Functional neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, doctors can identify patients with significant memory loss who are already developing the disease.{{cite journal
|author=De Meyer G, Shapiro F, Vanderstichele H, Vanmechelen E, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Coart E, Hansson O, Minthon L, Zetterberg H, Blennow K, Shaw L, Trojanowski JQ
|title=Diagnosis-Independent Alzheimer Disease Biomarker Signature in Cognitively Normal Elderly People
|journal=Arch Neurol.
|volume=67
|issue=8
|pages=949–56
|year=2010
|month=August
|doi=10.1001/archneurol.2010.179
}} Spinal fluid tests are commercially available, unlike the latest neuroimaging technology.{{cite news
|author=Kolata G
|title=Spinal-Fluid Test Is Found to Predict Alzheimer's
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/10/health/research/10spinal.html
|work=[[The New York Times]]
|date=August 9, 2010
|accessdate=August 10, 2010
}} Alzheimer's was diagnosed in one-third of the people who did not have any symptoms in a 2010 study, meaning that disease progression occurs well before symptoms occur.{{cite news
|author=Roan S
|title=Tapping into an accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
|url=http://www.latimes.com/health/boostershots/aging/la-heb-alzheimers-20100809,0,5683387.story
|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]
|date=August 9, 2010
|accessdate=August 10, 2010
}}","[3, 9, 10, 4, 1]"
Context-free grammar,Derivations and syntax trees,379535280,2010-08-18T05:54:28Z,174.114.248.239,"There are two common ways to describe how a given string can be derived from the start symbol of a given grammar. The simplest way is to list the consecutive strings of symbols, beginning with the start symbol and ending with the string, and the rules that have been applied. If we introduce a strategy such as ""always replace the left-most nonterminal first"" then for context-free grammars the list of applied grammar rules is by itself sufficient. This is called the ''leftmost derivation'' of a string. For example, if we take the following grammar:
: (1) S → S + S
: (2) S → 1
: (3) S → a
and the string ""1 + 1 + a"" then a left derivation of this string is the list [ (1), (1), (2), (2), (3) ].
Analogously the ''rightmost derivation'' is defined as the list that we get if we always replace the rightmost nonterminal first. In this case this could be the list [ (1), (3), (1), (2), (2)].
The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most [[parsing|parser]]s the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s.
A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example, if the string ""1 + 1 + a"" is derived according to the leftmost derivation:
:S → S + S (1)
: → S + S + S (1)
: → 1 + S + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + a (3)
the structure of the string would be:
: { { { 1 }S + { 1 }S }S + { a }S }S
where { ... }S indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
/|\ |
/ | \ |
S '+' S 'a'
| |
'1' '1'
This tree is called a ''concrete syntax tree'' (see also [[abstract syntax tree]]) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same syntax tree; however, there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string
:S → S + S (1)
: → 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + S + S (1)
: → 1 + 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + a (3)
and this defines the following syntax tree:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
| /|\
| / | \
'1' S '+' S
| |
'1' 'a'
If, for certain strings in the language of the grammar, there is more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ''[[ambiguous grammar]]''. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply. Usually, ambiguity is a feature of the grammar, not the language, and an unambiguous grammar can be found which generates the same context-free language. However, there are certain languages which can only be generated by ambiguous grammars; such languages are called inherently ambiguous.","There are two common ways to describe how a given string can be shown to be derivable from the start symbol of a given grammar. The simplest way is to list the set of consecutive derivations, beginning with the start symbol and ending with the string itself along with the rules applied to produce each intermediate step. However, if we introduce a strategy such as, ""always replace the left-most nonterminal first""; then, for context-free grammars the list of applied grammar rules is by itself sufficient and is called the ''leftmost derivation'' of a string. For example, if we take the following grammar:
: (1) S → S + S
: (2) S → 1
: (3) S → a
and the string ""1 + 1 + a"" then a left derivation of this string is the list [ (1), (1), (2), (2), (3) ].
Analogously the ''rightmost derivation'' is defined as the list that we get if we always replace the rightmost nonterminal first. In this case this could be the list [ (1), (3), (1), (2), (2)].
The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most [[parsing|parser]]s the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s.
A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example, if the string ""1 + 1 + a"" is derived according to the leftmost derivation:
:S → S + S (1)
: → S + S + S (1)
: → 1 + S + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + a (3)
the structure of the string would be:
: { { { 1 }S + { 1 }S }S + { a }S }S
where { ... }S indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
/|\ |
/ | \ |
S '+' S 'a'
| |
'1' '1'
This tree is called a ''concrete syntax tree'' (see also [[abstract syntax tree]]) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivations define the same syntax tree; however, there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string
:S → S + S (1)
: → 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + S + S (1)
: → 1 + 1 + S (2)
: → 1 + 1 + a (3)
and this defines the following syntax tree:
S
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
S '+' S
| /|\
| / | \
'1' S '+' S
| |
'1' 'a'
If, for certain strings in the language of the grammar, there is more than one parsing tree, then the grammar is said to be an ''[[ambiguous grammar]]''. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply. Usually, ambiguity is a feature of the grammar, not the language, and an unambiguous grammar can be found which generates the same context-free language. However, there are certain languages which can only be generated by ambiguous grammars; such languages are called inherently ambiguous.",[11]
Bubble sort,In practice,379592248,2010-08-18T14:48:29Z,Blaisorblade,"[[File:Bubble sort animation.gif|thumb|right|280px|A bubble sort, a sorting algorithm that continuously steps through a list, [[Swap (computer science)|swapping]] items until they appear in the correct order.]]
Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its ''[[Big O notation|O(n2)]]'' complexity means it is far too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple ''O(n2)'' sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are usually considerably more efficient.
Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory [[computer science]] students. However, some researchers such as [[Owen Astrachan]] have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.
The [[Jargon file]], which famously calls [[bogosort]] ""the archetypical perversely awful algorithm"", also calls bubble sort ""the generic '''bad''' algorithm"".http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html [[Donald Knuth]], in his famous book ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that ""the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems"", some of which he then discusses.
Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.
Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction|branch mispredictions]]. Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than [[insertion sort]] and 40% slower than [[selection sort]].Owen Astrachan. Bubble Sort: An Archaeological Algorithmic Analysis. SIGCSE 2003 Hannan Akhtar . [http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf (pdf)]","[[File:Bubble sort animation.gif|thumb|right|280px|A bubble sort, a sorting algorithm that continuously steps through a list, [[Swap (computer science)|swapping]] items until they appear in the correct order.]]
Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its ''[[Big O notation|O(n2)]]'' complexity means it is far too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple ''O(n2)'' sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are usually considerably more efficient.
Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory [[computer science]] students. However, some researchers such as [[Owen Astrachan]] have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.
The [[Jargon file]], which famously calls [[bogosort]] ""the archetypical perversely awful algorithm"", also calls bubble sort ""the generic '''bad''' algorithm"".http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html [[Donald Knuth]], in his famous book ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that ""the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems"", some of which he then discusses.
Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort, which is important not only for small lists, but as a building block to optimize high-performance implementations of [[quick sort]].
Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction|branch mispredictions]]. Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than [[insertion sort]] and 40% slower than [[selection sort]].Owen Astrachan. Bubble Sort: An Archaeological Algorithmic Analysis. SIGCSE 2003 Hannan Akhtar . [http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf (pdf)]","[1, 9]"
Bubble sort,Performance,379592248,2010-08-18T14:48:29Z,Blaisorblade,"Bubble sort has worst-case and average complexity both ''О''(''n''2), where ''n'' is the number of items being sorted. There exist many sorting algorithms with substantially better worst-case or average complexity of ''O''(''n'' log ''n''). Even other ''О''(''n''2) sorting algorithms, such as [[Insertion sort]], tend to have better performance than bubble sort. Therefore bubble sort is not a practical sorting algorithm when ''n'' is large.
However, one significant advantage that bubble sort has over most other implementations, even [[QuickSort]], is that the ability to detect that the list is sorted is efficiently built into the algorithm. Performance of bubble sort over an already-sorted list (best-case) is ''O''(''n''). By contrast, most other algorithms, even those with better average-case complexity, perform their entire sorting process on the set and thus are more complex. However, [[Insertion sort]] also has this mechanism, and also performs better on a list that is substantially sorted (having a small number of [[inversion (computer science)|inversions]]).","Bubble sort has worst-case and average complexity both ''О''(''n''2), where ''n'' is the number of items being sorted. There exist many sorting algorithms with substantially better worst-case or average complexity of ''O''(''n'' log ''n''). Even other ''О''(''n''2) sorting algorithms, such as [[Insertion sort]], tend to have better performance than bubble sort. Therefore bubble sort is not a practical sorting algorithm when ''n'' is large.
The only significant advantage that bubble sort has over most other implementations, even [[QuickSort]], but not [[Insertion sort]], is that the ability to detect that the list is sorted is efficiently built into the algorithm. Performance of bubble sort over an already-sorted list (best-case) is ''O''(''n''). By contrast, most other algorithms, even those with better average-case complexity, perform their entire sorting process on the set and thus are more complex. However, not only [[Insertion sort]] also has this mechanism, but it also performs better on a list that is substantially sorted (having a small number of [[inversion (computer science)|inversions]]).","[3, 6]"
Context-free grammar,(Top),381555111,2010-08-28T20:15:28Z,99.135.148.147,"In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG'''), sometimes also called a '''[[phrase structure grammar]]''' is a [[formal grammar|grammar]] which naturally generates a [[formal language]] in which clauses can be nested inside clauses arbitrarily deeply, but where grammatical structures are not allowed to overlap. ''CFG'' are expressed by [[Backus–Naur Form]], or ''BNF''.
In terms of [[Production (computer science)|production rules]], every production of a context free grammar is of the form
:''V'' → ''w''
where ''V'' is a single [[nonterminal]] symbol, and ''w'' is a string of [[Terminal and nonterminal symbols|terminal]]s and/or nonterminals (''w'' can be empty). These rewriting rules applied successively produce a [[parse tree]], where the nonterminal symbols are nodes, the leaves are the terminal symbols, and each node expands by the production into the next level of the tree. The tree describes the nesting structure of the expression. ''V'' can therefore change while ''w'' is fixed (can't change).
In a context free grammar the left hand side of a production rule is always a single nonterminal symbol. In a general grammar, it could be a string of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. The grammars are called ''context free'' because – since all rules only have a nonterminal on the left hand side – one can always replace that nonterminal symbol with what is on the right hand side of the rule. The ''context'' in which the symbol occurs is therefore not important.
[[Context-free languages]] are exactly those which can be understood by a finite state computer with a single [[pushdown automaton|infinite stack]]. In order to keep track of nested units, one pushes the current parsing state at the start of the unit, and one recovers it at the end.
Context-free grammars play a central role in the description and design of [[programming language]]s and [[compiler]]s. They are also used for analyzing the [[syntax]] of [[natural language]]s. [[Noam Chomsky]] has posited that all human languages are based on context-free grammars at their core, with additional processes that can manipulate the output of the context-free component (the transformations of early Chomskyan theory).","In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG'''), sometimes also called a '''[[phrase structure grammar]]''' is a [[formal grammar|grammar]] which naturally generates a [[formal language]] in which clauses can be nested inside clauses arbitrarily deeply, but where grammatical structures are not allowed to overlap. ''CFG'' are expressed by [[Backus–Naur Form]], or ''BNF''.
In terms of [[Production (computer science)|production rules]], every production of a context free grammar is of the form
:''V'' → ''w''
where ''V'' is a single [[nonterminal]] symbol, and ''w'' is a string of [[Terminal and nonterminal symbols|terminal]]s and/or nonterminals (''w'' can be empty). These rewriting rules applied successively produce a [[parse tree]], where the nonterminal symbols are nodes, the leaves are the terminal symbols, and each node expands by the production into the next level of the tree. The tree describes the nesting structure of the expression. ''V'' can therefore change while ''w'' is fixed (can't change).
In a context free grammar the left hand side of a production rule is always a single nonterminal symbol. In a general grammar, it could be a string of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. The grammars are called ''context free'' because – since all rules only have a nonterminal on the left hand side – one can always replace that nonterminal symbol with what is on the right hand side of the rule. The ''context'' in which the symbol occurs is therefore not important.
[[Context-free languages]] are exactly those which can be understood by a finite state comp, one pushes the current parsing state at the start of the unit, and one recovers it at the end.context is gayrecursion|recursively]] built up from smaller phrases, and eventually individual words or word elements.
An essential property of these block structures is that logical units never overlap. For example, the sentence:
John, whose blue car was in the garage, walked to the green store.
can be logically parenthesized as follows:
:: (John, ((whose blue car) (was (in the garage)))), (walked (to (the green store))).
Natural human languages rarely allow overlapping constructions, such as:
:: [ John saw (a blue car in an ad yesterday] with bright yellow headlights).
It is hard to find cases of possible overlap and many such cases can be explained in an alternative way that doesn't assume overlap.
The formalism of context-free grammars was developed in the mid-1950s by [[Noam Chomsky]], and also their [[Chomsky hierarchy|classification as a special type]] of [[formal grammar]] (which he called [[phrase-structure grammar]]s).
{{cite journal
| last = Chomsky | first = Noam | authorlink =
| title = Three models for the description of language
| journal = Information Theory, IEEE Transactions
| volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 113–124
| publisher = | date = Sep 1956
| url = http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/18/22738/01056813.pdf?isnumber=22738&prod=STD&arnumber=1056813&arnumber=1056813&arSt=+113&ared=+124&arAuthor=+Chomsky%2C+N.
| doi = 10.1109/TIT.1956.1056813| id = | accessdate = 2007-06-18}}
A context-free grammar provides a simple and precise mechanism for describing the methods by which phrases in some natural language are built from smaller blocks, capturing the ""block structure"" of sentences in a natural way. Its simplicity makes the formalism amenable to rigorous mathematical study. Important features of natural language syntax such as [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] and [[reference]] are not part of the context free grammar, but the basic recursive structure of sentences, the way in which clauses nest inside other clauses, and the way in which lists of adjectives and adverbs are swallowed by nouns and verbs, is described exactly.
Block structure was introduced into computer [[programming language]]s by the [[Algol (programming language)|Algol]] project, which, as a consequence, also featured a context-free grammar to describe the resulting Algol syntax. This became a standard feature of computer languages, and the notation for grammars used in concrete descriptions of computer languages came to be known as [[Backus-Naur Form]], after two members of the Algol language design committee.
The ""block structure"" aspect that context-free grammars capture is so fundamental to grammar that the terms syntax and grammar are often identified with context-free grammar rules, especially in computer science. Formal constraints not captured by the grammar are then considered to be part of the ""semantics"" of the language.
Context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient [[list of algorithms#Parsing|parsing algorithm]]s which, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An [[Earley parser]] is an example of such an algorithm, while the widely used [[LR parser|LR]] and [[LL parser]]s are more efficient algorithms that deal only with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars. i dont get context","[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9]"
DNA sequencing,See also,383009717,2010-09-05T06:10:18Z,Adrian J. Hunter,"* [[454 Life Sciences]]
* [[Applied Biosystems]]
* [[Cancer genome sequencing]]
* [[Complete Genomics]]
* [[DNA field-effect transistor]]
* [[DNA sequencing theory]]
* [[Full genome sequencing]]
* [[Genome project]]
* [[Illumina (company)]]
* [[Joint Genome Institute]]
* [[Sequence profiling tool]]
* [[Single Molecule Real Time Sequencing]]","* [[Cancer genome sequencing]]
* [[Complete Genomics]]
* [[DNA field-effect transistor]]
* [[DNA sequencing theory]]
* [[Genome project]]
* [[Joint Genome Institute]]
* [[Sequence profiling tool]]
* [[Single Molecule Real Time Sequencing]]",[11]
Methamphetamine,Psychological effects,383216694,2010-09-06T09:09:05Z,Editor182,"Psychological effects can include [[euphoria]], [[anxiety]], increased [[libido]], [[alertness]], [[concentration]], [[energy]], [[self-esteem]], [[self-confidence]], [[sociability]], [[irritability]], [[aggression]], [[psychosomatic disorders]], [[psychomotor agitation]], [[hubris]], excessive feelings of [[Power (philosophy)|power]] and [[Wiktionary:invincible|invincibility]], repetitive and [[Fixation (psychology)|obsessive]] behaviors, [[paranoia]], and, with chronic and/or high doses, [[amphetamine psychosis]] can occur.","Psychological effects can include [[euphoria]], [[anxiety]], increased [[libido]], [[alertness]], [[concentration]], [[energy]], [[self-esteem]], [[self-confidence]], [[sociability]], [[irritability]], [[aggression]], [[psychosomatic disorders]], [[psychomotor agitation]], [[grandiosity]], excessive feelings of [[Power (philosophy)|power]] and [[Wiktionary:invincible|invincibility]], repetitive and [[Fixation (psychology)|obsessive]] behaviors, [[paranoia]], and, with chronic and/or high doses, [[amphetamine psychosis]] can occur.[http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec15/ch198/ch198k.html Amphetamines | Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.]","[3, 9, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,384686579,2010-09-14T00:14:13Z,SmackBot,"Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{cite web |url=http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title=28 Hour Day |accessdate=2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year=1997}} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{cite book |last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year= 1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{cite journal |author=Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |year=1994 |month=January |pmid=8190360 |doi= 10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{cite journal |author=Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA |title=Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |year=1995 |month=May |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{cite web |url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S |title=Sleep medicine |year=1999 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.","Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web|author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{Cite web|url=http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title=28 Hour Day |accessdate=2008-02-19 |author= Digital Beat Productions |year=1997}} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{Cite book|last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year= 1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{Cite journal|author=Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |year=1994 |month=January |pmid=8190360 |doi= 10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{Cite journal|author=Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA |title=Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |year=1995 |month=May |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,{{Cite web|url=http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book|last=Aldrich |first=Michael S |title=Sleep medicine |year=1999 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,384686579,2010-09-14T00:14:13Z,SmackBot,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day"", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [[endogenous]] period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''time-givers'').{{cite web |author=Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{cite journal | last = Regestein | first = Quentin R. | coauthors = Pavlova, Milena | date = | year = 1995 | month = September | title = Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome | journal = General Hospital Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 335–345 | publisher = Elsevier Science Inc. | issn = | pmid = 8522148| doi = 10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V | bibcode = | oclc =|| id = | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/
2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 | format = Abstract | accessdate = | quote = }}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Each ""day"", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [[endogenous]] period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ''time-givers'').{{Cite web|author=Shneerson JM, Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{Cite journal| last = Regestein | first = Quentin R. | coauthors = Pavlova, Milena | date = | year = 1995 | month = September | title = Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome | journal = General Hospital Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 335–345 | publisher = Elsevier Science Inc. | issn = | pmid = 8522148| doi = 10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V | bibcode = | oclc =| id = | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/
2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 | format = Abstract | accessdate = | quote = }}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}",[11]
Code injection,Benevolent,385595513,2010-09-18T20:31:49Z,AliveFreeHappy,"Some people may use code injections with good intentions. For example, changing or tweaking the behavior of a program or system through code injection can ""trick"" the system into behaving in a certain way without any malicious intent.{{cite web|last=Srinivasan|first=Raghunathan|title=Towards More Effective Virus Detectors|url=http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CBsQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.public.asu.edu%2F~rsriniv8%2FDocuments%2Fsrini-das.pdf&ei=oR-VTLjdH4HGsAOEpp3lCQ&usg=AFQjCNGLGlHm3uunXwrEvTVUz1rYS44D6Q|work=Arizona State University|accessdate=18 September 2010|quote=Benevolent use of code injection occurs when a user changes the behaviour of a program to meet system requirements. }} Code injection could, for example,:
* Introduce a useful new column that did not appear in the original design of a search results page.
* Offer a new way to filter, order, or group data by using a field not exposed in the default functions of the original design.
Someone might resort to this sort of work-around because other ways of modifying the software to function as desired:
* Prove impossible, or
* Are too expensive, or
* Become too frustrating or painful.
The development community as a whole{{Weasel-inline|date=April 2010}} frowns on code injection for this purpose, calling it a kludge or [[Hack (technology slang)|hack]].
Some developers allow or even promote the use of code injection to ""enhance"" their software, usually because this solution offers a less expensive way to implement new or specialized features. The side effects and unaccounted implications can, unfortunately, be very dangerous.
Even well-intentioned use of code injection is discouraged in general.","Some people may use code injections with good intentions. For example, changing or tweaking the behavior of a program or system through code injection can ""trick"" the system into behaving in a certain way without any malicious intent.{{cite web|last=Srinivasan|first=Raghunathan|title=Towards More Effective Virus Detectors|url=http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CBsQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.public.asu.edu%2F~rsriniv8%2FDocuments%2Fsrini-das.pdf&ei=oR-VTLjdH4HGsAOEpp3lCQ&usg=AFQjCNGLGlHm3uunXwrEvTVUz1rYS44D6Q|work=Arizona State University|accessdate=18 September 2010|quote=Benevolent use of code injection occurs when a user changes the behaviour of a program to meet system requirements. }}Symptoms-Based Detection of Bot Processes ]J Morales, E Kartaltepe, S Xu, R Sandhu - Computer Network Security, 2010 - Springer Code injection could, for example,:
* Introduce a useful new column that did not appear in the original design of a search results page.
* Offer a new way to filter, order, or group data by using a field not exposed in the default functions of the original design.
Someone might resort to this sort of work-around because other ways of modifying the software to function as desired:
* Prove impossible, or
* Are too expensive, or
* Become too frustrating or painful.
The development community as a whole{{Weasel-inline|date=April 2010}} frowns on code injection for this purpose, calling it a kludge or [[Hack (technology slang)|hack]].
Some developers allow or even promote the use of code injection to ""enhance"" their software, usually because this solution offers a less expensive way to implement new or specialized features. The side effects and unaccounted implications can, unfortunately, be very dangerous.
Even well-intentioned use of code injection is discouraged in general.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,385643815,2010-09-19T01:58:05Z,Hmains,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book|author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The first modern observation of endogenous [[Circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness.{{Cite journal|author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal|last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{Cite journal|author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book|author=Bretzl H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher= Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The first modern observation of endogenous [[Circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in the 18th century; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness.{{Cite journal|author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal|last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900-1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.{{Cite news|title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=April 29, 1994}}{{Cite journal|author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, et al. |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |year=1994 |month=April |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=May 3, 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[11]
K-d tree,Sample Lua - NN Search,387887581,2010-09-30T10:03:50Z,146.64.23.60,"
function kdsearchnn( here, point, best )
if here == nil then
return best
end
if best == nil then
best = here
end
-- consider the current node --
if distance(here,point) < distance(best,point) then
best = here
end
-- search the near branch --
child = child_near(here,point)
best = kdsearchnn( child, point, best )
-- search the away branch - maybe --
if distance_axis(here,point) < distance(best,point) then
child = child_away(here,point)
best = kdsearchnn( child, point, best )
end
return best
end
Finding the nearest point is an O(log N) operation in the case of randomly distributed points. Analyses of binary search trees has found that the worst case search time for an k-dimensional KD tree containing N nodes is given by the following equation.{{Cite journal
| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. T. | author1-link = Der-Tsai Lee
| last2 = Wong | first2 = C. K.
| year = 1977
| title = Worst-case analysis for region and partial region searches in multidimensional binary search trees and balanced quad trees
| journal = Acta Informatica
| volume = 9
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| doi = 10.1007/BF00263763
}}
:
In very high dimensional spaces, the [[curse of dimensionality]] causes the algorithm to need to visit many more branches than in lower dimensional spaces. In particular, when the number of points is only slightly higher than the number of dimensions, the algorithm is only slightly better than a linear search of all of the points.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications. It can provide the ''k''-Nearest Neighbors to a point by maintaining k current bests instead of just one. Branches are only eliminated when they can't have points closer than any of the k current bests.
It can also be converted to an approximation algorithm to run faster. For example, approximate nearest neighbour searching can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result, this has the downside of discarding points that are not unique, but are co-located with the original search point.
Approximate nearest neighbor is useful in real time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increase gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively. One of its implementations is [[Best Bin First]].","
function kdsearchnn( here, point, best )
if here == nil then
return best
end
if best == nil then
best = here
end
-- consider the current node --
if distance(here,point) < distance(best,point) then
best = here
end
-- search the near branch --
child = child_near(here,point)
best = kdsearchnn( child, point, best )
-- search the away branch - maybe --
if distance_axis(here,point) < distance(best,point) then
child = child_away(here,point)
best = kdsearchnn( child, point, best )
end
return best
end
Finding the nearest point is an O(log N) operation in the case of randomly distributed points. Analyses of binary search trees has found that the worst case search time for an k-dimensional KD tree containing N nodes is given by the following equation.{{Cite journal
| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. T. | author1-link = Der-Tsai Lee
| last2 = Wong | first2 = C. K.
| year = 1977
| title = Worst-case analysis for region and partial region searches in multidimensional binary search trees and balanced quad trees
| journal = Acta Informatica
| volume = 9
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| doi = 10.1007/BF00263763
}}
:
In very high dimensional spaces, the [[curse of dimensionality]] causes the algorithm to need to visit many more branches than in lower dimensional spaces. In particular, when the number of points is only slightly higher than the number of dimensions, the algorithm is only slightly better than a linear search of all of the points.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications. It can provide the ''k''-Nearest Neighbors to a point by maintaining k current bests instead of just one. Branches are only eliminated when they can't have points closer than any of the k current bests.
It can also be converted to an approximation algorithm to run faster. For example, approximate nearest neighbour searching can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result, this has the downside of discarding points that are not unique, but are co-located with the original search point.
Approximate nearest neighbor is useful in real time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increase gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively. One of its implementations is [[Best Bin First]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),389891006,2010-10-10T15:01:44Z,Hordaland,"{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]] (""built-in""), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{Redirect|Human clock|the online clock|Humanclock}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes of living entities, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[3]
Human cloning,(Top),393729571,2010-10-30T03:44:09Z,Cmichael,"{{Expand|date=May 2009}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a [[human]] (not usually referring to monozygotic [[multiple birth]]s), human [[Cell (biology)|cell]], or human [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]]. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical twins are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction. There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research, while reproductive cloning would TO HELL WIT THISnt cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.","{{Expand|date=May 2009}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a [[human]] (not usually referring to monozygotic [[multiple birth]]s), human [[Cell (biology)|cell]], or human [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]]. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical twins are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction. There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research, while reproductive cloning would involve making cloned humans. Such reproductive cloning has not been performed and is illegal in many countries. A third type of cloning called replacement cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.","[1, 3]"
Parkinson's disease,Genetic,395090812,2010-11-06T01:20:10Z,Cjc22,"PD traditionally has been considered a non-genetic disorder, however around 15% of individuals with PD have a first-degree relative who also has the disease. At least between 5 and 10% of the patients are now known to have monogenic forms of the disease.{{cite journal |author=Lesage S, Brice A |title=Parkinson's disease: from monogenic forms to genetic susceptibility factors |journal=Hum. Mol. Genet. |volume=18 |issue=R1 |pages=R48–59 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19297401 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddp012}} Other genes act as risk factors for sporadic cases of the disease.
A number of specific genetic mutations causing PD have been discovered. Genes conclusively identified are [[Alpha-synuclein]] (SNCA), [[ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1]] (UCH-L1), [[Parkin (ligase)|parkin]] (PRKN), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 ([[LRRK2]] or dardarin) , PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 ([[PINK1]]), [[PARK7|DJ-1]] and [[ATP13A2]].{{cite journal |author=Davie CA |title=A review of Parkinson's disease |journal=Br. Med. Bull. |volume=86 |issue= |pages=109–27 |year=2008 |pmid=18398010 |doi=10.1093/bmb/ldn013 |url=}} With the exception of LRRK2 they account for a small minority of cases of PD. Most studied PD-related genes are SNCA and LRRK2.
The role of the SNCA gene is cardinal in PD, since the Alpha-synuclein protein is the main component of [[Lewy body|Lewy bodies]]. [[Missense mutation]]s (mutation in which a single [[nucleotide]] is changed) of the gene, and [[Gene duplication|duplications]] and triplications of the [[Locus (genetics)|locus]] containing it have been found in different groups with familial PD. Missense mutations are very rare with few families found in all the world. On the other hand multiplications of the SNCA locus account for around 2% of familial cases. Additionally multiplications have been found in non symptomatic carriers leading to the conclussion that [[penetrance]] is incomplete or age-dependent.
The LRRK2 gene (PARK8) encodes for a protein called dardarin. The name dardarin comes from a [[Basque language|Basque]] word for tremor since such gene was first identified in families from England and the north of Spain. LRRK is the most common cause known of familial and sporadic PD, with mutations in this gene in up to 10% of the patients with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic cases. Although more than 40 different mutations of the gene have been found, one of them (G2019S) appears in 5% of the familial cases and 2% of the sporadic ones in Europe. Nevertheless prevalence of this mutation varies greatly with [[ethnicity]], being for example rare in Asia but very common in cases of northern Africa and among [[Ashkenazi Jews]] The penetrance of the G2019S mutation ranges between 28% at age 60 and 75% at age 80 with sex having no effect.
Other mutations in at least three of the causative genes of the famililial forms of the disease have been found to be a risk factor for the so-called sporadic PD. The three are SNCA, LRRK2 and GBA. [[Genome-wide association study|Genome-wide association studies]]; which search for mutated alleles with low penetrance in sporadic cases; have yielded few positive results although the number of such studies has been scarce and their size small.","PD traditionally has been considered a non-genetic disorder, however around 15% of individuals with PD have a first-degree relative who also has the disease. At least between 5 and 10% of the patients are now known to have monogenic forms of the disease.{{cite journal |author=Lesage S, Brice A |title=Parkinson's disease: from monogenic forms to genetic susceptibility factors |journal=Hum. Mol. Genet. |volume=18 |issue=R1 |pages=R48–59 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19297401 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddp012}} Other genes act as risk factors for sporadic cases of the disease.
A number of specific genetic mutations causing PD have been discovered. Genes conclusively identified are [[Alpha-synuclein]] (SNCA), [[ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1]] (UCH-L1), [[Parkin (ligase)|parkin]] (PRKN), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 ([[LRRK2]] or dardarin) , PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 ([[PINK1]]), [[PARK7|DJ-1]] and [[ATP13A2]].{{cite journal |author=Davie CA |title=A review of Parkinson's disease |journal=Br. Med. Bull. |volume=86 |issue= |pages=109–27 |year=2008 |pmid=18398010 |doi=10.1093/bmb/ldn013 |url=}} With the exception of LRRK2 they account for a small minority of cases of PD. Most studied PD-related genes are SNCA and LRRK2.
The role of the SNCA gene is cardinal in PD, since the Alpha-synuclein protein is the main component of [[Lewy body|Lewy bodies]]. [[Missense mutation]]s (mutation in which a single [[nucleotide]] is changed) of the gene, and [[Gene duplication|duplications]] and triplications of the [[Locus (genetics)|locus]] containing it have been found in different groups with familial PD. Missense mutations are very rare with few families found in all the world. On the other hand multiplications of the SNCA locus account for around 2% of familial cases. Additionally multiplications have been found in non symptomatic carriers leading to the conclussion that [[penetrance]] is incomplete or age-dependent.
The LRRK2 gene (PARK8) encodes for a protein called dardarin. The name dardarin comes from a [[Basque language|Basque]] word for tremor since such gene was first identified in families from England and the north of Spain. LRRK is the most common cause known of familial and sporadic PD, with mutations in this gene in up to 10% of the patients with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic cases. Although more than 40 different mutations of the gene have been found, one of them (G2019S) appears in 5% of the familial cases and 2% of the sporadic ones in Europe. Nevertheless prevalence of this mutation varies greatly with [[ethnicity]], being for example rare in Asia but very common in cases of northern Africa and among [[Ashkenazi Jews]] The penetrance of the G2019S mutation ranges between 28% at age 60 and 75% at age 80 with sex having no effect.
Other mutations in at least three of the causative genes of the familial forms of the disease have been found to be a risk factor for the so-called sporadic PD. The three are SNCA, LRRK2 and GBA. [[Genome-wide association study|Genome-wide association studies]]; which search for mutated alleles with low penetrance in sporadic cases; have yielded few positive results although the number of such studies has been scarce and their size small.
Genes and risk factors may act together in Parkinson's disease. For example, pesticide exposure has been reported as a risk factor: Pesticides, such as rotenone or paraquat block mitochondrial respiration, an effect known to destroy dopaminergic neurones in animal models : Many risk-promoting genes are involved in toxin metabolism ([[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P450|cytochrome p450's]]and others), and several mitochondrial respiration genes have been implicated in the disease. All three factors together, but none alone, might be necessary to provoke the disease. A synthesis of genes and risk factors is available at [http://www.polygenicpathways.co.uk/pdrisk.htm this database]. The KEGG pathways traced out by almost 100 susceptibility candidate genes are also provided at [http://www.polygenicpathways.co.uk/pdgenekegg.htm this site]. A number of pathways are involved in drug metabolism, or mitochondrial function. Others are involved in bacterial and viral entry routes and in pathogen defense, pathways that tie in with the implication of pathogens in Parkinson's disease. These polygenic pathways are relavant to the environmental risk factors and to the pathology of Parkinson's disease, where the effects of genes and risk factors may be conditional upon each other.","[1, 7, 4, 9, 10]"
Human cloning,Notable cloning attempts and claims,395215093,2010-11-06T19:17:56Z,Vsmith,"* Dr. [[Panayiotis Zavos]], an American fertility doctor, revealedary 2004 at a London press conference that he had transferred a freshly-cloned embryo into the 35-year-old woman. On 04 February 2004, it emerged that the attempt had not worked and the woman did not become pregnant.{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-207372/Human-clone-attempt-fails.html|title=Human clone attempt fails | location=London | work=Daily Mail}}{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3459009.stm|title=Human ref>","* Dr. [[Panayiotis Zavos]], an American fertility doctor, revealed on 17 January 2004 at a London press conference that he had transferred a freshly-cloned embryo into the 35-year-old woman. On 04 February 2004, it emerged that the attempt had not worked and the woman did not become pregnant.{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-207372/Human-clone-attempt-fails.html|title=Human clone attempt fails | location=London | work=Daily Mail}}{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3459009.stm|title=Human cloning attempt has failed | work=BBC News | date=4 February 2004}}",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,395294818,2010-11-07T04:34:37Z,72.174.18.48,"Historically, to differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]].
However, criterion 2 (that circadian rhythms persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures) is now understood to not be a factor. Thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes, and likewise, temperature changes applied to the circadian clock mechanisms of many organisms (including fungi and even the SCN of mammals) has been shown to affect the frequency of the rhythm, as would be expected. In some instances, heat can provide a stronger zeitgeber than light.","Historically, to differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [[jet lag]].
However, criterion 2 (that circadian rhythms persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures) is now understood to not be a factor. Thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes, and likewise, temperature changes applied to the circadian clock mechanisms of many organisms (including fungi and even the suprachiasmatic nuclei of mammals) has been shown to affect the frequency of the rhythm, as would be expected. In some instances, heat can provide a stronger zeitgeber than light.",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,395500666,2010-11-08T07:00:59Z,NJR ZA,"Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect the circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by light from the blue part of the spectrum (420–440 nm{{Cite journal|author=Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR |title=Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment |journal=Biochemistry |volume=42 |issue=44 |pages=12734–8 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid= 14596587 |doi=10.1021/bi035418z}} according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm). These blue wavelengths are present in virtually all light sources, therefore their elimination requires special lights or filters which appear amber.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{Cite web|last=Semjonova |first=Milena |title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective |url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf |year=2003 |publisher=Milena Lighting Design}} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.
According to a 2010 study completed by the Lighting Research Center, daylight has a direct effect on circadian rhythms and, consequently, on performance and well-being. The research showed that students who experience disruption in lighting schemes in the morning consequently experience disruption in sleeping patterns. The change in sleeping patterns may lead to negatively impacted student performance and alertness. Removing circadian light in the morning delays the dim light melatonin onset by 6 minutes a day, for a total of 30","Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect the circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by light from the blue part of the spectrum (420–440 nm{{Cite journal|author=Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR |title=Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment |journal=Biochemistry |volume=42 |issue=44 |pages=12734–8 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid= 14596587 |doi=10.1021/bi035418z}} according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm). These blue wavelengths are present in virtually all light sources, therefore their elimination requires special lights or filters which appear amber.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;{{Cite web|last=Semjonova |first=Milena |title =Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective |url=http://www.enlighter.org/images/2009/01/healthyLighting.pdf |year=2003 |publisher=Milena Lighting Design}} light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below.
According to a 2010 study completed by the Lighting Research Center, daylight has a direct effect on circadian rhythms and, consequently, on performance and well-being. The research showed that students who experience disruption in lighting schemes in the morning consequently experience disruption in sleeping patterns. The change in sleeping patterns may lead to negatively impacted student performance and alertness. Removing circadian light in the morning delays the dim light melatonin onset by 6 minutes a day, for a total of 30 minutes for five days.{{Cite journal|author=Figueiro MG, Rea MS |title=Lack of short-wavelength light during the school day delays dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) in middle school students |journal=Neuro Endocrinology Letters |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=4 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20150866}}","[1, 7, 10]"
Methamphetamine,Long-term effects,395630238,2010-11-08T22:52:39Z,Literaturegeek,,"[[Methamphetamine]] use has a high association with depression and suicide as well as serious heart disease, methamphetamine psychosis, anxiety and violent behaviours. Additionally methamphetamine has a very high addiction risk.{{Cite journal | last1 = Darke | first1 = S. | last2 = Kaye | first2 = S. | last3 = McKetin | first3 = R. | last4 = Duflou | first4 = J. | title = Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use. | journal = Drug Alcohol Rev | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 253-62 | month = May | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1080/09595230801923702 | PMID = 18368606 }} Methamphetamine also is [[neurotoxic]] and is associated with an increased risk of [[parkinson's disease]].{{Cite journal | last1 = Thrash | first1 = B. | last2 = Thiruchelvan | first2 = K. | last3 = Ahuja | first3 = M. | last4 = Suppiramaniam | first4 = V. | last5 = Dhanasekaran | first5 = M. | title = Methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity: the road to Parkinson's disease. | url = http://www.if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2009/6_966.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Pharmacol Rep | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 966-77 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 20081231 }} Methamphetsmine abuse can cause neurotoxicity which is believed to be responsible for causing persisting cognitive deficits, such as memory, impaired attention and executive function. Over 20 percent of people addicted to methamphetamine develop a long-lasting psychosis resembling scizophrenia after stopping methamphetamine which persists for longer than 6 months and is often treatment resistant.{{Cite journal | last1 = Barr | first1 = AM. | last2 = Panenka | first2 = WJ. | last3 = MacEwan | first3 = GW. | last4 = Thornton | first4 = AE. | last5 = Lang | first5 = DJ. | last6 = Honer | first6 = WG. | last7 = Lecomte | first7 = T. | title = The need for speed: an update on methamphetamine addiction. | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1557685/?tool=pubmed | journal = J Psychiatry Neurosci | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 301-13 | month = Sep | year = 2006 | PMID = 16951733 }}","[1, 7, 9, 4, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,395696126,2010-11-09T06:48:40Z,ClueBot NG,"i think that you are a fucking mess so fucking chap up and do some fucking thing .
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare fuck precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. miss fucken de leo should get a fucken blow job right now
Cellfuck","{{Ref improve section|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal|author=Sharma VK |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal|author=Sheeba V, Sharma VK, Chandrashekaran MK, Joshi A |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal= Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal|author=Guyomarc'h C, Lumineau S, Richard JP |title= Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=219–30 |year=1998 |month=May |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal|author=Zivkovic BD, Underwood H, Steele CT, Edmonds K |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=378–90 |year=1999 |month= October |pmid=10511005 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [[Seymour Benzer]] first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named ""[[period (gene)|period]]"".{{Cite book|chapter=Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.box.1963 |editor1-first=Dale |editor1-last=Purves |editor2-first=George J. |editor2-last=Augustine |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Fitzpatrick |editor4-first=Laurence C. |editor4-last=Katz |editor5-last=LaMantia |edior6-first=James O. |editor6-last=McNamara |editor7-last=Williams |title=Neuroscience |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2001 |pages=666–7 |isbn=0-87893-742-0 |editor-first= Anthony-Samuel |editor3-given=S. Mark}} The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal|author=Nagoshi E, Saini C, Bauer C, Laroche T, Naef F, Schibler U |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15550250 |doi= 10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Instruction cycle,2. Decode the instruction,397063576,2010-11-16T07:43:34Z,120.88.34.252,"The CU passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the ALU to perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and writing the result back to a register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to the CU.","The instruction decoder interprets the instruction. If the instruction has an [[indirect address]], the effective address is read from main memory, and any required data is fetched from main memory to be processed and then placed into data registers.
During this phase the instruction inside the IR (instruction register) decode.
sach mein aisa hi hai kya?","[1, 2, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Circadian Rhythms in Plants,398179028,2010-11-22T03:26:47Z,Bjholm,,"Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission. {{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage. {{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY. {{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}","[1, 7, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,In plants,398189303,2010-11-22T04:57:23Z,Bjholm,"Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}","Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|PLANTCIRC]]",[]
Circadian rhythm,In plants,398197233,2010-11-22T06:16:16Z,Bjholm,"Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|PLANTCIRC]]","Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the negative feedback loop in Arabidopsis. LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening.]]","[1, 3, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,In plants,398198210,2010-11-22T06:26:18Z,Bjholm,"[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the negative feedback loop in Arabidopsis. LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}","[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in Arabidopsis. LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B-E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1-2 (involved in blue-UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.{{Cite journal | last = Webb | first = Alex A R. | date = | year = 2003 | month = June | title = The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants | journal = New Phytologist | volume = | issue = 160 | pages = 281-303 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = www.newphyologist.com | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: (CIRCADIAN AND CLOCK ASSOCIATED1) CCA1 and (LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL) LHY that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while TOC1 oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesized that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator CCA1 and LHY.{{Cite journal | last = McClung | first = C. Robertson. | date = | year = 2006 | month = April | title = Plant Circadian Rhythms | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 792-803 | publisher = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 | format = | accessdate = | quote = }}","[3, 4]"
Human cloning,(Top),400117482,2010-12-02T13:18:16Z,Gabbe,"{{Expand|date=May 2009}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. It does not usually refer to monozygotic [[multiple birth]]s, human [[Cell (biology)|cell]] or [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] reproduction. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical [[twins]] are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.
There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: ''therapeutic cloning'' and ''reproductive cloning''. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research, while reproductive cloning would involve making cloned humans. Such reproductive cloning has not been performed and is illegal in many countries.
A third type of cloning called replacement cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and repewuweuiweuiweiuwe","{{Expand|date=May 2009}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. It does not usually refer to monozygotic [[multiple birth]]s, human [[Cell (biology)|cell]] or [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] reproduction. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical [[twins]] are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.
There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: ''therapeutic cloning'' and ''reproductive cloning''. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research, while reproductive cloning would involve making cloned humans. Such reproductive cloning has not been performed and is illegal in many countries.
A third type of cloning called replacement cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.","[1, 3]"
Bubble sort,Python implementation,400894453,2010-12-06T18:20:52Z,Josecgomez,"The algorithm can also be expressed as:
'''def''' bubbleSort(aList):
'''for''' i '''in''' range(1, len(aList)):
swapped = True
j=i
'''while''' swapped == True '''and''' j > 0:
'''if''' aList[j] < aList[j-1]:
tempItem = aList[j]
aList[j] = aList[j-1]
aList[j-1] = tempItem
j = j-1
'''else''':
swapped = False
'''return''' aList
","Here is a simple implementation in Python
def BubbleSort(lst):
lst = list(lst) #copy collection to list
for passesLeft in range(len(lst)-1, 0, -1):
for i in range(passesLeft):
if lst[i] > lst[i + 1]:
lst[i], lst[i + 1] = lst[i + 1], lst[i]
return lst
","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,402409953,2010-12-14T22:01:31Z,128.231.88.209,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]], the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]], the period family genes","[4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Biological clock in mammals,402871368,2010-12-17T15:33:29Z,83.60.70.200,"[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [[physiology]] and behaviour through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cells]] located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep–wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eye contains not only the ""classical"" [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] which are used for vision but [[ganglion cell]]s which respond to light and are called [[photosensitive ganglion cell]]s.
These cells contain the photo pigment [[melanopsin]] and their signals follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response, the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{Cite journal |author=Scheer, F.A.; Wright, K.P.; Kronauer, R.E.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Plasticity of the intrinsic period of the human circadian timing system |journal=PLos ONE |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=e721 |year=2007 |pmid=17684566 |pmc=1934931 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000721}}","[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [[physiology]] and behaviour through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cells]] located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep–wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eye contains not only the ""classical"" [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] which are used for vision but [[ganglion cell]]s which respond to light and are called [[photosensitive ganglion cell]]s.
These cells contain the photo pigment [[melanopsin]] and their signals follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response, the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length.
Several studies have indicated that pineal melatonin feeds back on SCN rhythmicity to modulate circadian patterns of activity and other processes. However, the nature and system-level significance of this feedback are unknown.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{Cite journal |author=Scheer, F.A.; Wright, K.P.; Kronauer, R.E.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Plasticity of the intrinsic period of the human circadian timing system |journal=PLos ONE |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=e721 |year=2007 |pmid=17684566 |pmc=1934931 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000721}}","[1, 4]"
Hypnosis,Historical figures,404013398,2010-12-24T11:11:57Z,89.238.178.23,"{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Étienne Eugène Azam]]
* [[Vladimir Bekhterev]]
* [[Hippolyte Bernheim]]
* [[Alfred Binet]]
* [[James Braid (surgeon)]]
* [[John Milne Bramwell]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Émile Coué]]
{{col-break}}
* [[John Elliotson]]
* [[Dave Elman]]
* [[James Esdaile]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
* [[Abbé Faria]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Pierre Janet]]
* [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Franz Mesmer]]
* [[Albert Moll]]
* [[Julian Ochorowicz]]
* [[Ivan Pavlov]]
* [[Morton Prince]]
* [[Marquis de Puységur]]
* [[Otto Georg Wetterstrand]]
{{col-end}}","{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Ormond Dale McGill]]
* [[Étienne Eugène Azam]]
* [[Vladimir Bekhterev]]
* [[Hippolyte Bernheim]]
* [[Alfred Binet]]
* [[James Braid (surgeon)]]
* [[John Milne Bramwell]]
* [[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
* [[Émile Coué]]
{{col-break}}
* [[John Elliotson]]
* [[Dave Elman]]
* [[James Esdaile]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
* [[Abbé Faria]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Pierre Janet]]
* [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Franz Mesmer]]
* [[Albert Moll]]
* [[Julian Ochorowicz]]
* [[Ivan Pavlov]]
* [[Morton Prince]]
* [[Marquis de Puységur]]
* [[Otto Georg Wetterstrand]]
{{col-end}}","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,404670023,2010-12-28T17:51:15Z,Spiral5800,"{{mergefrom|Sleep architecture|discuss=Talk:Circadian rhythm#Merger proposal|date=December 2010}}
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7898092
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any significant or even observable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=May 10, 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L. 2008. Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults. Clinical Geriatrics, March 2008:2-8.","{{mergefrom|Sleep architecture|discuss=Talk:Circadian rhythm#Merger proposal|date=December 2010}}
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7898092
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any significant or even (thus far) measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=May 10, 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L. 2008. Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults. Clinical Geriatrics, March 2008:2-8.",[3]
Gene therapy,Electroporation,404880269,2010-12-29T21:38:37Z,Thatbiotechguy,,"[[Electorporation]] is a method that uses short pulses of high voltage to carry DNA across the cell membrane. This shock is thought to cause temporary formation of pores in the cell membrane, allowing DNA molecules to pass through. Electroporation is generally efficient and works across a broad range of cell types. However, a high rate of cell death following electroporation has limited its use, including clinical applications.
More recently a newer method of electroporation, termed electron-avalanche transfection, has been used in gene therapy experiments. By using a high-voltage plasma discharge, DNA was efficiently delivered following very short (microsecond) pulses. Compared to electroporation, the technique resulted in greatly increased efficiency and less cellular damage.","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,405060211,2010-12-30T21:28:20Z,Hordaland,"{{mergefrom|Sleep architecture|discuss=Talk:Circadian rhythm#Merger proposal|date=December 2010}}
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7898092
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any significant or even (thus far) measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=May 10, 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L. 2008. Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults. Clinical Geriatrics, March 2008:2-8.","{{mergefrom|Sleep architecture|discuss=Talk:Circadian rhythm#Merger proposal|date=December 2010}}
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7898092
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=May 10, 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L. 2008. Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults. Clinical Geriatrics, March 2008:2-8.",[11]
Port (computer networking),Technical details,405842829,2011-01-04T07:01:04Z,202.88.225.58,"Transport Layer protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP), the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP), specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. A process associates its input or output channel file descriptors (sockets) with a port number and an [[IP address]], a process known as ''binding'', to send and receive data via the network. The [[operating system]]'s networking software has the task of transmitting outgoing data from all application ports onto the network, and forwarding arriving network packets to a process by matching the packets IP address and port numbers.
Applications implementing common services often use specifically reserved, ''well-known'' port numbers for receiving service requests from client hosts. This process is known as ''listening'' and involves the receipt of a request on the well-known port and reestablishing one-to-one server-client communications on another ''private'' port, so that other clients may also contact the well-known service port. The well-known ports are defined by convention overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA), cf. [[list of TCP and UDP port numbers]].
The core a high port number allocated for short term use, therefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
Port numbers are encoded in the transport protocol packet header, and they can be readily interpreted not only by thving computers, but also by other components of the networkcular, [[firewall (networking)|firewall]]s are commonly configured to differentiate between packets depending on their source or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is an example application of this.
Processes create associations with transport protocol ports by means of [[Internet socket|socket]]s. A socket is the software structure used as the transport end-point. It is created by the operating system for the process and bound to a socket address which consists of a combination of a port number and an IP address. Sockets may be set to send or receive data in one direction at a time (''half duplex'') or simultaneously in both directions (''full duplex'').
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.","Transport Layer protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP), the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP), specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. A process associates its input oerefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
P
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.",[2]
Context-free grammar,(Top),407473541,2011-01-12T14:04:20Z,137.44.35.234,"In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG'''), sometimes also called a '''[[phrase structure grammar]]''', is a [[formal grammar|grammar]] that naturally generates a [[formal language]] in which clauses can be nested inside clauses arbitrarily deeply, but where grammatical structures are not allowed to overlap. ''CFGs'' can be expressed by [[Backus–Naur Form]], or ''BNF''.
In terms of [[Production (computer science)|production rules]], every production of a context free grammar is of the form
:''V'' → ''w''
where ''V'' is a single [[nonterminal]] symbol, and ''w'' is a string of [[Terminal and nonterminal symbols|terminal]]s and/or nonterminals (''w'' can be empty). These rewriting rules applied successively produce a [[parse tree]], where the nonterminal symbols are nodes, the leaves are the terminal symbols, and each node expands by the production into the next level of the tree. The tree describes the nesting structure of the expression. ''V'' can therefore change while ''w'' is fixed (can't change).
In a context free grammar the left hand side of a production rule is always a single nonterminal symbol. In a general grammar, it could be a string of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. The grammars are called ''context free'' because – since all rules only have a nonterminal on the left hand side – one can always replace that nonterminal symbol with what is on the right hand side of the rule. The ''context'' in which the symbol occurs is therefore not important.
[[Context-free languages]] are exactly those which can be understood by a finite state computer with a single [[pushdown automaton|infinite stack]]. In order to keep track of nested units, one pushes the current parsing state at the start of the unit, and one recovers it at the end.
Context-free grammars play a central role in the description and design of [[programming language]]s and [[compiler]]s. They are also used for analyzing the [[syntax]] of [[natural language]]s. [[Noam Chomsky]] has posited that all human languages are based on context-free grammars at their core, with additional processes that can manipulate the output of the context-free component (the transformations of early Chomskyan theory){{citation needed|date=October 2010}}.","In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG'''), sometimes also called a '''[[phrase structure grammar]]''', is a [[formal grammar|grammar]] that naturally generates a [[formal language]] in which clauses can be nested inside clauses arbitrarily deeply, but where grammatical structures are not allowed to overlap. ''CFGs'' can be expressed by [[Backus–Naur Form]], or ''BNF''.
In terms of [[Production (computer science)|production rules]], every production of a context free grammar is of the form
:''V'' → ''w''
where ''V'' is a single [[nonterminal]] symbol, and ''w'' is a string of [[Terminal and nonterminal symbols|terminal]]s and/or nonterminals (''w'' can be empty). These rewriting rules applied successively produce a [[parse tree]], where the nonterminal symbols are nodes, the leaves are the terminal symbols, and each node expands by the production into the next level of the tree. The tree describes the nesting structure of the expression. ''V'' can therefore change while ''w'' is fixed (can't change).
In a context free grammar the left hand side of a production rule is always a single nonterminal symbol. In a general grammar, it could be a string of terminal and/or nonterminal symbols. The grammars are called ''context free'' because – since all rules only have a nonterminal on the left hand side – one can always replace that nonterminal symbol with what is on the right hand side of the rule. The ''context'' in which the symbol occurs is therefore not important.
[[Context-free languages]] are exactly those which can be understood by a finite state computer with a single [[pushdown automaton|infinite stack]]. In order to keep track of nested units, one pushes the current parsing state at the start of the unit, and one recovers it at the end.
Context-free grammars play a central role in the description and design of [[programming language]]s and [[compiler]]s. They are also used for analyzing the [[syntax]] of [[natural language]]s. [[Noam Chomsky]] originally proposed the use of context-free grammars for generating the base, i.e. the input for transformations (Chomsky 1957, 1965). In later work (e.g. Chomsky 1981), the idea of formulating a grammar consisting of explicit rewrite rules was abandoned. In other generative frameworks, e.g. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (Gazdar et al. 1985), context-free grammars were taken to be the mechanism for the entire syntax, eliminating transformations.","[1, 2, 4, 5]"
Medical cannabis,Breast cancer,408204371,2011-01-16T14:24:57Z,Edgar181,"Hemp oil [see reference 101] has been proven to cure all forms of cancer, even when the patient is in a terminal condition. This cure has been hidden by the large pharmaceutical companies to continue the big business of cancer and the billions in profits it brings every year. Rick Simpson, the fellow who discovered the cure for cancer was cannabinoids isolated through a non-destructive process, was taken to Canada's Supreme Court, where he had over 50 people sign affidavits, these 50 people were all told by the medical community that they had terminal cancer and were going to die regardless of what they did. Of course, Rick had the cure and after taking it for as little as a month in some cases the cancer was entirely gone. Cannabinoids turn into endocannabinoids in the body, and the body has specific cannabinoid receptors for these they are very important in regulating the entire hormonal system.
According to a 2007 study at the [[California Pacific Medical Center]] Research Institute, [[cannabidiol]] (CBD) may stop [[breast cancer]] from spreading throughout the body.{{Cite journal|author=McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY |title=Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells |journal=Molecular Cancer Therapeutics |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=2921–7 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=18025276 |doi=10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-07-0371 |laysummary=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7098340.stm |laysource=[[BBC News]] |laydate=19 November 2007 |issn=1535-7163 |url=http://mct.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18025276 |format=Free full text}} These researchers believe their discovery may provide a non-toxic alternative to [[chemotherapy]] while achieving the same results minus the painful and unpleasant [[adverse effect|side effects]]. The research team says that CBD works by blocking the activity of a gene called Id-1, which is believed to be responsible for a process called [[metastasis]], which is the aggressive spread of cancer cells away from the original tumor site.","According to a 2007 study at the [[California Pacific Medical Center]] Research Institute, [[cannabidiol]] (CBD) may stop [[breast cancer]] from spreading throughout the body.{{Cite journal|author=McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY |title=Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells |journal=Molecular Cancer Therapeutics |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=2921–7 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=18025276 |doi=10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-07-0371 |laysummary=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7098340.stm |laysource=[[BBC News]] |laydate=19 November 2007 |issn=1535-7163 |url=http://mct.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18025276 |format=Free full text}} These researchers believe their discovery may provide a non-toxic alternative to [[chemotherapy]] while achieving the same results minus the painful and unpleasant [[adverse effect|side effects]]. The research team says that CBD works by blocking the activity of a gene called Id-1, which is believed to be responsible for a process called [[metastasis]], which is the aggressive spread of cancer cells away from the original tumor site.",[2]
DNA sequencing,Maxam–Gilbert sequencing,408428795,2011-01-17T18:00:07Z,Ebudishorn,"In 1976–1977, [[Allan Maxam]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] developed a DNA sequencing method based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases.{{cite journal |author=Maxam AM, Gilbert W |title=A new method for sequencing DNA |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=560–4 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=265521 |pmc=392330 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.2.560 }}
Although Maxam and Gilbert published their chemical sequencing method two years after the ground-breaking paper of Sanger and Coulson on plus-minus sequencing,Sanger F. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/sanger-lecture.pdf Determination of nucleotide sequences in DNA]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. Maxam–Gilbert sequencing rapidly became more popular, since purified DNA could be used directly, while the initial Sanger method required that each read start be cloned for production of single-stranded DNA. However, with the improvement of the chain-termination method (see below), Maxam-Gilbert sequencing has fallen out of favour due to its technical complexity prohibiting its use in standard molecular biology kits, extensive use of hazardous chemicals, and difficulties with scale-up.
The method requires potassium labelling at one end and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment with miRNAs generates breaks at every nucleotide base. Thus a series of labelled fragments is generated, from the K+labelled end to the first ""cut"" site in each molecule. The fragments in the four reactions are arranged side by side in [[gel electrophoresis]] for size separation. To visualize the fragments in 3-D, the gel is exposed to hydrolysis enzymes for [[autoradiography]], yielding a series of cubes each corresponding to a DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be determined.
Also sometimes known as ""chemical sequencing"", this method originated in the study of RNA-protein interactions (footprinting), nucleic acid structure and epigenetic modifications to RNA, and within these it still has important applications.","In 1976–1977, [[Allan Maxam]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] developed a DNA sequencing method based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases.{{cite journal |author=Maxam AM, Gilbert W |title=A new method for sequencing DNA |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=560–4 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=265521 |pmc=392330 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.2.560 }}
Although Maxam and Gilbert published their chemical sequencing method two years after the ground-breaking paper of Sanger and Coulson on plus-minus sequencing,Sanger F. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/sanger-lecture.pdf Determination of nucleotide sequences in DNA]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. Maxam–Gilbert sequencing rapidly became more popular, since purified DNA could be used directly, while the initial Sanger method required that each read start be cloned for production of single-stranded DNA. However, with the improvement of the chain-termination method (see below), Maxam-Gilbert sequencing has fallen out of favour due to its technical complexity prohibiting its use in standard molecular biology kits, extensive use of hazardous chemicals, and difficulties with scale-up.
The method requires radioactive labeling at one 5' end of the DNA (typically by a kinase reaction using gamma-32P ATP) and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment generates breaks at a small proportion of one or two of the four nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G, A+G, C, C+T). For example, the purines (A+G) are depurinated using formic acid, the guanines (and to some extent the adenines) are methylated by dimethyl sulfate, and the pyrimidines (C+T) are methylated using hydrazine. The addition of salt (sodium chloride) to the hydrazine reaction inhibits the methylation of thymine for the C-only reaction. The modified DNAs are then cleaved by hot piperidine at the position of the modified base. The concentration of the modifying chemicals is controlled to introduce on average one modification per DNA molecule. Thus a series of labeled fragments is generated, from the radiolabeled end to the first ""cut"" site in each molecule. The fragments in the four reactions are electrophoresed side by side in denaturing acrylamide gels for size separation. To visualize the fragments, the gel is exposed to X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding a series of dark bands each corresponding to a radiolabeled DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be inferred.
Also sometimes known as ""chemical sequencing"", this method originated in the study of DNA-protein interactions (DNase I footprinting) and nucleic acid structure, and within these it still has important applications.","[1, 2, 3, 4]"
Genetic engineering,Other uses,408676106,2011-01-18T22:40:58Z,Hoshin12,"In [[materials science]], a [[genetically modified virus]] has been used to construct a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery.{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/virus-battery-0402.html |title= New virus-built battery could power cars, electronic devices |publisher=Web.mit.edu |date=2009-04-02 |accessdate=2010-07-17}}{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102647672 |title=Hidden Ingredient In New, Greener Battery: A Virus |publisher=Npr.org |date= |accessdate=2010-07-17}} Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs{{cite web|title=Genetically Modified Bacteria Produce Living Photographs|author=Joab Jackson|publisher=National Geographic News|date=December 6, 2005|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1206_051206_bacteria_photos.html}} while others have potential to be used as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions.{{cite web|title=Researchers Synchronize Blinking 'Genetic Clocks' -- Genetically Engineered Bacteria That Keep Track of Time|publisher=ScienceDaily|date=Jan. 24, 2010|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100120131157.htm}} Genetic engineering is also being used to create [[BioArt]]{{cite web|title=Bio-artists bridge gap between arts, sciences: Use of living organisms is attracting attention and controversy|author=Jessica M. Pasko|publisher=msnbc|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17387568/|date=3/4/2007}} and novelty items such as [[blue rose]]s,{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/pcp/pcm131|title=Engineering of the Rose Flavonoid Biosynthetic Pathway Successfully Generated Blue-Hued Flowers Accumulating Delphinidin|journal=Plant and Cell Physiology|date=October 9, 2007|volume=48|issue=11|pages=1589–1600|author=Yukihisa Katsumoto ''et. al''|url=http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/48/11/1589|pmid=17925311}} and [[GloFish|glowing fish]].{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.02.002|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=24|issue=4|date=April 2006|pages=155–162|title=Go with the glow: fluorescent proteins to light transgenic organisms|author=C. Neal Stewart, J|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TCW-4J9MSK3-2&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1394536043&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=896a5e103919000e0f181cbc528af544|pmid=16488034}}","One of the famous other uses of genetic engineering was the discovery of the Patty Jaffs. In [[materials science]], a [[genetically modified virus]] has been used to construct a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery.{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/virus-battery-0402.html |title= New virus-built battery could power cars, electronic devices |publisher=Web.mit.edu |date=2009-04-02 |accessdate=2010-07-17}}{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102647672 |title=Hidden Ingredient In New, Greener Battery: A Virus |publisher=Npr.org |date= |accessdate=2010-07-17}} Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs{{cite web|title=Genetically Modified Bacteria Produce Living Photographs|author=Joab Jackson|publisher=National Geographic News|date=December 6, 2005|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1206_051206_bacteria_photos.html}} while others have potential to be used as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions.{{cite web|title=Researchers Synchronize Blinking 'Genetic Clocks' -- Genetically Engineered Bacteria That Keep Track of Time|publisher=ScienceDaily|date=Jan. 24, 2010|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100120131157.htm}} Genetic engineering is also being used to create [[BioArt]]{{cite web|title=Bio-artists bridge gap between arts, sciences: Use of living organisms is attracting attention and controversy|author=Jessica M. Pasko|publisher=msnbc|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17387568/|date=3/4/2007}} and novelty items such as [[blue rose]]s,{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/pcp/pcm131|title=Engineering of the Rose Flavonoid Biosynthetic Pathway Successfully Generated Blue-Hued Flowers Accumulating Delphinidin|journal=Plant and Cell Physiology|date=October 9, 2007|volume=48|issue=11|pages=1589–1600|author=Yukihisa Katsumoto ''et. al''|url=http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/48/11/1589|pmid=17925311}} and [[GloFish|glowing fish]].{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.02.002|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=24|issue=4|date=April 2006|pages=155–162|title=Go with the glow: fluorescent proteins to light transgenic organisms|author=C. Neal Stewart, J|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TCW-4J9MSK3-2&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1394536043&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=896a5e103919000e0f181cbc528af544|pmid=16488034}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),409861557,2011-01-24T23:53:51Z,Circadianblitz,"{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes of living entities on [[Earth]], including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', ""day"", meaning literally ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]].
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven ~24-hr cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"", which translates to ""approximately one day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. One of the major Societies concerned with chronobiology is the Society for Research in Biological Rhythms (http://www.srbr.org/Pages/default.aspx).
Although circadian rhythms are [[endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,Biological clock in mammals,409865218,2011-01-25T00:13:24Z,Circadianblitz,"[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [[physiology]] and behaviour through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cells]] located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep–wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eye contains not only the ""classical"" [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] which are used for vision but [[ganglion cell]]s which respond to light and are called [[photosensitive ganglion cell]]s.
These cells contain the photo pigment [[melanopsin]] and their signals follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response, the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length.
Several studies have indicated that pineal melatonin feeds back on SCN rhythmicity to modulate circadian patterns of activity and other processes. However, the nature and system-level significance of this feedback are unknown.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{Cite journal |author=Scheer, F.A.; Wright, K.P.; Kronauer, R.E.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Plasticity of the intrinsic period of the human circadian timing system |journal=PLos ONE |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=e721 |year=2007 |pmid=17684566 |pmc=1934931 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000721}}","[[Image:Circadian rhythm labeled.jpg|thumb|400px|Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [[physiology]] and behaviour through the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] in humans.]]
The primary circadian ""clock"" in [[mammal]]s is located in the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [[cell (biology)|cells]] located in the [[hypothalamus]]. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep–wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [[retina]] of the eye contains ""classical"" [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] (""rods"" and ""cones""), which are used for conventional vision. But the retina also contains specialized [[ganglion cell]]s which are directly photosensitive, and project directly to the SCN where they help in the entrainment of this master circadian clock.
These cells contain the photopigment [[melanopsin]] and their signals follow a pathway called the [[retinohypothalamic tract]], leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [[pineal gland]], a tiny structure shaped like a [[pine cone]] and located on the [[epithalamus]]. In response, the pineal secretes the hormone [[melatonin]]. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length.
Several studies have indicated that pineal melatonin feeds back on SCN rhythmicity to modulate circadian patterns of activity and other processes. However, the nature and system-level significance of this feedback are unknown.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [[Mars]]).{{Cite journal |author=Scheer, F.A.; Wright, K.P.; Kronauer, R.E.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Plasticity of the intrinsic period of the human circadian timing system |journal=PLos ONE |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=e721 |year=2007 |pmid=17684566 |pmc=1934931 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000721}}","[3, 4]"
DNA sequencing,Amplification and clonal selection,409948728,2011-01-25T11:19:08Z,Woohookitty,"[[Image:DNA Sequencing gDNA libraries.jpg|thumb|right|Genomic DNA is fragmented into random pieces and cloned as a bacterial library. DNA from individual bacterial clones is sequenced and the sequence is assembled by using overlapping DNA regions.(click to expand)]] Large-scale sequencing aims at sequencing very long DNA pieces, such as whole [[chromosome]]s. Common approaches consist of cutting (with [[restriction enzyme]]s) or shearing (with mechanical forces) large DNA fragments into shorter DNA fragments. The fragmented DNA is [[clone (genetics)|cloned]] into a [[Vector DNA|DNA vector]], and amplified in ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Short DNA fragments purified from individual bacterial colonies are individually sequenced and [[sequence assembly|assembled electronically]] into one long, contiguous sequence.
This method does not require any pre-existing information about the sequence of the DNA and is referred to as ''de novo'' sequencing. Gaps in the assembled sequence may be filled by [[primer walking]]. The different strategies have different tradeoffs in speed and accuracy; ''[[shotgun sequencing|shotgun methods]]'' are often used for sequencing large genomes, but its assembly is complex and difficult, particularly with [[microsatellites|sequence repeat]]s often causing gaps in genome assembly.
Most sequencing approaches use an ''in vitro'' cloning step to amplify individual DNA molecules, because their molecular detection methods are not sensitive enough for single molecule sequencing. [[Emulsion PCR]]{{cite journal |author=Richard Williams, Sergio G Peisajovich, Oliver J Miller, Shlomo Magdassi, Dan S Tawfik, Andrew D Griffiths |title=Amplification of complex gene libraries by emulsion PCR |journal=Nature methods |volume=3 |pages=545–550|year=2006 |issue=7 |doi=10.1038/nmeth896 |pmid=16791213}} isolates individual DNA molecules along with primer-coated beads in aqueous droplets within an oil phase. [[Polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) then coats each bead with clonal copies of the DNA molecule followed by immobilization for later sequencing. Emulsion PCR is used in the methods by Marguilis et al. (commercialized by [[454 Life Sciences]]), Shendure and Porreca et al. (also known as ""[[Polony|Polony sequencing]]"") and [[ABI Solid Sequencing|SOLiD sequencing]], (developed by [[Agencourt]], now [[Applied Biosystems]]).{{cite journal |author=Margulies M, Egholm M, Altman WE, ''et al'' |title=Genome sequencing in microfabricated high-density picolitre reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |year=2005 |month=September |pmid=16056220 |pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 }}{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1126/science.1117389 | title = Accurate Multiplex Polony Sequencing of an Evolved Bacterial Genome | year = 2005 | author = Shendure, J. | journal = Science
| volume = 309 | page = 1728
| pmid = 16081699
| last2 = Porreca
| first2 = GJ
| last3 = Reppas
| first3 = NB
| last4 = Lin
| first4 = X
| last5 = McCutcheon
| first5 = JP
| last6 = Rosenbaum
| first6 = AM
| last7 = Wang
| first7 = MD
| last8 = Zhang
| first8 = K
| last9 = Mitra
| first9 = RD
| issue = 5741 }}[http://solid.appliedbiosystems.com/ Applied Biosystems' SOLiD technology]
Another method for ''[[in vitro]]'' clonal amplification is ''[[bridge PCR]]'', where fragments are amplified upon primers attached to a solid surface, used in the [[Illumina (company)|Illumina]] Genome Analyzer. The single-molecule method developed by Stephen Quake's laboratory (later commercialized by [[Helicos Biosciences|Helicos]]) is an exception: it uses bright fluorophores and laser excitation to detect pyrosequencing events from individual DNA molecules fixed to a surface, eliminating the need for molecular amplification.{{cite journal |author=Braslavsky I, Hebert B, Kartalov E, Quake SR |title=Sequence information can be obtained from single DNA molecules |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=3960–4 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12651960 |pmc=153030 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0230489100 }}","[[Image:DNA Sequencing gDNA libraries.jpg|thumb|right|Genomic DNA is fragmented into random pieces and cloned as a bacterial library. DNA from individual bacterial clones is sequenced and the sequence is assembled by using overlapping DNA regions.(click to expand)]] Large-scale sequencing aims at sequencing very long DNA pieces, such as whole [[chromosome]]s. Common approaches consist of cutting (with [[restriction enzyme]]s) or shearing (with mechanical forces) large DNA fragments into shorter DNA fragments. The fragmented DNA is [[clone (genetics)|cloned]] into a [[Vector DNA|DNA vector]], and amplified in ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Short DNA fragments purified from individual bacterial colonies are individually sequenced and [[sequence assembly|assembled electronically]] into one long, contiguous sequence.
This method does not require any pre-existing information about the sequence of the DNA and is referred to as ''de novo'' sequencing. Gaps in the assembled sequence may be filled by [[primer walking]]. The different strategies have different tradeoffs in speed and accuracy; ''[[shotgun sequencing|shotgun methods]]'' are often used for sequencing large genomes, but its assembly is complex and difficult, particularly with [[Microsatellite (genetics)|sequence repeat]]s often causing gaps in genome assembly.
Most sequencing approaches use an ''in vitro'' cloning step to amplify individual DNA molecules, because their molecular detection methods are not sensitive enough for single molecule sequencing. [[Emulsion PCR]]{{cite journal |author=Richard Williams, Sergio G Peisajovich, Oliver J Miller, Shlomo Magdassi, Dan S Tawfik, Andrew D Griffiths |title=Amplification of complex gene libraries by emulsion PCR |journal=Nature methods |volume=3 |pages=545–550|year=2006 |issue=7 |doi=10.1038/nmeth896 |pmid=16791213}} isolates individual DNA molecules along with primer-coated beads in aqueous droplets within an oil phase. [[Polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) then coats each bead with clonal copies of the DNA molecule followed by immobilization for later sequencing. Emulsion PCR is used in the methods by Marguilis et al. (commercialized by [[454 Life Sciences]]), Shendure and Porreca et al. (also known as ""[[Polony|Polony sequencing]]"") and [[ABI Solid Sequencing|SOLiD sequencing]], (developed by [[Agencourt]], now [[Applied Biosystems]]).{{cite journal |author=Margulies M, Egholm M, Altman WE, ''et al'' |title=Genome sequencing in microfabricated high-density picolitre reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |year=2005 |month=September |pmid=16056220 |pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 }}{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1126/science.1117389 | title = Accurate Multiplex Polony Sequencing of an Evolved Bacterial Genome | year = 2005 | author = Shendure, J. | journal = Science
| volume = 309 | page = 1728
| pmid = 16081699
| last2 = Porreca
| first2 = GJ
| last3 = Reppas
| first3 = NB
| last4 = Lin
| first4 = X
| last5 = McCutcheon
| first5 = JP
| last6 = Rosenbaum
| first6 = AM
| last7 = Wang
| first7 = MD
| last8 = Zhang
| first8 = K
| last9 = Mitra
| first9 = RD
| issue = 5741 }}[http://solid.appliedbiosystems.com/ Applied Biosystems' SOLiD technology]
Another method for ''[[in vitro]]'' clonal amplification is ''[[bridge PCR]]'', where fragments are amplified upon primers attached to a solid surface, used in the [[Illumina (company)|Illumina]] Genome Analyzer. The single-molecule method developed by Stephen Quake's laboratory (later commercialized by [[Helicos Biosciences|Helicos]]) is an exception: it uses bright fluorophores and laser excitation to detect pyrosequencing events from individual DNA molecules fixed to a surface, eliminating the need for molecular amplification.{{cite journal |author=Braslavsky I, Hebert B, Kartalov E, Quake SR |title=Sequence information can be obtained from single DNA molecules |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=3960–4 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12651960 |pmc=153030 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0230489100 }}",[11]
Methadone,Analgesic,411790637,2011-02-03T15:15:28Z,Lupo11,"In recent years, methadone has gained popularity among physicians for the treatment of other medical problems, such as an [[analgesic]] in chronic pain. The increased usage comes as doctors search for an opioid drug that can be dosed less frequently than shorter-acting drugs like morphine or [[hydrocodone]]. Another factor in the increased usage is the low cost of methadone.
{{cite pmid|19570126}}{{cite pmid|19227708}}{{cite pmid|18628186}}{{cite pmid|18353696}}{{cite pmid|18171310}}{{cite pmid|16175249}}{{cite pmid|19468634}}{{cite pmid|15832538}}{{cite pmid|19475235}}{{cite pmid|12170567}}{{cite pmid|12126222}}{{cite pmid|11839235}}{{cite pmid|10584461}}{{cite pmid|10509323}}{{cite pmid|8636630}}{{cite pmid|8625339}}{{cite pmid|7541438}}
While the cost for pain patients varies based on many factors, leading to few specifics in the literature, one source{{cite web | url=http://pain-topics.org/pdf/OralMethadoneDosing.pdf |title=Oral Methadone Dosing For Pain | publisher = Pain Treatment Topics}} states:
Prices vary;
however, in some cases monthly costs to patients for oral methadone can be more
than 30-fold less than equianalgesic doses of other generic or brand-name opioid analgesics.
A week's supply will typically have a retail cost of $50–$70 in the United States, compared to hundreds of dollars for alternative opioids. Methadone, with its long half-life (and thus long duration of effect) and good oral [[bioavailability]], is a common second-choice drug for pain that does not respond to weaker agonists. A major drawback is that unlike OxyContin ([[oxycodone]] continuous release), methadone is not technologically engineered for sustained release of the drug so blood concentrations will fluctuate greatly between dosing. This problem is overcome to a great extent by the practice of dosing methadone two or three times a day in pain patients. Some physicians also choose methadone for treating chronic pain in patients who are thought to have a propensity for addiction, because it causes less of an intoxicated or euphoric ""high"". The effect is of morphine-equivalent origin.
On November 29, 2006, the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] issued a Public Health Advisory about methadone titled ""Methadone Use for Pain Control May Result in Death and
Life-Threatening Changes in Breathing and Heart Beat."" The advisory went on to say that ""the FDA has received reports of death and life-threatening side effects in patients taking methadone. These deaths and life-threatening side effects have occurred in patients newly starting methadone for pain control and in patients who have switched to methadone after being treated for pain with other strong narcotic pain relievers. Methadone can cause slow or shallow breathing and dangerous changes in heart beat that may not be felt by the patient."" The advisory urged that physicians use caution when prescribing methadone to patients who are not used to the drug, and that patients take the drug exactly as directed.{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2006/safety06.htm#Methadone | title = 2006 Safety Alerts for Drugs, Biologics, Medical Devices, and Dietary Supplements | work = MedWatch | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}
As with any strong medication that can be fatal in large doses, methadone must be taken properly and with due care. Otherwise, the accumulation of methadone could potentially reach a level of toxicity if the dose is too high or if the user's metabolism of the drug is slow. In such a situation, a patient who fared fine after the first few doses could reach high levels of the drug in his body without ever taking more than was prescribed. For this reason, it is reasonable to make sure that patients who do not have a tolerance to opiates be prescribed methadone in initially small doses, and that when sent home, patients and their families are made very aware of the symptoms characteristic of opiate overdose. Also, there is some evidence that methadone and other opioids may cause cardiac conduction problems (prolonged [[QTc]] interval{{cite journal |author=Maremmani I, Pacini M, Cesaroni C, Lovrecic M, Perugi G, Tagliamonte A |title=QTc interval prolongation in patients on long-term methadone maintenance therapy |journal=European addiction research |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=44–9 |year=2005 |pmid=15608471 |doi=10.1159/000081416}}) although there are few documented cases of fatalities resulting from this side effect with methadone.
In an effort to turn the tide on reported increases in methadone-related adverse events, the DEA announced in a recent advisory that manufacturers of methadone hydrochloride 40-mg tablets have agreed to restrict their distribution of that particular formulation of the drug.
As of 1. January 2008, manufacturers will ship the methadone hydrochloride 40-mg formulation only to hospitals and facilities that have been authorized for detoxification and maintenance treatment of patients with opioid addiction. In addition, manufacturers of the drug will instruct their wholesale distributors to stop supplying the formulation to any facility that doesn't meet the criteria.
The DEA advisory stresses that the 40-mg formulation of methadone hydrochloride is indicated only for the detoxification and maintenance treatment of opioid-addicted patients and is not FDA-approved for use in pain management.
Federal law does not restrict the prescribing, dispensing or administration of methadone for the treatment of pain, and the 5-mg and 10-mg methadone formulations will continue to be available as a tool that family physicians can use to treat patients for pain. Despite the FDA directive, many doctors continue to prescribe Methadone as a pain killer, but only to patients which have shown to be responsible in their use of previous pain killers. One reason for use of Methadone is its advantages for opioid rotation.
Patients with long-term pain will sometimes have to perform so-called ''opioid rotation''.{{cite web | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8R-3XY2J9W-11&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=54eb39149b9c23a294574034d3527cb2 | title = Opioid rotation for toxicity reduction in terminal cancer patients | work = Journal of Pain and Symptom Management | publisher = Volume 10, Issue 5, July 1995, Pages 378-384 }} By this is meant switching from one opioid to another, usually at intervals of between a few weeks and, more commonly, several months. Opioid rotation is good because switching to another opioid gives lower dose, and because of this less side effects, to achieve the desired effect. Then, with the new opioid, tolerance grows, higher doses are needed, and toxicity in relation to analgesic effects increase. So then it is time rotate again to another opioid. Such opioid rotation is standard practice for managing patients with tolerance development problems. Usually, when doing opioid rotation, one cannot go down to a completely naive dose, because there is cross-tolerance, so some of the high tolerance is brought over to the new opioid. However, Methadone has much lower cross-tolerance, when switching to it from other opioids, than other opioids.{{cite web | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3220887 | title = Individualized use of methadone and opioid rotation in the comprehensive management of cancer pain associated with poor prognostic indicators | work = This means that Methadone can start at a low dose, and the time for the next switch will be longer.
All opioids have tiredness as a major side effect, which can lead to the patient being in an almost half-awake state, in medical terms known as sedation. Many patients report that Methadone's sedation effect is often less pronounced than with other opioids and cite this as a major argument for preferring Methadone as an analgesic.{{cite web | url = http://www.schmerzkrank.de/images/opioid_rotation.pdf | title = Pitfalls of opioid rotation: substituting another opioid for methadone in patients with cancer pain | work = ","In recent years, methadone has gained popularity among physicians for the treatment of other medical problems, such as an [[analgesic]] in chronic pain. Due to its activity at the NMDA receptor it may be more effective against neuropathic pain; for the same reason tolerance to the analgesic effects maybe lesser compared to other opioids. The increased usage comes as doctors search for an opioid drug that can be dosed less frequently than shorter-acting drugs like morphine or [[hydrocodone]]. Another factor in the increased usage is the low cost of methadone.
{{cite pmid|19570126}}{{cite pmid|19227708}}{{cite pmid|18628186}}{{cite pmid|18353696}}{{cite pmid|18171310}}{{cite pmid|16175249}}{{cite pmid|19468634}}{{cite pmid|15832538}}{{cite pmid|19475235}}{{cite pmid|12170567}}{{cite pmid|12126222}}{{cite pmid|11839235}}{{cite pmid|10584461}}{{cite pmid|10509323}}{{cite pmid|8636630}}{{cite pmid|8625339}}{{cite pmid|7541438}}
While the cost for pain patients varies based on many factors, leading to few specifics in the literature, one source{{cite web | url=http://pain-topics.org/pdf/OralMethadoneDosing.pdf |title=Oral Methadone Dosing For Pain | publisher = Pain Treatment Topics}} states:
Prices vary;
however, in some cases monthly costs to patients for oral methadone can be more
than 30-fold less than equianalgesic doses of other generic or brand-name opioid analgesics.
A week's supply will typically have a retail cost of $50–$70 in the United States, compared to hundreds of dollars for alternative opioids. Methadone, with its long half-life (and thus long duration of effect) and good oral [[bioavailability]], is a common second-choice drug for pain that does not respond to weaker agonists. A major drawback is that unlike OxyContin ([[oxycodone]] continuous release), methadone is not technologically engineered for sustained release of the drug so blood concentrations will fluctuate greatly between dosing. This problem is overcome to a great extent by the practice of dosing methadone two or three times a day in pain patients. Some physicians also choose methadone for treating chronic pain in patients who are thought to have a propensity for addiction, because it causes less of an intoxicated or euphoric ""high"". The effect is of morphine-equivalent origin.
On November 29, 2006, the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] issued a Public Health Advisory about methadone titled ""Methadone Use for Pain Control May Result in Death and
Life-Threatening Changes in Breathing and Heart Beat."" The advisory went on to say that ""the FDA has received reports of death and life-threatening side effects in patients taking methadone. These deaths and life-threatening side effects have occurred in patients newly starting methadone for pain control and in patients who have switched to methadone after being treated for pain with other strong narcotic pain relievers. Methadone can cause slow or shallow breathing and dangerous changes in heart beat that may not be felt by the patient."" The advisory urged that physicians use caution when prescribing methadone to patients who are not used to the drug, and that patients take the drug exactly as directed.{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2006/safety06.htm#Methadone | title = 2006 Safety Alerts for Drugs, Biologics, Medical Devices, and Dietary Supplements | work = MedWatch | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}
As with any strong medication that can be fatal in large doses, methadone must be taken properly and with due care. Otherwise, the accumulation of methadone could potentially reach a level of toxicity if the dose is too high or if the user's metabolism of the drug is slow. In such a situation, a patient who fared fine after the first few doses could reach high levels of the drug in his body without ever taking more than was prescribed. For this reason, it is reasonable to make sure that patients who do not have a tolerance to opiates be prescribed methadone in initially small doses, and that when sent home, patients and their families are made very aware of the symptoms characteristic of opiate overdose. Also, there is some evidence that methadone and other opioids may cause cardiac conduction problems (prolonged [[QTc]] interval{{cite journal |author=Maremmani I, Pacini M, Cesaroni C, Lovrecic M, Perugi G, Tagliamonte A |title=QTc interval prolongation in patients on long-term methadone maintenance therapy |journal=European addiction research |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=44–9 |year=2005 |pmid=15608471 |doi=10.1159/000081416}}) although there are few documented cases of fatalities resulting from this side effect with methadone.
In an effort to turn the tide on reported increases in methadone-related adverse events, the DEA announced in a recent advisory that manufacturers of methadone hydrochloride 40-mg tablets have agreed to restrict their distribution of that particular formulation of the drug.
As of 1. January 2008, manufacturers will ship the methadone hydrochloride 40-mg formulation only to hospitals and facilities that have been authorized for detoxification and maintenance treatment of patients with opioid addiction. In addition, manufacturers of the drug will instruct their wholesale distributors to stop supplying the formulation to any facility that doesn't meet the criteria.
The DEA advisory stresses that the 40-mg formulation of methadone hydrochloride is indicated only for the detoxification and maintenance treatment of opioid-addicted patients and is not FDA-approved for use in pain management.
Federal law does not restrict the prescribing, dispensing or administration of methadone for the treatment of pain, and the 5-mg and 10-mg methadone formulations will continue to be available as a tool that family physicians can use to treat patients for pain. Despite the FDA directive, many doctors continue to prescribe Methadone as a pain killer, but only to patients which have shown to be responsible in their use of previous pain killers. One reason for use of Methadone is its advantages for opioid rotation.
Patients with long-term pain will sometimes have to perform so-called ''opioid rotation''.{{cite web | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8R-3XY2J9W-11&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=54eb39149b9c23a294574034d3527cb2 | title = Opioid rotation for toxicity reduction in terminal cancer patients | work = Journal of Pain and Symptom Management | publisher = Volume 10, Issue 5, July 1995, Pages 378-384 }} By this is meant switching from one opioid to another, usually at intervals of between a few weeks and, more commonly, several months. Opioid rotation is good because switching to another opioid gives lower dose, and because of this less side effects, to achieve the desired effect. Then, with the new opioid, tolerance grows, higher doses are needed, and toxicity in relation to analgesic effects increase. So then it is time rotate again to another opioid. Such opioid rotation is standard practice for managing patients with tolerance development problems. Usually, when doing opioid rotation, one cannot go down to a completely naive dose, because there is cross-tolerance, so some of the high tolerance is brought over to the new opioid. However, Methadone has much lower cross-tolerance, when switching to it from other opioids, than other opioids.{{cite web | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3220887 | title = Individualized use of methadone and opioid rotation in the comprehensive management of cancer pain associated with poor prognostic indicators | work = This means that Methadone can start at a low dose, and the time for the next switch will be longer.
All opioids have tiredness as a major side effect, which can lead to the patient being in an almost half-awake state, in medical terms known as sedation. Many patients report that Methadone's sedation effect is often less pronounced than with other opioids and cite this as a major argument for preferring Methadone as an analgesic.{{cite web | url = http://www.schmerzkrank.de/images/opioid_rotation.pdf | title = Pitfalls of opioid rotation: substituting another opioid for methadone in patients with cancer pain | work = ","[1, 4]"
Context-free grammar,Restrictions,411942270,2011-02-04T08:23:21Z,Eugenwpg,"There are a number of important subclasses of the context free grammars:
* [[Deterministic context-free grammar|Deterministic grammars]]
* [[LR parser|LR(''k'')]], [[SLR grammar|Simple LR]], and [[LALR parser|Look-Ahead LR]] grammars (based on LR, [[GLR parser|Generalized LR]] supports the full set of CFGs)
* [[LL parser|LL(''k'') and LL(''*'')]] grammars
These classes are important in [[parsing]]: they allow string recognition to proceed deterministically, e.g. without backtracking.
* [[Simple grammar]]s
This subclass of the LL(1) grammars is mostly interesting for its theoretical property that language equality of simple grammars is decidable, while language inclusion is not.
* [[Bracketed grammar]]s
These have the property that the terminal symbols are divided into left and right bracket pairs that always match up in rules.
* [[Linear grammar]]s
In linear grammars every right hand side of a rule has at most one nonterminal.
* [[Regular grammar]]s
This subclass of the linear grammars describes the [[regular language|regular]] languages, i.e. they correspond to [[finite automaton|finite automata]] and [[regular expression]]s.
* [[closer property]]
Context free language is closed under union, concatenation, kleen closer.","There are a number of important subclasses of the context free grammars:
* [[Deterministic context-free grammar|Deterministic grammars]]
* [[LR parser|LR(''k'')]], [[SLR grammar|Simple LR]], and [[LALR parser|Look-Ahead LR]] grammars (based on LR, [[GLR parser|Generalized LR]] supports the full set of CFGs)
* [[LL parser|LL(''k'') and LL(''*'')]] grammars
These classes are important in [[parsing]]: they allow string recognition to proceed deterministically, e.g. without backtracking.
* [[Simple grammar]]s
This subclass of the LL(1) grammars is mostly interesting for its theoretical property that language equality of simple grammars is decidable, while language inclusion is not.
* [[Bracketed grammar]]s
These have the property that the terminal symbols are divided into left and right bracket pairs that always match up in rules.
* [[Linear grammar]]s
In linear grammars every right hand side of a rule has at most one nonterminal.
* [[Regular grammar]]s
This subclass of the linear grammars describes the [[regular language|regular]] languages, i.e. they correspond to [[finite automaton|finite automata]] and [[regular expression]]s.
* [[closer property]]
Context free language is closed under union, concatenation, [[kleene star]].","[4, 9]"
Bubble sort,Performance,412149289,2011-02-05T13:39:56Z,Breawycker,"Bubble sort has worst-case and average complexity both ''О''(''n''2), where ''n'' is the number of items being sorted. There exist many sorting algorithms with substantially better worst-case or average complexity of ''O''(''n'' log ''n''). Even other ''О''(''n''2) sorting algorithms, such as [[insertion sort]], tend to have better performance than bubble sort. Therefore, bubble sort is not a practical sorting algorithm when ''n'' is large.
jhyfjhfjhfjhfjhfjhjkj
tfu
tfu
y
iyuouipi[oi[o[o[However, not only does [[insertion sort]] have this mechanism too, but it also performs better on a list that is substantially sorted (having a small number of [[inversion (discrete mathematics)|inversions]]).","Bubble sort has worst-case and average complexity both ''О''(''n''2), where ''n'' is the number of items being sorted. There exist many sorting algorithms with substantially better worst-case or average complexity of ''O''(''n'' log ''n''). Even other ''О''(''n''2) sorting algorithms, such as [[insertion sort]], tend to have better performance than bubble sort. Therefore, bubble sort is not a practical sorting algorithm when ''n'' is large.
The only significant advantage that bubble sort has over most other implementations, even [[quicksort]], but not [[insertion sort]], is that the ability to detect that the list is sorted is efficiently built into the algorithm. Performance of bubble sort over an already-sorted list (best-case) is ''O''(''n''). By contrast, most other algorithms, even those with better average-case complexity, perform their entire sorting process on the set and thus are more complex. However, not only does [[insertion sort]] have this mechanism too, but it also performs better on a list that is substantially sorted (having a small number of [[inversion (discrete mathematics)|inversions]]).","[1, 9, 10]"
Genetically modified food,Alfalfa,412458172,2011-02-07T02:07:28Z,Gandydancer,"On 21 June 2010, the [[US Supreme Court]] issued its first ruling in regard to a GM crop. This was a ruling in regard to [[Roundup Ready]] [[alfalfa]].[http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Monsanto_Company_v._Geertson_Seed_Farms Monsanto Company v. Geertson Seed Farms] at ScotusWiki - Briefs and Documents, etc. The case goes back to 2006, when [[Organic farming|organic farmers]], concerned about the impact of GM alfalfa on their crops, sued Monsanto. In response, the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California|California Northern District Court]] ruled that the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) was in error when it approved the planting of Roundup Ready alfalfa. According to the presiding judge, the law required the USDA to first conduct a full environmental study, which it had not done. It was the concern of the organic growers that the GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that forbid the growing of GM crops.
The impact of the current US Supreme Court ruling is somewhat unclear, with both sides appearing to claim victory.[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19073-hollow-victory-for-monsanto-in-alfalfa-court-case.html Hollow victory for Monsanto in alfalfa court case] New Scientist, 22 June 2010 (accessed 22 June 2010)[http://www.theatlantic.com/food/archive/2010/06/supreme-court-on-modified-foods-who-won/58526/ Supreme Court on Modified Foods: Who Won?], by Barry Estabrook, 'The Atlantic'. June 22, 2010 (accessed June 22, 2010) While Monsanto can claim technical victory in the case, various other issues still remain open, and will likely be litigated in the future. Meanwhile, the planting of GM alfalfa currently remains halted in the US, and it is unclear when it may resume.","On 21 June 2010, the [[US Supreme Court]] issued its first ruling in regard to a GM crop. This was a ruling in regard to [[Roundup Ready]] [[alfalfa]].[http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Monsanto_Company_v._Geertson_Seed_Farms Monsanto Company v. Geertson Seed Farms] at ScotusWiki - Briefs and Documents, etc. The case goes back to 2006, when [[Organic farming|organic farmers]], concerned about the impact of GM alfalfa on their crops, sued Monsanto. In response, the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California|California Northern District Court]] ruled that the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) was in error when it approved the planting of Roundup Ready alfalfa. According to the presiding judge, the law required the USDA to first conduct a full environmental study, which it had not done. It was the concern of the organic growers that the GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that forbid the growing of GM crops.
The impact of the current US Supreme Court ruling was somewhat unclear, with both sides appearing to claim victory.[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19073-hollow-victory-for-monsanto-in-alfalfa-court-case.html Hollow victory for Monsanto in alfalfa court case] New Scientist, 22 June 2010 (accessed 22 June 2010)[http://www.theatlantic.com/food/archive/2010/06/supreme-court-on-modified-foods-who-won/58526/ Supreme Court on Modified Foods: Who Won?], by Barry Estabrook, 'The Atlantic'. June 22, 2010 (accessed June 22, 2010) While Monsanto claimed technical victory in the case, various other issues remained open and the planting of GM alfalfa remained halted.
In January 2011, despite protests from organic groups and public health advocates, Agriculture Secretary [[Tom Vilsack]] announced that the USDA had approved the unrestricted planting of genetically modified alfalfa.http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/28/vilsack-usda-gmo-alfalfa-monsanto_n_815513.html Following the decision, organic farming groups, organic food outlets, and activists including [[Michael Pollock]] responded saying, ""The USDA's decision to allow unlimited, nationwide commercial planting of
Monsanto's GE Roundup Ready alfalfa without any restrictions flies in the face of the interests of conventional and organic farmers, preservation of the environment, and consumer choice. USDA has become a rogue agency in its regulation of [[biotech]] crops and its decision to appease the few companies who seek to benefit from this technology comes despite increasing evidence that GE alfalfa will threaten the rights of American farmers and consumers, as well as damage the environment"". The [[Center for Food Safety]] said they will be suing on the decision.http://www.huffingtonpost.com/maria-rodale/we-stand-united-in-opposi_b_816637.html","[1, 9]"
Bubble sort,(Top),412542958,2011-02-07T15:34:01Z,Glrx,"{{Infobox Algorithm
|class=[[Sorting algorithm]]
|image=[[File:Bubblesort-edited.png|Visualisation of bubblesort]]
|caption=A visual representation of how bubble sort works.
|data=[[Array data structure|Array]]
|best-time=
|average-time=
|time=
|space= auxiliary
|optimal=No
}}
'''Bubble sort''', also known as '''sinking sort''', is a simple [[sorting algorithm]] that works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing each pair of adjacent items and [[Swap (computer science)|swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. However, unless the code is written in such a manner (to exit the list when no more swaps are made) it will continue to sweep through the list making comparisons untill the required number of comparisons have been made. The algorithm gets its name from the way larger elements ""bubble"" to the top of the list. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. The equally simple [[insertion sort]] has better performance than bubble sort, so some have suggested no longer teaching the bubble sort.[[Donald Knuth]]. ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Second Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1998. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 106–110 of section 5.2.2: Sorting by Exchanging.","{{Infobox Algorithm
|class=[[Sorting algorithm]]
|image=[[File:Bubblesort-edited.png|Visualisation of bubblesort]]
|caption=A visual representation of how bubble sort works.
|data=[[Array data structure|Array]]
|best-time=
|average-time=
|time=
|space= auxiliary
|optimal=No
}}
'''Bubble sort''', also known as '''sinking sort''', is a simple [[sorting algorithm]] that works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing each pair of adjacent items and [[Swap (computer science)|swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top of the list. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. The equally simple [[insertion sort]] has better performance than bubble sort, so some have suggested no longer teaching the bubble sort.[[Donald Knuth]]. ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Second Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1998. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 106–110 of section 5.2.2: Sorting by Exchanging.",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,413664530,2011-02-13T10:40:22Z,Gorton k,"Historically, to differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from induced or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met:
# The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).
# The rhythms persist in the circadian range over a range of temperatures (temperature compensation).
# The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainment).
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those ""apparent"" rhythms that are merely responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person will usually experience [[jet lag]].
However, criterion 2 (that circadian rhythms persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures) is now understood to not be a factor. Thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes, and likewise, temperature changes applied to the circadian clock mechanisms of many organisms (including fungi and even the suprachiasmatic nuclei of mammals) has been shown to affect the frequency of the rhythm, as would be expected. In some instances, heat can provide a stronger zeitgeber than light.","To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called entrainment. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. As their circadian clock is resetting, a person will usually experience [[jet lag]].
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures (exhibit temperature compensation).''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and the thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 6]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,413684088,2011-02-13T13:45:53Z,Hordaland,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Jet lag]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,413684594,2011-02-13T13:50:22Z,Hordaland,"To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called entrainment. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. As their circadian clock is resetting, people will usually experience [[jet lag]].
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures (exhibit temperature compensation).''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and the thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. As their circadian clock is resetting, people will usually experience [[jet lag]].
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures (exhibit temperature compensation).''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and the thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.",[9]
Methadone,Cost,413766474,2011-02-13T22:14:41Z,108.66.46.249,"In the Netherlands, MMT is fully covered under basic health insurance. Since every person over the age of 18 is obliged to have health insurance, everyone is covered. For opioid dependent homeless people, treatment costs are covered by government subsidies.
In Germany, MMT is fully covered by all public and private insurance. The annual cost per patient is less than 3000 euros, while [[Heroin assisted treatment]] costs up to 10,000 euros per year.
Methadone clinics in the U.S. charge anywhere from $50–300 per week, which may be covered by private insurance or Medicaid. ""Cash-only"" clinics do not accept insurance, requiring patients to pay up front and then seek reimbursement from their insurance carrier.
MMT cost analyses often compare the cost of clinic visits versus the overall societal costs of illicit opioid use.{{cite web | url=http://www.drugpolicy.org/library/research/methadone.cfm |title=Methadone Maintenance Treatment | publisher=Drug Policy Alliance Lindesmith Library}}{{cite web| url=http://international.drugabuse.gov/collaboration/guide_methadone/partb_question15.html | title = Methadone Research Web Guide | publisher = NIDA }}","In the Netherlands, MMT is fully covered under basic health insurance. Since every person over the age of 18 is obliged to have health insurance, everyone is covered. For opioid dependent homeless people, treatment costs are covered by government subsidies.
In Germany, MMT is fully covered by all public and private insurance. The annual cost per patient is less than 3000 euros, while [[Heroin assisted treatment]] costs up to 10,000 euros per year.
Methadone clinics in the U.S. charge anywhere from $50–300 per week, which may be covered by private insurance, but is not covered by Medicaid. ""Cash-only"" clinics do not accept insurance, requiring patients to pay up front and then seek reimbursement from their insurance carrier. One argument that is commonly made is that methadone clinics, especially those who accept cash only, are ""legalized"" drug dealers. This argument is made because often drug addicts will barter or sell drugs to buy their own drugs on the street. Making this transition from ""street"" life to ""clean"" life requires a financial stablity of some sort. Some patients of methadone clinics will continue this lifestyle of selling drugs illegally in order to pay for the expense of their methadone treatment, which leads to the question of the effectiveness of this type of treatment. If the patient does choose to cease making money by way of illegal street activity, but can not afford the expense of methadone treatment, they will be either rapidly detoxed, which is a rapid cessation from methadone cutting their dose at 5mg or more per day, or dismissed entirely from the clinic. Hence it can be argued then that the methadone maintenance was merely prolonging the inevitable withdrawal, and that the only party to gain from methadone treatment was the treatment center itself.
MMT cost analyses often compare the cost of clinic visits versus the overall societal costs of illicit opioid use.{{cite web | url=http://www.drugpolicy.org/library/research/methadone.cfm |title=Methadone Maintenance Treatment | publisher=Drug Policy Alliance Lindesmith Library}}{{cite web| url=http://international.drugabuse.gov/collaboration/guide_methadone/partb_question15.html | title = Methadone Research Web Guide | publisher = NIDA }}","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,414930934,2011-02-20T10:30:04Z,Gorton k,"To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. As their circadian clock is resetting, people will usually experience [[jet lag]].
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures (exhibit temperature compensation).''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and the thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures (exhibit temperature compensation).''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and the thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","[3, 4]"
Stem cell,Fetal,417996478,2011-03-09T18:30:13Z,90.196.235.54,"Fetal stem cells are primitive cell types found in the organs of fetuses.
{{cite book
|author=editors, Ariff Bongso & Eng Hin Lee ; forewords by Sydney Brenner & Philip Yeo.
|title=Stem Cells: From Benchtop to Bedside
|publisher=World Scientific
|location=
|year=2005
|pages=
|isbn=981-256-126-9
|oclc=
}}","Fetal stem cells are primitive cell types.
|author=editors, Ariff Bongso & Eng Hin Lee ; forewords by Sydney Brenner & Philip Yeo.
|title=Stem Cells: From Benchtop to Bedside
|publisher=World Scientific
|location=
|year=2005
|pages=
|isbn=981-256-126-9
|oclc=
}}",[2]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),418045869,2011-03-10T00:16:30Z,XLinkBot,"{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].
The Circadian Rhythm the band was formed in Westminster, Massachusetts in 2005. Members include Gerry Garcia the 3rd on guitar and backing vocals, James Brouillet on bass and backing vocals, Alex Valley on drums and Rico Amerizzo as lead vocals. Their music is defined but not limited to punk rock, classic rock and metal. Driven by thrash riffs, The Circadian Rhythm's unique and sometimes abrasive sound rises above the standard metalcore, grindcore and nu metal and creates an array of intense and emotionally memorable riffs that stay with the listener.","{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,418045869,2011-03-10T00:16:30Z,XLinkBot,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
* [http://www.reverbnation.com/tcrmass]
* [http://www.myspace.com/tcrmass]
* [http://www.facebook.com/#!/pages/The-Circadian-Rhythm/185903194762602]
* [http://www.purevolume.com/tcrmusic]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,418046621,2011-03-10T00:22:08Z,TCRfans,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
* [http://www.reverbnation.com/tcrmass] The Circadian Rhythm band
* [http://www.myspace.com/tcrmass] The Circadian Rhythm band
* [http://www.facebook.com/#!/pages/The-Circadian-Rhythm/185903194762602] The Circadian Rhythm band
* [http://www.purevolume.com/tcrmusic] The Circadian Rhythm band
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),418051262,2011-03-10T00:58:40Z,24.63.12.69,"{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].
The Circadian Rhythm the band was formed in Westminster, Massachusetts in 2005. Members include Gerry Garcia the 3rd on guitar and backing vocals, James Brouillet on bass and backing vocals, Alex Valley on drums and Rico Amerizzo as lead vocals. Their music is defined but not limited to punk rock, classic rock and metal. Driven by thrash riffs, The Circadian Rhythm's unique and sometimes abrasive sound rises above the standard metalcore, grindcore and nu metal and creates an array of intense and emotionally memorable riffs that stay with the listener.","{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Instruction cycle,3. Read the effective address,420018714,2011-03-21T19:33:31Z,Roni levin,,"In case of a memory instruction (direct or indirect) the execution phase will be in the next clock phase.
If the instruction has an [[indirect address]], the effective address is read from main memory, and any required data is fetched from main memory to be processed and then placed into data registers(Clock Phase: T3). If the instruction is direct, nothing is done at these clock phase.
If this is an I/O instruction or a Register instruction, the operation is preformed (executed) at clock phase: T3.
Clock Phase: T3","[1, 4, 9]"
Meditation,Buddhism,420806787,2011-03-26T13:22:57Z,Januarythe18th,"{{Main|Buddhist meditation}}
[[File:Buddha.jpg|thumb|left|Dynamic tranquility: the Buddha in [[contemplation]].]]
[[Buddhist meditation]] refers to the meditative practices associated with the religion and philosophy of Buddhism.
Core meditation techniques have been preserved in ancient [[Buddhist texts]] and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]s pursue meditation as part of the path toward [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and [[Nirvana]].For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation ""includes any method of meditation that has [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] as its ''ultimate'' aim."" Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: ""To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, [[Nirvana|Nibbana]]...."" A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber ''et al.'' (1991), p. 142: ""'''Meditation''' – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'"" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are ""of a more preparatory nature"" (p. 4). The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''[[Bhavana|bhāvanā]]''The [[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] word ''bhāvanā'' literally means ""development"" as in ""mental development."" For the association of this term with ""meditation,"" see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber ''et al.'' (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the [[Pali Canon]], in ""The Greater Exhortation to Rahula"" (''Maha-Rahulovada Sutta'', [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 62), Ven. [[Sariputta]] tells Ven. [[Rahula]] (in Pali, based on [http://www.tipitaka.org/romn/cscd/s0202m.mul1.xml VRI, n.d.)]: ''{{IAST|ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi.}}'' [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html Thanissaro (2006)] translates this as: ""Rahula, develop the meditation [''{{IAST|bhāvana}}''] of [[anapanasati|mindfulness of in-&-out breathing]]."" (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.) and ''jhāna''/''[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]''.See, for example, [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2005.pali Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for ""jhāna1""]; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html Thanissaro (1997)]; as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word ""zen"" from [[Sanskrit]] ""dhyāna."" [[Pali Text Society|PTS]] Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of [[sramana|wandering ascetics]] contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
:""...[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:] ''dhyāna'' / [Pali:] ''jhāna'') or 'concentrations' (''[[samādhi]]''); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world."" (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.) Buddhist meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of reasons.
While there are some similar meditative practices — such as [[Anapanasati|breath meditation]] and various recollections (''[[anussati]]'') — that are used across [[schools of Buddhism|Buddhist schools]], there is also significant diversity. In the [[Theravāda]] tradition alone, there are over fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty for developing concentration, while in the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] tradition there are thousands of visualization meditations.Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the [[Satipatthana Sutta]], ""there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called ''vipassana''..., and in one form or another — and by whatever name — are found in all the major Buddhist traditions"" (p. 92). The forty concentrative meditation subjects refer to [[Visuddhimagga]]'s oft-referenced enumeration. Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: ""The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s"" (p. 227). Most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school specific.Examples of contemporary school-specific ""classics"" include, from the Theravada tradition, Nyanaponika (1996) and, from the Zen tradition, Kapleau (1989).
The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:
* ""serenity"" or ""tranquillity"" (Pali: ''samatha'') which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
* ""insight"" (Pali: ''vipassana'') which enables one to see, explore and discern ""formations"" (conditioned phenomena based on the five [[Skandha|aggregates]]).These definitions of ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' are based on the ""Four Kinds of Persons Sutta"" ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 ''n''. 13. See also [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html Thanissaro (1998d)].
Through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring [[Five Hindrances|hindrances]]; and, with the suppression of the hindrances, it is through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberating [[Prajna|wisdom]].See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html Thanissaro (1998e)].","{{Main|Buddhist meditation}}
[[File:Buddha.jpg|thumb|left|Dynamic tranquility: the Buddha in [[contemplation]].]]
[[Buddhist meditation]] refers to the meditative practices associated with the religion and philosophy of Buddhism.
Core meditation techniques have been preserved in ancient [[Buddhist texts]] and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]s pursue meditation as part of the path toward [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and [[Nirvana]].For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation ""includes any method of meditation that has [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] as its ''ultimate'' aim."" Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: ""To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, [[Nirvana|Nibbana]]...."" A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber ''et al.'' (1991), p. 142: ""'''Meditation''' – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'"" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are ""of a more preparatory nature"" (p. 4). The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''[[Bhavana|bhāvanā]]''The [[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] word ''bhāvanā'' literally means ""development"" as in ""mental development."" For the association of this term with ""meditation,"" see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber ''et al.'' (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the [[Pali Canon]], in ""The Greater Exhortation to Rahula"" (''Maha-Rahulovada Sutta'', [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 62), Ven. [[Sariputta]] tells Ven. [[Rahula]] (in Pali, based on [http://www.tipitaka.org/romn/cscd/s0202m.mul1.xml VRI, n.d.)]: ''{{IAST|ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi.}}'' [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html Thanissaro (2006)] translates this as: ""Rahula, develop the meditation [''{{IAST|bhāvana}}''] of [[anapanasati|mindfulness of in-&-out breathing]]."" (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.) and ''jhāna''/''[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]''.See, for example, [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2005.pali Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for ""jhāna1""]; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html Thanissaro (1997)]; as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word ""zen"" from [[Sanskrit]] ""dhyāna."" [[Pali Text Society|PTS]] Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of [[sramana|wandering ascetics]] contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
:""...[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:] ''dhyāna'' / [Pali:] ''jhāna'') or 'concentrations' (''[[samādhi]]''); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world."" (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.) Buddhist meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of reasons.
While there are some similar meditative practices — such as [[Anapanasati|breath meditation]] and various recollections (''[[anussati]]'') — that are used across [[schools of Buddhism|Buddhist schools]], there is also significant diversity. In the [[Theravāda]] tradition alone, there are over fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty for developing concentration, while in the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] tradition there are thousands of visualization meditations.Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the [[Satipatthana Sutta]], ""there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called ''vipassana''..., and in one form or another — and by whatever name — are found in all the major Buddhist traditions"" (p. 92). The forty concentrative meditation subjects refer to [[Visuddhimagga]]'s oft-referenced enumeration. Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: ""The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s"" (p. 227). Most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school specific.Examples of contemporary school-specific ""classics"" include, from the Theravada tradition, Nyanaponika (1996) and, from the Zen tradition, Kapleau (1989).
[[File:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]].]]The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:
* ""serenity"" or ""tranquillity"" (Pali: ''samatha'') which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
* ""insight"" (Pali: ''vipassana'') which enables one to see, explore and discern ""formations"" (conditioned phenomena based on the five [[Skandha|aggregates]]).These definitions of ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' are based on the ""Four Kinds of Persons Sutta"" ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 ''n''. 13. See also [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html Thanissaro (1998d)].
For example, in ''Concentration meditation'' the meditator holds attention on a particular object while consistently bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object. For example, in [[anapanasati]], one pays attention to the movement of one's breath.
In ''Mindfulness meditation'', the meditator sits comfortably and silently, centering attention by focusing awareness on an object or process. The meditator is usually encouraged to maintain an open focus or monitoring. An example of a more detailed description of the process of mindfulness meditation:
In mindfulness meditation, the subject sits comfortably, in silence, centering attention by focusing mental awareness an object or process (either the breathing process, a sound, a mantra koan or riddle evoking questions, a visualisation, or an exercise) and then consciously is encouraged to scan their thoughts in an open focus, shifting freely from one perception to the next (Kutz ''et al''., 1985a, b). No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor' (Teasdale ''et al''., 1995) brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.{{rp|49}}
Through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring [[Five Hindrances|hindrances]]; and, with the suppression of the hindrances, it is through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberating [[Prajna|wisdom]].See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html Thanissaro (1998e)].
[[Herbert Benson]] of [[Harvard Medical School]] conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including [[Transcendental Meditation]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. In 1975, Benson published a book titled ''The Relaxation Response'' where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.{{cite book |title=The Relaxation Response |publisher=Amazon.com |url=http://www.amazon.com/Relaxation-Response-M-D-Herbert-Benson/dp/0380815958/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1280405037&sr=8-1 |author=Herbert Benson, Miriam Z. Klipper |accessdate=28 November 2010 |isbn=0517091321}}","[1, 9, 5]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),421059308,2011-03-27T23:22:30Z,138.202.133.195,"{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the 5th Projekt album|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. <3 Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Hypnosis,Modern researchers,427051612,2011-05-02T11:57:37Z,198.140.178.250,"{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Theodore X. Barber]]
* [[Deirdre Barrett]]
* [[Stephen Brooks (hypnotherapist)|Stephen Brooks]]
* [[Etzel Cardeña]]
* [[Dave Elman]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Milton Erickson]]
* [[Hans Eysenck]]
* [[Jack Stanley Gibson]]
* [[Ernest R. Hilgard]]
* [[Clark L. Hull]]
* [[Irving Kirsch]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Ainslie Meares]]
* [[Martin Orne]]
* [[Theodore Sarbin]]
* [[Nicholas Spanos]]
* [[Andre Weitzenhoffer]]
{{col-end}}","{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Theodore X. Barber]]
* [[Deirdre Barrett]]
* [[Stephen Brooks (hypnotherapist)|Stephen Brooks]]
* [[Etzel Cardeña]]
* [[Dave Elman]]
* [[George Estabrooks]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Milton Erickson]]
* [[Hans Eysenck]]
* [[Jack Stanley Gibson]]
* [[Ernest R. Hilgard]]
* [[Clark L. Hull]]
* [[Irving Kirsch]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Ainslie Meares]]
* [[Martin Orne]]
* [[Theodore Sarbin]]
* [[Nicholas Spanos]]
* [[Andre Weitzenhoffer]]
* [[Dr.Nagesh V ]]
{{col-end}}","[5, 9]"
Human cloning,Ethical implications,427079223,2011-05-02T15:23:21Z,Hmrox,"{{See also|Ethics of cloning}}
Advocates of human [[Somatic cell nuclear transfer|therapeutic cloning]] believe the practice could provide genetically identical cells for [[regenerative medicine]], and tissues and organs for transplantation. Such cells, tissues and organs would neither trigger an immune response nor require the use of [[Immunosuppressive drug]]s{{cite journal |author=Lanza RP, Chung HY, Yoo JJ, ''et al.'' |title=Generation of histocompatible tissues using nuclear transplantation |journal=Nat. Biotechnol. |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=689–96 |year=2002 |month=July |pmid=12089553 |doi=10.1038/nbt703","{{See also|Ethics of cloning}}
Advocates of human [[Somatic cell nuclear transfer|therapeutic cloning]] believe the practice could provide genetically identical cells for [[regenerative medicine]], and tissues and organs for transplantation. Such cells, tissues and organs would neither trigger an immune response nor require the use of [[Immunosuppressive drug]]s{{cite journal |author=Lanza RP, Chung HY, Yoo JJ, ''et al.'' |title=Generation of histocompatible tissues using nuclear transplantation |journal=Nat. Biotechnol. |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=689–96 |year=2002 |month=July |pmid=12089553 |doi=10.1038/nbt703}} Both basic research and therapeutic development for serious diseases such as [[cancer]], [[heart disease]] and [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], as well as improvements in burn treatment and reconstructive and [[Plastic surgery|cosmetic surgery]], are areas that might benefit from such new technology.[http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml#organsQ Cloning Fact Sheet] New York University bioethicist Jacob M. Appel has argued that ""children cloned for therapeutic purposes"" such as ""to donate bone marrow to a sibling with leukemia"" might someday be viewed as heroes.Appel, JM. New York Times Magazine, December 11, 2005.
Proponents claim that human [[Cloning#Reproductive cloning|reproductive cloning]] also would produce benefits. [[Severino Antinori]] and [[Panayiotis Zavos]] hope to create a fertility treatment that allows parents who are both infertile to have children with at least some of their DNA in their offspring.Scientists Prepare To Clone a Human; Experiment Aims to Help Infertile. ''Washington Post'', March 10, 2001
Some scientists, including Dr. Richard Seed, suggest that human cloning might obviate the human aging process.
Cloning touted as infertility solution, Washington Times, December 11, 1997 Dr. [[Preston Estep]] has suggested the terms ""replacement cloning"" to describe the generation of a clone of a previously living person, and ""persistence cloning"" to describe the production of a cloned body for the purpose of obviating aging, although he maintains that such procedures currently should be considered science fiction {{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} and current cloning techniques risk producing a prematurely aged child.{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3393-dolly-the-sheep-dies-young.html|title=Dolly the sheep dies young|author=Will Knight}}
In [[Aubrey de Grey]]'s proposed [[Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence|SENS]] (Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence), one of the considered options to repair the cell depletion related to cellular [[senescence]] is to grow replacement tissues from stem cells harvested from a cloned embryo.
Human cloning also raises implications of a socio-ethical nature, particularly concerning the role that cloning might play in changing the shape of [[family]] structure by complicating the role of parenting within a family of convoluted kinship relations. For example, a female DNA donor would be the clone's genetic twin, rather than mother, complicating the genetic and social relationships between mother and child as well as the relationships between other family members and the clone.McGee, Glenn (2000). 'The Perfect Baby: Parenthood in the New World of Cloning and Genetics.' Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
Medical cannabis,Spasticity in multiple sclerosis,427613970,2011-05-05T17:43:12Z,Bigo2013,"A review of six [[randomized controlled trials]] of a combination of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] and [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] extracts for the treatment of MS related muscle spasticity reported, ""Although there was variation in the outcome measures reported in these studies, a trend of reduced spasticity in treated patients was noted."" The authors postulated that ""cannabinoids may provide neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory benefits in MS.""{{cite journal | author = Lakhan SE, Rowland M | year = 2009 | title = Whole plant cannabis extracts in the treatment of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review | url = | journal = BMC Neurology | volume = 9 | issue = | page = 59 | pmid = 19961570 | pmc = 2793241 | doi=10.1186/1471-2377-9-59}}","A review of six [[randomized controlled trials]] of a combination of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] and [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] extracts for the treatment of MS related muscle spasticity reported, ""Although there was variation in the outcome measures reported in these studies, a trend of reduced spasticity in treated patients was noted."" The authors postulated that ""cannabinoids may provide neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory benefits in MS.""{{cite journal | author = Lakhan SE, Rowland M | year = 2009 | title = Whole plant cannabis extracts in the treatment of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review | url = | journal = BMC Neurology | volume = 9 | issue = | page = 59 | pmid = 19961570 | pmc = 2793241 | doi=10.1186/1471-2377-9-59}} A small study done on whether or not marijuana could be used to control tremors of MS patients was conducted. The study found that there was no noticeable difference of the tremors in the patients. Although there was no difference in the tremors the patients felt as if there symptoms had lessened and their quality of life had improved. The researchers concluded that the mood enhancing or cognitive effects that cannabis has on the brain could have given the patients the effect that their tremors where getting better.{{cite journal|last=De-Vries|first=Kay|coauthors=Anita J Green|title=Cannabis use in palliative care – an examination of the evidence and the implications for nurses|journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing|date=17|year=2010|month=February|issue=19|pages=2454-2462}}","[1, 7]"
Port (computer networking),Technical details,427849529,2011-05-07T02:59:45Z,124.124.198.51,"Transport Layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP, specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. A process associates its input or output channel file descriptors (sockets) with a port number and an [[IP address]], a process known as ''binding'', to send and receive data via the network. The [[operating system]]'s networking software has the task of transmitting outgoing data from all application ports onto the network, and forwarding arriving network packets to a process by matching the packets IP address
Applications implementing common services often use specifically reserved, [[Well-known port|well-known port numbers]] for receiving service requests from client hosts. This process is known as ''listening'' and involves the receipt of a request on the well-known port and reestablishing one-to-one server-client communications on another ''private'' port, so that other clients may also contact the well-known service port. The well-known ports are defined by convention overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA).
The core network services, such as the World-Wide Web, typically use small port numbers, less than 1024. In many [[Unix-like]] operating systems [[superuser]] privileges are required for creation of these ports, since these are often deemed critical to the operation of IP networks. Conversely, the client end of a connection typically uses a high port number allocated for short term use, therefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
Port numbers are encoded in the transport protocol packet header, and they can be readily interpreted not only by the sending and receiving computers, but also by other components of the networking infrastructure. In particular, [[firewall (networking)|firewall]]s are commonly configured to differentiate between packets depending on their source or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is an example application of this.
Processes create associations with transport protocol ports by means of [[Internet socket|socket]]s. A socket is the software structure used as the transport end-point. It is created by the operating system for the process and bound to a socket address which consists of a combination of a port number and an IP address. Sockets may be set to send or receive data in one direction at a time (''half duplex'') or simultaneously in both directions (''full duplex'').
Because different services commonly listen on different port numbers, the practice of attempting to connect to a range of ports in sequence on a single computer is commonly known as [[port scanning]]. This is usually associated either with malicious [[security cracking|cracking]] attempts or with network administrators looking for possible vulnerabilities to help prevent such attacks.
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.","Transport Layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP, specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. A process associates its input or output channel file descriptors (sockets) with a port number and an [[IP address]], a process known as ''binding'', to send and receive data via the network. The [[operating system]]'s networking software has the task of transmitting outgoing data from all application ports onto the network, and forwarding arriving network packets to a process by matching the packets IP address
Applications implementing common services often use specifically reserved, [[Well-known port|well-known port numbers]] for receiving service requests from client hosts. This process is known as ''listening'' and involves the receipt of a request on the well-known port and reestablishing one-to-one server-client communications on another ''private'' port, so that other clients may also contact the well-known service port. The well-known ports are defined by convention overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA).
The core network services, such as the World-Wide Web, typically use small port numbers, less than 1024. In many [[Unix-like]] operating systems [[superuser]] privileges are required for creation of these ports, since these are often deemed critical to the operation of IP networks. Conversely, the client end of a connection typically uses a high port number allocated for short term use, therefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
Port numbers are encoded in the transport protocol packet header, and they can be readily interpreted not only by the sending and receiving computers, but also by other components of the networking infrastructure. In particular, [[firewall (networking)|firewall]]s are commonly configured to differentiate between packets depending on their source or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is an example application of this.
Processes create associations with transport protocol ports by means of [[Internet socket|socket]]s. A socket is the software structure used as the transport end-point. It is created by the operating system for the process and bound to a socket address which consists of a combination of a port number and an IP address. Sockets may be set to send or receive data in one direction at a time (''half duplex'') or simultaneously in both directions (''full duplex'').
Because different services commonly listen on different port numbers, the practice of attempting to connect to a range of ports in sequence on a single computer is commonly known as [[port scanning]]. This is usually associated either with malicious [[security cracking|cracking]] attempts or with network administrators looking for possible vulnerabilities to help prevent such attacks.
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.
sFkjsdgfa",[11]
Stem cell,Properties,428523753,2011-05-11T03:21:44Z,Narayanese,"The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possess two properties:
* ''Self-renewal'' - the ability to go through numerous [[cell cycle|cycles]] of [[cell division]] while maintaining the undifferentiated state.
* ''Potency'' - the capacity to [[Cellular differentiation|differentiate]] into specialized cell types. In the strictest sense, this requires stem cells to be either [[totipotency|totipotent]] or [[pluripotency|pluripotent]] - to be able to give rise to any mature cell type, although [[multipotent]] or [[unipotent cell|unipotent]] [[progenitor cell]]s are sometimes referred to as stem cells.{{cite journal |journal=J Dent Res |date=2009 Sep |volume=88 |issue=9 |pages=792-806 |title=Mesenchymal stem cells derived from dental tissues vs. those from other sources: their biology and role in regenerative medicine |author=Huang GT, Gronthos S, Shi S |pmid=19767575 |pmc=2830488 }}","The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possess two properties:
* ''Self-renewal'' - the ability to go through numerous [[cell cycle|cycles]] of [[cell division]] while maintaining the undifferentiated state.
* ''Potency'' - the capacity to [[Cellular differentiation|differentiate]] into specialized cell types. In the strictest sense, this requires stem cells to be either [[totipotency|totipotent]] or [[pluripotency|pluripotent]] - to be able to give rise to any mature cell type, although [[multipotent]] or [[unipotent cell|unipotent]] [[progenitor cell]]s are sometimes referred to as stem cells.",[8]
Circadian rhythm,History,428541684,2011-05-11T06:46:47Z,ClueBot NG,"(_(_)IIIIIID--------------,`(>_0)","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Down syndrome,Other complications,428897396,2011-05-13T09:29:51Z,Josabeth,"In the past, prior to current treatment, there was a 38–78% incidence of hearing loss in children with Down syndrome. Fortunately, with aggressive, meticulous and compulsive diagnosis and treatment of chronic ear disease (e.g. [[otitis media]], also known as Glue-ear) in children with Down syndrome, approximately 98% of the children have normal hearing levels.{{cite journal |author=Shott, SR; Joseph, A; Heithaus, D |title=Hearing loss in children with Down syndrome |journal=Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=199–205 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11700189 |doi= 10.1016/S0165-5876(01)00572-9|url=}}
Instability of the [[atlanto-axial joint]] occurs in approximately 15% of people with DS, probably due to [[ligamental laxity]]. It may lead to the neurologic symptoms of [[spinal cord compression]].{{cite journal | last1 = Pueschel | first1 = SM | last2 = Scola | first2 = FH | title = Atlantoaxial instability in individuals with Down syndrome: epidemiologic, radiographic, and clinical studies. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 555–60 | year = 1987 | pmid = 2958770 }} Periodic screening, with cervical x-rays, is recommended to identify this condition.
Other serious illnesses include [[immune deficiency|immune deficiencies]].","Instability of the [[atlanto-axial joint]] occurs in approximately 15% of people with DS, probably due to [[ligamental laxity]]. It may lead to the neurologic symptoms of [[spinal cord compression]].{{cite journal | last1 = Pueschel | first1 = SM | last2 = Scola | first2 = FH | title = Atlantoaxial instability in individuals with Down syndrome: epidemiologic, radiographic, and clinical studies. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 555–60 | year = 1987 | pmid = 2958770 }} Periodic screening, with cervical x-rays, is recommended to identify this condition.
Other serious illnesses include [[immune deficiency|immune deficiencies]].","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,430110785,2011-05-20T22:38:15Z,99.20.85.109,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[fi:Sisäinen kello]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* [http://www.waketimes.com/] Sleep Cycle Calculator]
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[fi:Sisäinen kello]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,432722474,2011-06-05T18:57:55Z,Dreslough,"Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}
The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title=28 Hour Day |accessdate=2008-02-19 |author=Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997}} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{Cite book |last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |date=January 1994 |pmid=8190360 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |date=May 1995 |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day{{Cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights.{{Cite journal |last= Duffy |first=Jeanne F. |coauthors=Kenneth P. Wright, Jr. |date=August 2005 |title=Entrainment of the Human Circadian System by Light (Review) |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=326–338 |publisher=Sage |doi=10.1177/0748730405277983 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/326.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-02}} The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well-known. Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages about 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods.","The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title=28 Hour Day |accessdate=2008-02-19 |author=Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997}} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{Cite book |last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |date=January 1994 |pmid=8190360 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |date=May 1995 |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day{{Cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Biological Clock in Humans,432723307,2011-06-05T19:03:40Z,Dreslough,,"Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.{{Cite journal |last= Duffy |first=Jeanne F. |coauthors=Kenneth P. Wright, Jr. |date=August 2005 |title=Entrainment of the Human Circadian System by Light (Review) |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=326–338 |publisher=Sage |doi=10.1177/0748730405277983 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/326.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-02}} The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well-known.
More recent research has shown that: adults have a built-in day, which averages about 24 hours; indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms; and most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods. A study by Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,432762916,2011-06-05T23:38:22Z,Looie496,"The ''28-hour day'' is presented as a concept of [[time management]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.dbeat.com/28/benefit2.htm |title=28 Hour Day |accessdate=2008-02-19 |author=Digital Beat Productions |year= 1997}} It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a ""week"" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each ""day"" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{Cite book |last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |date=January 1994 |pmid=8190360 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |date=May 1995 |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day{{Cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}","Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{Cite book |last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |date=January 1994 |pmid=8190360 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |date=May 1995 |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day{{Cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}",[2]
K-d tree,Informal description,432971629,2011-06-07T04:01:24Z,Dicklyon,"The kd-tree is a [[binary tree]] in which every node is a k-dimensional point. Every non-leaf node can be thought of as implicitly generating a splitting [[hyperplane]] that divides the space into two parts, known as subspaces. Points to the left of this hyperplane represent the left sub-tree of that node and points right of the hyperplane are represented by the right sub-tree. The hyperplane direction is chosen in the following way: every node in the tree is associated with one of the k-dimensions, with the hyperplane perpendicular to that dimension's axis. So, for example, if for a particular split the ""x"" axis is chosen, all points in the subtree with a smaller ""x"" value than the node will appear in the left subtree and all points with larger ""x"" value will be in the right sub tree. In such a case, the hyperplane would be set by the x-value of the point, and its [[Surface normal|normal]] would be the unit x-axis.","The ''k''-d tree is a [[binary tree]] in which every node is a k-dimensional point. Every non-leaf node can be thought of as implicitly generating a splitting [[hyperplane]] that divides the space into two parts, known as subspaces. Points to the left of this hyperplane represent the left sub-tree of that node and points right of the hyperplane are represented by the right sub-tree. The hyperplane direction is chosen in the following way: every node in the tree is associated with one of the k-dimensions, with the hyperplane perpendicular to that dimension's axis. So, for example, if for a particular split the ""x"" axis is chosen, all points in the subtree with a smaller ""x"" value than the node will appear in the left subtree and all points with larger ""x"" value will be in the right sub tree. In such a case, the hyperplane would be set by the x-value of the point, and its [[Surface normal|normal]] would be the unit x-axis.",[11]
K-d tree,Nearest neighbour search,432974138,2011-06-07T04:24:53Z,Dicklyon,"
[[Image:KDTree-animation.gif|thumb|300px|Animation of NN searching with a ''k''-d tree in two dimensions]]
The [[nearest neighbour search]] (NN) algorithm aims to find the point in the tree that is nearest to a given input point. This search can be done efficiently by using the tree properties to quickly eliminate large portions of the search space.
Searching for a nearest neighbour in a ''k''-d tree proceeds as follows:
# Starting with the root node, the algorithm moves down the tree recursively, in the same way that it would if the search point were being inserted (i.e. it goes left or right depending on whether the point is less than or greater than the current node in the split dimension).
# Once the algorithm reaches a leaf node, it saves that node point as the ""current best""
# The algorithm unwinds the recursion of the tree, performing the following steps at each node:
## If the current node is closer than the current best, then it becomes the current best.
## The algorithm checks whether there could be any points on the other side of the splitting plane that are closer to the search point than the current best. In concept, this is done by intersecting the splitting [[hyperplane]] with a [[hypersphere]] around the search point that has a radius equal to the current nearest distance. Since the hyperplanes are all axis-aligned this is implemented as a simple comparison to see whether the difference between the splitting coordinate of the search point and current node is less than the distance (overall coordinates) from the search point to the current best.
### If the hypersphere crosses the plane, there could be nearer points on the other side of the plane, so the algorithm must move down the other branch of the tree from the current node looking for closer points, following the same recursive process as the entire search.
### If the hypersphere doesn't intersect the splitting plane, then the algorithm continues walking up the tree, and the entire branch on the other side of that node is eliminated.
# When the algorithm finishes this process for the root node, then the search is complete.
Generally the algorithm uses squared distances for comparison to avoid computing square roots. Additionally, it can save computation by holding the squared current best distance in a variable for comparison.","
[[Image:KDTree-animation.gif|thumb|300px|Animation of NN searching with a ''k''-d tree in two dimensions]]
The [[nearest neighbour search]] (NN) algorithm aims to find the point in the tree that is nearest to a given input point. This search can be done efficiently by using the tree properties to quickly eliminate large portions of the search space.
Searching for a nearest neighbour in a ''k''-d tree proceeds as follows:
# Starting with the root node, the algorithm moves down the tree recursively, in the same way that it would if the search point were being inserted (i.e. it goes left or right depending on whether the point is less than or greater than the current node in the split dimension).
# Once the algorithm reaches a leaf node, it saves that node point as the ""current best""
# The algorithm unwinds the recursion of the tree, performing the following steps at each node:
## If the current node is closer than the current best, then it becomes the current best.
## The algorithm checks whether there could be any points on the other side of the splitting plane that are closer to the search point than the current best. In concept, this is done by intersecting the splitting [[hyperplane]] with a [[hypersphere]] around the search point that has a radius equal to the current nearest distance. Since the hyperplanes are all axis-aligned this is implemented as a simple comparison to see whether the difference between the splitting coordinate of the search point and current node is less than the distance (overall coordinates) from the search point to the current best.
### If the hypersphere crosses the plane, there could be nearer points on the other side of the plane, so the algorithm must move down the other branch of the tree from the current node looking for closer points, following the same recursive process as the entire search.
### If the hypersphere doesn't intersect the splitting plane, then the algorithm continues walking up the tree, and the entire branch on the other side of that node is eliminated.
# When the algorithm finishes this process for the root node, then the search is complete.
Generally the algorithm uses squared distances for comparison to avoid computing square roots. Additionally, it can save computation by holding the squared current best distance in a variable for comparison.
Finding the nearest point is an O(log N) operation in the case of randomly distributed points. Analyses of binary search trees has found that the worst case search time for an k-dimensional KD tree containing N nodes is given by the following equation.{{Cite journal
| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. T. | author1-link = Der-Tsai Lee
| last2 = Wong | first2 = C. K.
| year = 1977
| title = Worst-case analysis for region and partial region searches in multidimensional binary search trees and balanced quad trees
| journal = Acta Informatica
| volume = 9
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| doi = 10.1007/BF00263763
}}
:
In very high dimensional spaces, the [[curse of dimensionality]] causes the algorithm to need to visit many more branches than in lower dimensional spaces. In particular, when the number of points is only slightly higher than the number of dimensions, the algorithm is only slightly better than a linear search of all of the points.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications. It can provide the ''k''-Nearest Neighbours to a point by maintaining k current bests instead of just one. Branches are only eliminated when they can't have points closer than any of the k current bests.
It can also be converted to an approximation algorithm to run faster. For example, approximate nearest neighbour searching can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result, this has the downside of discarding points that are not unique, but are co-located with the original search point.
Approximate nearest neighbour is useful in real time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increase gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively. One of its implementations is [[Best Bin First]].","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Methadone,Dosage,433829457,2011-06-12T04:11:56Z,65.175.146.149,"A majority of patients require 10–25 mg/d of methadone, or more, to achieve these effects and require treatment for an indefinite period of time, since methadone maintenance is a corrective but not a curative treatment for opiate addiction. Lower doses are sometimes not as effective, or do not provide an equivalent blockade effect as higher dosages can. Some patients will be prescribed as much as 65 mg of methadone a day; though a dose as low as 10 mg can prove fatal in an opiate naive individual.
In the United States clinics typically start patients at a low dose, generally only starting patients on methadone when they are in withdrawal and providing a small test dose, after which the patients are observed for possible adverse effects. Assuming there are no complications, the remaining portion of the first day's dose is then given. After this the doses are titrated until they reach either a clinically sufficient level that prevents withdrawal, cravings and possible continued use of illicit opioids, or until they reach a maximum dose set by clinic policy. For example, a clinic may start patients at 30 mg and raise the dosage 5 mg a day until the patient reports feeling comfortable (e.g. free of withdrawal symptoms). Alternatively, the clinic may stop dosage at 80 mg, then allow the patient to move up by 5 mg or 10 mg every 2 or 3 days, until they are free from withdrawal symptoms and intense cravings. Once stabilized, patients may require periodic dose adjustments as their clinical or subjective tolerance changes.
The most common and traditional dosing regimens, however, tend to fall far short of providing optimum or even sufficient results for a number of patients. This is due to the ceilings many clinics place on dose levels.{{cite journal |author=Donny EC, Brasser SM, Bigelow GE, Stitzer ML, Walsh SL |title=Methadone doses of 100 mg or greater are more effective than lower doses at suppressing heroin self-administration in opioid-dependent volunteers |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=100 |issue=10 |pages=1496–509 |year=2005 |pmid=16185211 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01232.x}}{{cite journal |author=Latowsky M |title=Methadone death, dosage and torsade de pointes: risk-benefit policy implications |journal=Journal of psychoactive drugs |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=513–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17373567 |doi=}}
Until recently a 100-mg/d dose was regarded as a 'glass ceiling,' rarely to be penetrated. In practice much lower thresholds were maintained even though the optimal dose varies greatly between patients, often quite higher than this and with no inherent threshold in the possible dose, as the toxic dose for patients with very high tolerance can exceed this tenfold or more. The blood concentrations of patients on an equivalent dose (when adjusted for body weight) can vary as much as 17-fold, or up to 41-fold when influenced by other medications, leading to a vast range of potentially required doses.{{cite journal |author=Leavitt SB, Shinderman M, Maxwell S, Eap CB, Paris P |title=When ""Enough"" Is Not Enough: New Perspectives on Optimal Methadone Maintenance Dose|journal= Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine |volume=67 |issue=5&6 |pages=404–411 |year=2000}}{{cite journal |author=Faggiano F, Vigna-Taglianti F, Versino E, Lemma P |title=Methadone maintenance at different dosages for opioid dependence |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD002208 |year=2003 |pmid=12917925 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002208}}
In the United States, federal law was changed in 2001 to eliminate some restrictions imposed on patients dosed on more than 100 mg per day.","A majority of patients require 10–25 mg/d of methadone, or more, to achieve these effects and require treatment for an indefinite period of time, since methadone maintenance is a corrective but not a curative treatment for opiate addiction. Lower doses are sometimes not as effective, or do not provide an equivalent blockade effect as higher dosages can. Some patients will be prescribed as much as 150 mg of methadone a day; though a dose as low as 10 mg can prove fatal in an opiate naive individual.
In the United States clinics typically start patients at a low dose, generally only starting patients on methadone when they are in withdrawal and providing a small test dose, after which the patients are observed for possible adverse effects. Assuming there are no complications, the remaining portion of the first day's dose is then given. After this the doses are titrated until they reach either a clinically sufficient level that prevents withdrawal, cravings and possible continued use of illicit opioids, or until they reach a maximum dose set by clinic policy. For example, a clinic may start patients at 30 mg and raise the dosage 5 mg a day until the patient reports feeling comfortable (e.g. free of withdrawal symptoms). Alternatively, the clinic may stop dosage at 80 mg, then allow the patient to move up by 5 mg or 10 mg every 2 or 3 days, until they are free from withdrawal symptoms and intense cravings. Once stabilized, patients may require periodic dose adjustments as their clinical or subjective tolerance changes.
The most common and traditional dosing regimens, however, tend to fall far short of providing optimum or even sufficient results for a number of patients. This is due to the ceilings many clinics place on dose levels.{{cite journal |author=Donny EC, Brasser SM, Bigelow GE, Stitzer ML, Walsh SL |title=Methadone doses of 100 mg or greater are more effective than lower doses at suppressing heroin self-administration in opioid-dependent volunteers |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=100 |issue=10 |pages=1496–509 |year=2005 |pmid=16185211 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01232.x}}{{cite journal |author=Latowsky M |title=Methadone death, dosage and torsade de pointes: risk-benefit policy implications |journal=Journal of psychoactive drugs |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=513–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17373567 |doi=}}
Until recently a 100-mg/d dose was regarded as a 'glass ceiling,' rarely to be penetrated. In practice much lower thresholds were maintained even though the optimal dose varies greatly between patients, often quite higher than this and with no inherent threshold in the possible dose, as the toxic dose for patients with very high tolerance can exceed this tenfold or more. The blood concentrations of patients on an equivalent dose (when adjusted for body weight) can vary as much as 17-fold, or up to 41-fold when influenced by other medications, leading to a vast range of potentially required doses.{{cite journal |author=Leavitt SB, Shinderman M, Maxwell S, Eap CB, Paris P |title=When ""Enough"" Is Not Enough: New Perspectives on Optimal Methadone Maintenance Dose|journal= Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine |volume=67 |issue=5&6 |pages=404–411 |year=2000}}{{cite journal |author=Faggiano F, Vigna-Taglianti F, Versino E, Lemma P |title=Methadone maintenance at different dosages for opioid dependence |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD002208 |year=2003 |pmid=12917925 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002208}}
In the United States, federal law was changed in 2001 to eliminate some restrictions imposed on patients dosed on more than 100 mg per day.",[10]
K-d tree,Volumetric objects,435065265,2011-06-19T09:30:28Z,Ludwig Boltzmann,"Instead of points, a ''k''-d tree can also contain [[rectangle]]s or hyperrectangles.J. L. Bentley. [http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/361002.361007 Multidimensional binary search trees used for associative searching]. Communications of the ACM, 18(9):509-517, 1975. A 2D rectangle is considered a 4D object (xlow, xhigh, ylow, yhigh). Thus range search becomes the problem of returning all rectangles intersecting the search rectangle. The tree is constructed the usual way with all the rectangles at the leaves. In an [[orthogonal range search]], the ''opposite'' coordinate is used when comparing against the median. For example, if the current level is split along xhigh, we check the xlow coordinate of the search rectangle. If the median is less than the xlow coordinate of the search rectangle, then no rectangle in the left branch can ever intersect with the search rectangle and so can be pruned. Otherwise both branches should be traversed. See also [[interval tree]], which is a 1-dimensional special case.","Instead of points, a ''k''-d tree can also contain [[rectangle]]s or hyperrectangles. Rosenberg J. Geographical Data Structures Compared: A Study of Data Structures Supporting Region Queries. IEEE Transaction on CAD Integrated Circuits Systems 4(1):53-67 Thus range search becomes the problem of returning all rectangles intersecting the search rectangle. The tree is constructed the usual way with all the rectangles at the leaves. In an [[orthogonal range search]], the ''opposite'' coordinate is used when comparing against the median. For example, if the current level is split along xhigh, we check the xlow coordinate of the search rectangle. If the median is less than the xlow coordinate of the search rectangle, then no rectangle in the left branch can ever intersect with the search rectangle and so can be pruned. Otherwise both branches should be traversed. See also [[interval tree]], which is a 1-dimensional special case.","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),438724438,2011-07-10T10:46:19Z,24.242.60.20,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band 5th Projekt|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band 5th Projekt|Circadian (album)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is an endogenously driven 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed, in [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]] (see [[bacterial circadian rhythms]]). The term ""circadian"" comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"", and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are [[endogeny|endogenous]] (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted ([[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrained]]) to the environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, the primary one of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,438896859,2011-07-11T12:02:03Z,Gorton k,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}, and [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}, and [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","[1, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,438896978,2011-07-11T12:03:04Z,Gorton k,"{{Ref improve section|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the '''Drosophilla''' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Ref improve section|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''Drosophilla'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,438897272,2011-07-11T12:05:45Z,Gorton k,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}, and [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}. [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,History,438897728,2011-07-11T12:09:53Z,Gorton k,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}. [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}. [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","[3, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,History,441002887,2011-07-23T14:12:56Z,Rjwilmsi,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363/ |accessdate=11 July 2011}}. [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112-2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |accessdate=11 July 2011}}. [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[11]
K-d tree,External links,441277096,2011-07-25T02:27:43Z,Kri,"* [http://libkdtree.alioth.debian.org libkdtree++], an open-source STL-like implementation of ''k''-d trees in C++.
* [http://www.autonlab.org/autonweb/14665/version/2/part/5/data/moore-tutorial.pdf?branch=main&language=en A tutorial on KD Trees]
* [http://babel.isa.uma.es/mrpt/index.php/The_hierarchical_model_of_metric_maps#Point_maps A C++ implementation of ''k''-d trees for 3D point clouds], part of the [[Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit| Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit (MRPT)]]
* [http://code.google.com/p/kdtree/ kdtree] A simple C library for working with KD-Trees
* [http://donar.umiacs.umd.edu/quadtree/points/kdtree.html K-D Tree Demo, Java applet]
* [http://www.cs.umd.edu/~mount/ANN/ libANN] Approximate Nearest Neighbour Library includes a ''k''-d tree implementation
* [http://www.vision.caltech.edu/malaa/software/research/image-search/ Caltech Large Scale Image Search Toolbox]: a Matlab toolbox implementing randomized ''k''-d tree for fast approximate nearest neighbour search, in addition to [[Locality sensitive hashing|LSH]], Hierarchical K-Means, and [[Inverted file|Inverted File]] search algorithms.
{{CS-Trees}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:K-d tree}}
[[Category:Computer graphics data structures]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]
[[Category:Database index techniques]]
[[de:K-d-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol kd]]
[[fa:درخت کیدی]]
[[fr:Arbre kd]]
[[he:עץ kd]]
[[ja:Kd木]]
[[pl:Drzewo kd]]
[[sl:KD drevo]]
[[zh:k-d树]]","* [http://libkdtree.alioth.debian.org libkdtree++], an open-source STL-like implementation of ''k''-d trees in C++.
* [http://www.autonlab.org/autonweb/14665/version/2/part/5/data/moore-tutorial.pdf?branch=main&language=en A tutorial on KD Trees]
* [http://babel.isa.uma.es/mrpt/index.php/The_hierarchical_model_of_metric_maps#Point_maps A C++ implementation of ''k''-d trees for 3D point clouds], part of the [[Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit| Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit (MRPT)]]
* [http://code.google.com/p/kdtree/ kdtree] A simple C library for working with KD-Trees
* [http://donar.umiacs.umd.edu/quadtree/points/kdtree.html K-D Tree Demo, Java applet]
* [http://www.cs.umd.edu/~mount/ANN/ libANN] Approximate Nearest Neighbour Library includes a ''k''-d tree implementation
* [http://www.vision.caltech.edu/malaa/software/research/image-search/ Caltech Large Scale Image Search Toolbox]: a Matlab toolbox implementing randomized ''k''-d tree for fast approximate nearest neighbour search, in addition to [[Locality sensitive hashing|LSH]], Hierarchical K-Means, and [[Inverted file|Inverted File]] search algorithms.
* [http://dcgi.felk.cvut.cz/home/havran/phdthesis.html Heuristic Ray Shooting Algorithms], pp. 11 and after
{{CS-Trees}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:K-d tree}}
[[Category:Computer graphics data structures]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]
[[Category:Database index techniques]]
[[de:K-d-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol kd]]
[[fa:درخت کیدی]]
[[fr:Arbre kd]]
[[he:עץ kd]]
[[ja:Kd木]]
[[pl:Drzewo kd]]
[[sl:KD drevo]]
[[zh:k-d树]]","[1, 4]"
Dream,Recalling dreams,444971689,2011-08-15T13:33:36Z,202.43.234.216,"While the content of most dreams is dreamt only once, many people experience recurring dreams—that is, the same dream narrative or dreamscape is experienced over different occasions of sleep.","The recall of dreams is extremely unreliable, though it is a skill that can be trained. Dreams can usually be recalled if a person is awakened while dreaming. Women tend to have more frequent dream recall than men.[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15778923 The Science Behind Dreams and Nightmares] Dreams that are difficult to recall may be characterized by relatively little [[affect (psychology)|affect]], and factors such as [[salience (neuroscience)|salience]], [[arousal]], and interference play a role in dream recall. Often, a dream may be recalled upon viewing or hearing a random trigger or stimulus. A [[dream journal]] can be used to assist dream recall, for [[psychotherapy]] or entertainment purposes.
For some people, vague images or sensations from the previous night's dreams are sometimes spontaneously experienced in falling asleep. However they are usually too slight and fleeting to allow dream recall. At least 95% of all dreams are not remembered. Certain brain chemicals necessary for converting short-term memories into long-term ones are suppressed during REM sleep. Unless a dream is particularly vivid and if one wakes during or immediately after it, the content of the dream will not be remembered.{{cite journal | last1 = Hobson | first1 = J.A. | last2 = McCarly | first2 = R.W. | year = 1977 | title = The brain as a dream-state generator: An activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process | url = | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 134 | issue = 12| pages = 1335–1348 | pmid = 21570 }}
Freud theorized that people forget their dreams because they contain repressed thoughts and wishes, so the person shouldn't want to remember them anyway. Other research points to the simple reason that other things get in the way. Humans are forward-thinking by nature, so remembering something when first waking up is difficult.
L. Strumpell, a dream researcher of the same era as Freud, believed that a lot things contribute to us not being able to remember dreams. For one, he said that many things are quickly forgotten when you first wake up, such as physical sensations. He also considered the fact that many dream images are not very intense and would therefore be easy to forget. Another reason, and probably the strongest of his theories, is that we traditionally [[learn]] and remember both by association and repetition. As dreams are usually unique and somewhat vague to begin with, it stands to reason that remembering them could be difficult. For example, if someone speaks a [[phrase]] to you that doesn't immediately click with anything in your experience, you might need the person to repeat it in order to remember it or even understand it. Since we can't go back to our dreams to experience something again, details that are out of our realm of experience often escape us.","[1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 4, 10]"
Dream,See also,447939452,2011-09-01T23:03:55Z,Peterdjones,"{{col-begin}}{{col-break}}
* [[Cognitive neuroscience of dreams]] {{nb10}}
* [[Daydream]]
* [[Dimethyltryptamine]]
* [[Dream argument]]
* [[Dream art]]
* [[Dream dictionary]]
* [[Dream pop]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Dream sequence]]
* [[Dream speech]]
* [[Dream world (plot device)]]
* [[Dream Yoga]]
* [[Dreamwork]]
* [[Lilith]] a 6000 year old Sumerian dream demon (succubus) {{nb10}}
* [[List of dream diaries]]
{{col-break}}
* [[List of dreams]]
* [[Lucid Dream]]
* [[Morpheus (mythology)]]
* [[Oneiromancy]]
* [[Spirit spouse (in dreams)]]
* [[Veridical dream]]
{{col-end}}","{{col-begin}}{{col-break}}
* [[Cognitive neuroscience of dreams]] {{nb10}}
* [[Daydream]]
* [[Dimethyltryptamine]]
* [[Dream argument]]
* [[Dream art]]
* [[Dream dictionary]]
* [[Dream pop]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Dream sequence]]
* [[Dream speech]]
* [[Dream world (plot device)]]
* [[Dream Yoga]]
* [[Dreamwork]]
* [[Incubus]]
* [[Lilith]] a 6000 year old Sumerian dream demon (succubus) {{nb10}}
* [[List of dream diaries]]
{{col-break}}
* [[List of dreams]]
* [[Lucid Dream]]
* [[Morpheus (mythology)]]
* [[Oneiromancy]]
* [[Spirit spouse (in dreams)]]
* [[Succubus]]
* [[Veridical dream]]
{{col-end}}",[9]
Circadian rhythm,Further reading,448650017,2011-09-05T21:53:29Z,Citation bot,"{{Refbegin|colwidth=45em}}
* Aschoff, J. (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Albrecht, U.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Nevo, E. |title=Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=24 |pages=13751–6 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11707566 |pmc=61113 |doi=10.1073/pnas.181484498}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Albrecht, U.; Nevo, E. |title=Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=18 |pages=11718–23 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12193657 |pmc=129335 |doi=10.1073/pnas.182423299}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Ditty, J.L.; Williams, S.B.; Golden, S.S. |title=A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=513–43 |year=2003 |pmid=14616072 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.142716}}
* Dunlap, J.C.; Loros, J.; DeCoursey, P.J. (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
* {{Cite journal |author=Dvornyk, V.; Vinogradova, O.; Nevo, E. |title=Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=2495–500 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12604787 |pmc=151369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0130099100}}
* Koukkari, W.L.; Sothern, R.B. (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
* {{Cite journal |author=Martino, T.; Arab, S.; Straume, M.; et al. |date=April 2004 |title=Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart |journal=Journal of Molecular Medicine |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–64 |pmid=14985853 |doi=10.1007/s00109-003-0520-1}}
* Refinetti, R. (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
* {{Cite journal |author=Takahashi, J.S.; Zatz, M. |title=Regulation of circadian rhythmicity |journal=Science |volume=217 |issue=4565 |pages=1104–11 |date=September 1982 |doi=10.1126/science.6287576 |pmid= 6287576}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Tomita, J.; Nakajima, M.; Kondo, T.; Iwasaki, H. |title=No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5707 |pages=251–4 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15550625 |doi=10.1126/science.1102540}}
* {{Cite book |last=Moore-Ede |first=Martin C. |last2=Sulszman |first2=Frank M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Charles A. |year=1982 |title=The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System |publisher= Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-13581-4}}
{{Refend}}","{{Refbegin|colwidth=45em}}
* Aschoff, J. (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Albrecht, U.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Nevo, E. |title=Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=24 |pages=13751–6 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11707566 |pmc=61113 |doi=10.1073/pnas.181484498}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Albrecht, U.; Nevo, E. |title=Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=18 |pages=11718–23 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12193657 |pmc=129335 |doi=10.1073/pnas.182423299}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Ditty, J.L.; Williams, S.B.; Golden, S.S. |title=A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=513–43 |year=2003 |pmid=14616072 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.142716}}
* Dunlap, J.C.; Loros, J.; DeCoursey, P.J. (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
* {{Cite journal |author=Dvornyk, V.; Vinogradova, O.; Nevo, E. |title=Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=2495–500 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12604787 |pmc=151369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0130099100}}
* Koukkari, W.L.; Sothern, R.B. (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
* {{Cite journal |author=Martino, T. |date=April 2004 |title=Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart |journal=Journal of Molecular Medicine |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–64 |pmid=14985853 |doi=10.1007/s00109-003-0520-1 |last2=Arab |first2=S. |last3=Straume |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Belsham |first4=Denise D. |last5=Tata |first5=Nazneen |last6=Cai |first6=Fang |last7=Liu |first7=Peter |last8=Trivieri |first8=Maria |last9=Ralph |first9=Martin}}
* Refinetti, R. (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
* {{Cite journal |author=Takahashi, J.S.; Zatz, M. |title=Regulation of circadian rhythmicity |journal=Science |volume=217 |issue=4565 |pages=1104–11 |date=September 1982 |doi=10.1126/science.6287576 |pmid= 6287576}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Tomita, J.; Nakajima, M.; Kondo, T.; Iwasaki, H. |title=No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5707 |pages=251–4 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15550625 |doi=10.1126/science.1102540}}
* {{Cite book |last=Moore-Ede |first=Martin C. |last2=Sulszman |first2=Frank M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Charles A. |year=1982 |title=The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System |publisher= Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-13581-4}}
{{Refend}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Humans,448650017,2011-09-05T21:53:29Z,Citation bot,"Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.{{Cite journal |last= Duffy |first=Jeanne F. |coauthors=Kenneth P. Wright, Jr. |date=August 2005 |title=Entrainment of the Human Circadian System by Light (Review) |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=326–338 |publisher=Sage |doi=10.1177/0748730405277983 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/326.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-02}} The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well-known.
More recent research has shown that: adults have a built-in day, which averages about 24 hours; indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms; and most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods. A study by Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}","Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.{{Cite journal |last= Duffy |first=Jeanne F. |coauthors=Kenneth P. Wright, Jr. |date=August 2005 |title=Entrainment of the Human Circadian System by Light (Review) |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=326–338 |publisher=Sage |doi=10.1177/0748730405277983 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/326.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-02 |pmid= 16077152}} The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well-known.
More recent research has shown that: adults have a built-in day, which averages about 24 hours; indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms; and most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods. A study by Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}",[11]
Port (computer networking),Technical details,450457961,2011-09-14T12:22:22Z,Kvng,"Transport Layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP, specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. A process associates its input or output channel [[file descriptor]]s (sockets) with a port number and an [[IP address]], a process known as ''binding'', to send and receive data via the network. The [[operating system]]'s networking software has the task of transmitting outgoing data from all application ports onto the network, and forwarding arriving network packets to a process by matching the packet’s IP address
Applications implementing quest on the well-known port and reestablishing one-to-one server-client communications on another ''private'' port, so that other clients may also contact the well-known service port. The well-known ports are defined by convention overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA).
The core network services, such as the World-Wide Web, typically use small port numbers, less than 1024. In many [[Unix-like]] operating systems [[superuser]] privileges are required for creation of these ports, since these are often deemed critical to the operation of IP networks. Conversely, the client end of a connection typically uses a high port number allocated for short term use, therefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
Port numbers are encoded in the transport protocol packet header, and they can be readily interpreted not only by the sending and receiving computers, but also by other components of the networking infrastructure. In particular, [[firewall (networking)|firewall]]s are commonly configured to differentiate between packets depending on their source or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is an example application of this.
Processes create associations with transport protocol ports by means of [[Internet socket|socket]]s. A socket is the software structure used as the transport end-point. It is created by the operating system for the process and bound to a socket address which consists of a combination of a port number and an IP address. Sockets may be set to send or receive data in one direction at a time (''half duplex'') or simultaneously in both directions (''full duplex'').
Because different services commonly listen on different port numbers, the practice of attempting to connect to a range of ports in sequence on a single computer is commonly known as [[port scanning]]. This is usually associated either with malicious [[security cracking|cracking]] attempts or with network administrators looking for possible vulnerabilities to help prevent such attacks.
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.","Transport Layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP, specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. A process associates its input or output channel [[file descriptor]]s (sockets) with a port number and an [[IP address]], a process known as ''binding'', to send and receive data via the network. The [[operating system]]'s networking software has the task of transmitting outgoing data from all application ports onto the network, and forwarding arriving network packets to a process by matching the packet’s IP address
Applications implementing common services, often use specifically reserved, [[Well-known port|well-known port numbers]] for receiving service requests from client hosts. This process is known as ''listening'' and involves the receipt of a request on the well-known port and reestablishing one-to-one server-client communications on another ''private'' port, so that other clients may also contact the well-known service port. The well-known ports are defined by convention overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA).
The core network services, such as the World-Wide Web, typically use small port numbers, less than 1024. In many [[Unix-like]] operating systems [[superuser]] privileges are required for creation of these ports, since these are often deemed critical to the operation of IP networks. Conversely, the client end of a connection typically uses a high port number allocated for short term use, therefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
Port numbers are encoded in the transport protocol packet header, and they can be readily interpreted not only by the sending and receiving computers, but also by other components of the networking infrastructure. In particular, [[firewall (networking)|firewall]]s are commonly configured to differentiate between packets depending on their source or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is an example application of this.
Processes create associations with transport protocol ports by means of [[Internet socket|socket]]s. A socket is the software structure used as the transport end-point. It is created by the operating system for the process and bound to a socket address which consists of a combination of a port number and an IP address. Sockets may be set to send or receive data in one direction at a time (''half duplex'') or simultaneously in both directions (''full duplex'').
Because different services commonly listen on different port numbers, the practice of attempting to connect to a range of ports in sequence on a single computer is commonly known as [[port scanning]]. This is usually associated either with malicious [[security cracking|cracking]] attempts or with network administrators looking for possible vulnerabilities to help prevent such attacks.
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.","[1, 4, 9]"
Stem cell,(Top),450470946,2011-09-14T14:04:25Z,Jimmybass,"{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox Anatomy |
Name = {{PAGENAME}} |
Latin = cellula precursoria |
GraySubject = |
GrayPage = |
Image = Mouse embryonic stem cells.jpg |
Caption = [[Mus musculus|Mouse]] [[Mammalian embryogenesis|embryo]]nic stem cells with fluorescent marker |
Image2 = Human embryonic stem cell colony phase.jpg |
Caption2 = Human embryonic stem cell colony on mouse embryonic fibroblast feeder layer |
Precursor = |
System = |
Artery = |
Vein = |
Nerve = |
Lymph = |
MeshName = |
MeshNumber = |
Code = [[Terminologia Histologica|TH]] H2.00.01.0.00001 |
}}
Hi, my names jareth and i'm a weird chap. Stem cells can now be artificially grown and transformed into specialized cell types with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through [[cell culture]]. Highly plastic adult stem cells are routinely used in medical therapies. Stem cells can be taken from a variety of sources, including [[umbilical cord blood]] and [[bone marrow]]. Embryonic [[cell line]]s and [[autologous]] embryonic stem cells generated through [[therapeutic cloning]] have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies.{{cite journal | author=Tuch BE | title=Stem cells—a clinical update | journal=[[Australian Family Physician]] | volume=35 | issue=9 | pages=719–21 | year=2006 | pmid=16969445}} Research into stem cells grew out of findings by [[Ernest McCulloch|Ernest A. McCulloch]] and [[James Till|James E. Till]] at the [[University of Toronto]] in the 1960s.{{cite journal | author = Becker AJ, McCulloch EA, Till JE | title = Cytological demonstration of the clonal nature of spleen colonies derived from transplanted mouse marrow cells | journal = Nature | volume = 197 | issue = 4866 | pages = 452–4 | year = 1963 | pmid = 13970094 | doi=10.1038/197452a0 }}{{cite journal | author = Siminovitch L, McCulloch EA, Till JE | title = The distribution of colony-forming cells among spleen colonies | journal = Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology | volume = 62 | issue = 3| pages = 327–36 | year = 1963 | pmid = 14086156 | doi = 10.1002/jcp.1030620313}}
There are three sources of autologous adult stem cells: 1) Bone marrow, which requires extraction by ''harvesting'', that is, drilling into bone (typically the femur or illiac crest), 2) Adipose tissue (lipid cells), which requires extraction by liposuction, and 3) Blood, which requires extraction through pheresis, wherein blood is drawn from the donor, (similar to a blood donation) passed through a machine that extracts the stem cells and returns other portions of the blood to the donor.
Of all stem cell types, autologous harvesting involves the least risk. By definition, autologous cells are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures.","{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox Anatomy |
Name = {{PAGENAME}} |
Latin = cellula precursoria |
GraySubject = |
GrayPage = |
Image = Mouse embryonic stem cells.jpg |
Caption = [[Mus musculus|Mouse]] [[Mammalian embryogenesis|embryo]]nic stem cells with fluorescent marker |
Image2 = Human embryonic stem cell colony phase.jpg |
Caption2 = Human embryonic stem cell colony on mouse embryonic fibroblast feeder layer |
Precursor = |
System = |
Artery = |
Vein = |
Nerve = |
Lymph = |
MeshName = |
MeshNumber = |
Code = [[Terminologia Histologica|TH]] H2.00.01.0.00001 |
}}
Hi, my names jareth and i'm a weird chap. i am a stem cell (LIF).
{{cite web
|url=https://catalog.invitrogen.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=iProtocol.unitSectionTree&treeNodeID=9E662600C6C10276D8E040E99EA33BB0
|title=Mouse Embryonic Stem (ES) Cell Culture-Current Protocols in Molecular Biology
}}{{Dead link|date=February 2010}} Human ES cells are grown on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic [[fibroblasts]] (MEFs) and require the presence of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF or FGF-2).
{{cite web
|url=http://stemcells.nih.gov/research/NIHresearch/scunit/culture.asp
|title=Culture of Human Embryonic Stem Cells (hESC)
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=2010-03-07
}} Without optimal culture conditions or genetic manipulation,
{{cite journal
|author=Chambers I, Colby D, Robertson M, ''et al.''
|title=Functional expression cloning of Nanog, a pluripotency sustaining factor in embryonic stem cells
|journal=Cell
|volume=113
|issue=5
|pages=643–55
|year=2003
|pmid=12787505
|doi=10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00392-1
}} embryonic stem cells will rapidly differentiate.
A human embryonic stem cell is also defined by the presence of several transcription factors and cell surface proteins. The transcription factors [[Oct-4]], [[Nanog]], and [[Sox2]] form the core regulatory network that ensures the suppression of genes that lead to differentiation and the maintenance of pluripotency.
{{cite journal
|author=Boyer LA, Lee TI, Cole MF, ''et al.''
|title=Core transcriptional regulatory circuitry in human embryonic stem cells
|journal=Cell
|volume=122
|issue=6
|pages=947–56
|year=2005
|pmid=16153702
|pmc=3006442
|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2005.08.020
}} The cell surface antigens most commonly used to identify hES cells are the glycolipids SSEA3 and SSEA4 and the keratan sulfate antigens Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81. The molecular definition of a stem cell includes many more proteins and continues to be a topic of research.
{{cite journal
|author=Adewumi O, Aflatoonian B, Ahrlund-Richter L, ''et al.''
|title=Characterization of human embryonic stem cell lines by the International Stem Cell Initiative
|journal=Nat. Biotechnol
|volume=25
|issue=7
|pages=803–16
|year=2007
|pmid=17572666
|doi=10.1038/nbt1318
}}
There are currently no approved treatments using embryonic stem cells. The first human trial was approved by the US Food & Drug Administration in January 2009.
{{cite journal
| author = Ron Winslow
| title = First Embryonic Stem-Cell Trial Gets Approval from the FDA
| series = 23
| journal = The Wall Street Journal
| volume = January 2009
| issue =
| pages =
| year = 2009
| pmid =
| doi =
}} However, the human trial had not yet been initiated until October 13, 2010 in Atlanta for spinal injury victims. ES cells, being pluripotent cells, require specific signals for correct differentiation—if injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a [[teratoma]]. Differentiating ES cells into usable cells while avoiding transplant rejection are just a few of the hurdles that embryonic stem cell researchers still face.
{{cite journal
|author=Wu DC, Boyd AS, Wood KJ
|title=Embryonic stem cell transplantation: potential applicability in cell replacement therapy and regenerative medicine
|journal=Front Biosci
|volume=12
|issue=8–12|pages=4525–35
|year=2007
|pmid=17485394
|doi=10.2741/2407
}} Many nations currently have [[moratorium (law)|moratoria]] on either ES cell research or the production of new ES cell lines. Because of their combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a theoretically potential source for [[regenerative medicine]] and tissue replacement after injury or disease.","[1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9]"
Human brain,(Top),451586472,2011-09-20T23:28:12Z,Tryptofish,"{{About|features specific to the human brain|basic information about brains|Brain}}
{{Infobox Anatomy
| Name = Human brain
| Latin = Cerebrum
| GraySubject = 184
| GrayPage = 736
| Image = Skull and brain normal human.svg
| Caption = Human brain and skull
| Image2 = Cerebral lobes.png
| Caption2 = Cerebral lobes: the [[frontal lobe]] (pink), [[parietal lobe]] (green) and [[occipital lobe]] (blue)
| Width = 125px
| Precursor =
| System = [[Central nervous system]]
| Artery = [[Anterior communicating artery]], [[middle cerebral artery]]
| Vein = [[Cerebral veins]], [[external veins]], [[basal vein]], [[terminal vein]], [[choroid vein]], [[cerebellar veins]]
| Nerve =
| Lymph =
| Precursor =
| MeshName =
| MeshNumber =
| Dorlands =
| DorlandsID =
}}
The '''human brain''' is the center of the human [[nervous system]]. It is also the most complex organ in your body, and possibly even the universe. Enclosed in the [[human skull|cranium]], the human brain has the same general structure as that of other [[mammal]]s, but is over three times larger than the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size.[[Donald Johanson|Johanson, D. C.]] (1996). ''From Lucy to language''. New York: Simon and Schuster, [http://books.google.com/books?id=-VKEjAbpggcC&pg=PA80 p. 80]. Most of the spatial expansion comes from the [[cerebral cortex]], a convoluted layer of neural tissue which covers the surface of the [[forebrain]]. Especially expanded are the [[frontal lobes]], which are associated with [[executive functions]] such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought. The portion of the brain devoted to vision, the [[occipital lobe]], is also greatly enlarged in human beings.
Brain evolution, from the earliest [[shrew]]-like mammals through [[primate]]s to [[hominid]]s, is marked by a steady increase in [[encephalization]], or the ratio of brain to body size. Estimates vary for the number of neuronal and non-neuronal cells contained in the brain, ranging from 80 or 90 billion (~85 109) non-neuronal cells ([[glial cell]]s) and an approximately equal number of (~86 109) [[neuron]]s,{{cite journal |last1=Azevedo |first1=Frederico |last2=Carvalho |first2=Ludmila |last3=Grinberg |first3=Lea |last4=Farfel |first4=José |last5=Ferretti |first5=Renata |last6=Leite |first6=Renata |last7=Filho |first7=Wilson |last8=Lent |first8=Roberto |last9=Herculano-Houzel |first9=Suzana |year=2009 |title=Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain |journal=[[The Journal of Comparative Neurology]] |volume=513 |issue=5 |pages=532–541 |doi=10.1002/cne.21974|pmid=19226510}} of which about 10 billion (1010) are [[pyramidal cell|cortical pyramidal cells]], to over 120 billion neuronal cells, with an approximately equal number of non-neuronal cells.{{cite journal |url=http://www.frontiersin.org/human_neuroscience/10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009/full |title=The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain |last=Herculano-Houzel |first=Suzana |date=November 9, 2009 |publisher=Frontiers In Human Neuroscience |doi=10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009 |accessdate=May 11, 2011}} These cells pass signals to each other via as many as 1000 trillion (1015, 1 quadrillion) [[synapse|synaptic connections]].{{Cite pmid|8527499}} Due to evolution, however, the modern human brain has been shrinking over the past 28,000 years.{{cite news| url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/article7060327.ece | location=London | work=The Times | first1=Adam | last1=Sage | title=Cro Magnon skull supports theory that human brains have begun to shrink | date=2010-03-13}}{{cite web |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2010/sep/25-modern-humans-smart-why-brain-shrinking |title=If Modern Humans Are So Smart, Why Are Our Brains Shrinking? |last1=McAuliffe |first1=Kathleen |date=January 20, 2011 |work=[[Discover (magazine)|Discover]] |accessdate=May 7, 2011}}
The brain monitors and regulates the body's actions and reactions. It continuously receives sensory information, and rapidly analyzes this data and then responds accordingly by controlling bodily actions and functions. The [[brainstem]] controls breathing, heart rate, and other [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] processes that are independent of conscious brain functions. The [[neocortex]] is the center of higher-order thinking, learning, and memory. The [[cerebellum]] is responsible for the body's balance, posture, and the coordination of movement.
Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in [[cerebrospinal fluid]], and isolated from the bloodstream by the [[blood-brain barrier]], the human brain is susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are [[closed head injuries]] such as a blow to the [[human head|head]], a [[stroke]], or poisoning by a wide variety of chemicals that can act as [[neurotoxin]]s. Infection of the brain, though serious, is rare due to the biological barriers which protect it. The human brain is also susceptible to degenerative disorders, such as [[Parkinson's disease]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[Alzheimer's disease]]. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[major depressive disorder|depression]], are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood.{{cite pmid|12052915}}","{{About|features specific to the human brain|basic information about brains|Brain}}
{{Infobox Anatomy
| Name = Human brain
| Latin = Cerebrum
| GraySubject = 184
| GrayPage = 736
| Image = Skull and brain normal human.svg
| Caption = Human brain and skull
| Image2 = Cerebral lobes.png
| Caption2 = Cerebral lobes: the [[frontal lobe]] (pink), [[parietal lobe]] (green) and [[occipital lobe]] (blue)
| Width = 125px
| Precursor =
| System = [[Central nervous system]]
| Artery = [[Anterior communicating artery]], [[middle cerebral artery]]
| Vein = [[Cerebral veins]], [[external veins]], [[basal vein]], [[terminal vein]], [[choroid vein]], [[cerebellar veins]]
| Nerve =
| Lymph =
| Precursor =
| MeshName =
| MeshNumber =
| Dorlands =
| DorlandsID =
}}
The '''human brain''' is the center of the human [[nervous system]]. Enclosed in the [[human skull|cranium]], the human brain has the same general structure as that of other [[mammal]]s, but is over three times larger than the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size.[[Donald Johanson|Johanson, D. C.]] (1996). ''From Lucy to language''. New York: Simon and Schuster, [http://books.google.com/books?id=-VKEjAbpggcC&pg=PA80 p. 80]. Most of the spatial expansion comes from the [[cerebral cortex]], a convoluted layer of neural tissue which covers the surface of the [[forebrain]]. Especially expanded are the [[frontal lobes]], which are associated with [[executive functions]] such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract thought. The portion of the brain devoted to vision, the [[occipital lobe]], is also greatly enlarged in human beings.
Brain evolution, from the earliest [[shrew]]-like mammals through [[primate]]s to [[hominid]]s, is marked by a steady increase in [[encephalization]], or the ratio of brain to body size. Estimates vary for the number of neuronal and non-neuronal cells contained in the brain, ranging from 80 or 90 billion (~85 109) non-neuronal cells ([[glial cell]]s) and an approximately equal number of (~86 109) [[neuron]]s,{{cite journal |last1=Azevedo |first1=Frederico |last2=Carvalho |first2=Ludmila |last3=Grinberg |first3=Lea |last4=Farfel |first4=José |last5=Ferretti |first5=Renata |last6=Leite |first6=Renata |last7=Filho |first7=Wilson |last8=Lent |first8=Roberto |last9=Herculano-Houzel |first9=Suzana |year=2009 |title=Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain |journal=[[The Journal of Comparative Neurology]] |volume=513 |issue=5 |pages=532–541 |doi=10.1002/cne.21974|pmid=19226510}} of which about 10 billion (1010) are [[pyramidal cell|cortical pyramidal cells]], to over 120 billion neuronal cells, with an approximately equal number of non-neuronal cells.{{cite journal |url=http://www.frontiersin.org/human_neuroscience/10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009/full |title=The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain |last=Herculano-Houzel |first=Suzana |date=November 9, 2009 |publisher=Frontiers In Human Neuroscience |doi=10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009 |accessdate=May 11, 2011}} These cells pass signals to each other via as many as 1000 trillion (1015, 1 quadrillion) [[synapse|synaptic connections]].{{Cite pmid|8527499}} Due to evolution, however, the modern human brain has been shrinking over the past 28,000 years.{{cite news| url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/article7060327.ece | location=London | work=The Times | first1=Adam | last1=Sage | title=Cro Magnon skull supports theory that human brains have begun to shrink | date=2010-03-13}}{{cite web |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2010/sep/25-modern-humans-smart-why-brain-shrinking |title=If Modern Humans Are So Smart, Why Are Our Brains Shrinking? |last1=McAuliffe |first1=Kathleen |date=January 20, 2011 |work=[[Discover (magazine)|Discover]] |accessdate=May 7, 2011}}
The brain monitors and regulates the body's actions and reactions. It continuously receives sensory information, and rapidly analyzes this data and then responds accordingly by controlling bodily actions and functions. The [[brainstem]] controls breathing, heart rate, and other [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] processes that are independent of conscious brain functions. The [[neocortex]] is the center of higher-order thinking, learning, and memory. The [[cerebellum]] is responsible for the body's balance, posture, and the coordination of movement.
Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in [[cerebrospinal fluid]], and isolated from the bloodstream by the [[blood-brain barrier]], the human brain is susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are [[closed head injuries]] such as a blow to the [[human head|head]], a [[stroke]], or poisoning by a wide variety of chemicals that can act as [[neurotoxin]]s. Infection of the brain, though serious, is rare due to the biological barriers which protect it. The human brain is also susceptible to degenerative disorders, such as [[Parkinson's disease]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[Alzheimer's disease]]. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[major depressive disorder|depression]], are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood.{{cite pmid|12052915}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Effect of drugs,452891215,2011-09-28T15:50:04Z,Looie496,"Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the CNS may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{Cite journal |author=Uz, T.; Akhisaroglu, M.; Ahmed, R.; Manev, H. |title=The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=2117–23 |date=December 2003 |pmid=12865893 |doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1300254}}{{Cite journal |author=Kurtuncu, M.; Arslan, A.D.; Akhisaroglu, M.; Manev, H.; Uz, T. |title=Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice |journal=European Journal of Pharmacology |volume=489 |issue=3 |pages=203–5 |month=April |year=2004 |pmid=15087244 |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{Cite journal |author=McClung, C.A. |title=Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=26 |pages=9377–81 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15967985 |pmc=1166621 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0503584102 |last2=Sidiropoulou |first2=K. |last3=Vitaterna |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Takahashi |first4=JS |last5=White |first5=FJ |last6=Cooper |first6=DC |last7=Nestler |first7=EJ}}","Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{Cite journal |author=Uz, T.; Akhisaroglu, M.; Ahmed, R.; Manev, H. |title=The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=2117–23 |date=December 2003 |pmid=12865893 |doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1300254}}{{Cite journal |author=Kurtuncu, M.; Arslan, A.D.; Akhisaroglu, M.; Manev, H.; Uz, T. |title=Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice |journal=European Journal of Pharmacology |volume=489 |issue=3 |pages=203–5 |month=April |year=2004 |pmid=15087244 |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{Cite journal |author=McClung, C.A. |title=Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=26 |pages=9377–81 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15967985 |pmc=1166621 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0503584102 |last2=Sidiropoulou |first2=K. |last3=Vitaterna |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Takahashi |first4=JS |last5=White |first5=FJ |last6=Cooper |first6=DC |last7=Nestler |first7=EJ}}","[3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,See also,456036331,2011-10-17T17:13:00Z,Shahab Aalam,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Progeria]], rapid aging","[4, 9]"
Dream,Dreams in animals,457587372,2011-10-27T01:48:53Z,Rafafc91,,"REM sleep and the ability to dream seem to be embedded in the biology of many organisms that live on Earth.
All mammals experience REM. The range of REM can bee seen across species: dolphins experience minimum REM, while humans remain in the middle and the opossum and the armadillo are among the most prolific dreamers.{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Daniel|title=While you where sleeping|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1606872,00.html|publisher=Time Magazine|accessdate=october 9, 2011}}",[1]
Gene therapy,Inorganic Nanoparticles,457733735,2011-10-27T22:49:46Z,Biomat77,,"Inorganic nanoparticles, such as [[gold]], [[silica]], iron oxide (ex. [[magnetofection]]) and [[calcium phosphates]] have been shown to be capable of gene delivery.Wagner,DE and Bhaduri, SB. (2011)[http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ten.TEB.2011.0081 Progress and Outlook of Inorganic Nanoparticles for Delivery of Nucleic Acid Sequences Related to Orthopedic Pathologies: A Review.], Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews. Some of the benefits of inorganic vectors is in their storage stability, low manufacturing cost and often time, low immunogenicity, and resistance to microbial attack. Nanosized materials less than 100nm have been shown to efficiently trap the [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] and allows its escape from the [[endosome]] without degradation. Inorganics have also been shown to exhibit improved in vitro [[transfection]] for attached cell lines due to their increased density and preferential location on the base of the culture dish. [[Quantum dots]] have also been used successfully and permits the coupling of gene therapy with a stable fluorescence marker.","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Down syndrome,(Top),458536630,2011-11-01T22:08:34Z,JohnC,"{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox disease
| Name = Down syndrome
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}}
| ICDO =
| Image = Drill.jpg
| Caption = Boy with Down syndrome assembling a bookcase
| OMIM = 190685
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000997
| eMedicineSubj = ped
| eMedicineTopic = 615
| DiseasesDB = 3898
| MeshID = D004314
}}
'''Down syndrome''', or '''Down's syndrome''' (primarily in the [[United Kingdom]]),[http://www.dnaindia.com/scitech/report_mouse-study-points-to-down-syndrome-treatment_1313716 dna India][http://www.cdss.ca/ Canadian Down Syndrome Society] '''trisomy 21''', is a [[chromosomal condition]] caused by the presence of all or part of an extra [[chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]]. It is named after [[John Langdon Down]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[physician]] who described the [[syndrome]] in 1866. The condition was clinically described earlier in the 19th century by [[Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol]] in 1838 and [[Edouard Seguin]] in 1844.http://medgadget.com/2005/11/down_syndrome_t.html Down syndrome was identified as a chromosome 21 [[trisomy]] by Dr. [[Jérôme Lejeune]] in 1959. Down syndrome in a fetus can be identified through [[chorionic villus sampling]] or [[amniocentesis]] during pregnancy, or in a baby at birth.
Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the [[Chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]], either in whole ([[trisomy]] 21) or part (such as due to [[Chromosomal translocation|translocations]]). The effects and extent of the extra copy vary greatly among people, depending on genetic history, and pure chance. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 733 births, although it is statistically more common with older parents (both mothers and fathers) due to increased mutagenic exposures upon some older parents' reproductive cells. Other factors may also play a role. Down syndrome occurs in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species such as chimpanzees{{cite journal |author=McClure, HM; Belden, KH; Pieper, WA; Jacobson, CB |title=Autosomal trisomy in a chimpanzee: resemblance to Down's syndrome |journal=Science |volume=165 |issue=3897 |pages=1010–12 |year=1969 |month=September |pmid=4240970 |doi=10.1126/science.165.3897.1010 }} and mice.
Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of [[cognition|cognitive]] ability and [[child development|physical growth]], and a particular set of facial characteristics. Individuals with Down syndrome tend to have a lower-than-average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate disabilities. Many children with Down syndrome who have received family support, enrichment therapies, and tutoring have been known to graduate from high school and college, and enjoy employment in the work force. The average [[IQ]] of children with Down syndrome is around 50, compared to normal children with an IQ of 100.{{cite web | url = http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/sec23/ch266/ch266b.html | title = Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21; Trisomy G) | accessdate = 2010-12-04 | last = Liptak | first = Gregory S| date = December 2008 | work = Merck Manual | quote = Symptoms}} A small number have a severe to high degree of intellectual disability.
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: [[microgenia]] (an abnormally small chin), an unusually round face, [[macroglossia]] (protruding or oversized tongue), an almond shape to the eyes caused by an [[epicanthic fold]] of the eyelid, upslanting [[palpebral fissure]]s (the separation between the upper and lower eyelids), shorter limbs, a [[single transverse palmar crease]] (a single instead of a double crease across one or both palms), [[hypotonia|poor muscle tone]], and a larger than normal space between the big and second toes. Health concerns for individuals with Down syndrome include a higher risk for [[congenital heart defect]]s, [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], recurrent [[otitis|ear infections]] that may lead to hearing loss, [[obstructive sleep apnea]], [[thyroid]] dysfunctions, and obesity.
[[Early childhood intervention]], screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, and vocational training can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Education and proper care will improve [[quality of life]] significantly, despite genetic limitations.{{cite journal |author=Roizen, NJ; Patterson, D |title=Down's syndrome |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9365 |pages=1281–89 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12699967 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12987-X |format=Review}}","{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox disease
| Name = Down's syndrome
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}}
| ICDO =
| Image = Drill.jpg
| Caption = Boy with Down syndrome assembling a bookcase
| OMIM = 190685
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000997
| eMedicineSubj = ped
| eMedicineTopic = 615
| DiseasesDB = 3898
| MeshID = D004314
}}
'''Down's syndrome''', or '''Down syndrome''' (primarily in the [[United States]]),[http://www.dnaindia.com/scitech/report_mouse-study-points-to-down-syndrome-treatment_1313716 dna India][http://www.cdss.ca/ Canadian Down Syndrome Society] '''trisomy 21''', is a [[chromosomal condition]] caused by the presence of all or part of an extra [[chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]]. It is named after [[John Langdon Down]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[physician]] who described the [[syndrome]] in 1866. The condition was clinically described earlier in the 19th century by [[Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol]] in 1838 and [[Edouard Seguin]] in 1844.http://medgadget.com/2005/11/down_syndrome_t.html Down syndrome was identified as a chromosome 21 [[trisomy]] by Dr. [[Jérôme Lejeune]] in 1959. Down syndrome in a fetus can be identified through [[chorionic villus sampling]] or [[amniocentesis]] during pregnancy, or in a baby at birth.
Down's syndrome is a chromosomal condition characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the [[Chromosome 21 (human)|21st chromosome]], either in whole ([[trisomy]] 21) or part (such as due to [[Chromosomal translocation|translocations]]). The effects and extent of the extra copy vary greatly among people, depending on genetic history, and pure chance. The incidence of Down's syndrome is estimated at 1 per 733 births, although it is statistically more common with older parents (both mothers and fathers) due to increased mutagenic exposures upon some older parents' reproductive cells. Other factors may also play a role. Down's syndrome occurs in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species such as chimpanzees{{cite journal |author=McClure, HM; Belden, KH; Pieper, WA; Jacobson, CB |title=Autosomal trisomy in a chimpanzee: resemblance to Down's syndrome |journal=Science |volume=165 |issue=3897 |pages=1010–12 |year=1969 |month=September |pmid=4240970 |doi=10.1126/science.165.3897.1010 }} and mice.
Often Down's syndrome is associated with some impairment of [[cognition|cognitive]] ability and [[child development|physical growth]], and a particular set of facial characteristics. Individuals with Down syndrome tend to have a lower-than-average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate disabilities. Many children with Down's syndrome who have received family support, enrichment therapies, and tutoring have been known to graduate from high school and college, and enjoy employment in the work force. The average [[IQ]] of children with Down syndrome is around 50, compared to normal children with an IQ of 100.{{cite web | url = http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/sec23/ch266/ch266b.html | title = Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21; Trisomy G) | accessdate = 2010-12-04 | last = Liptak | first = Gregory S| date = December 2008 | work = Merck Manual | quote = Symptoms}} A small number have a severe to high degree of intellectual disability.
Individuals with Down's syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: [[microgenia]] (an abnormally small chin), an unusually round face, [[macroglossia]] (protruding or oversized tongue), an almond shape to the eyes caused by an [[epicanthic fold]] of the eyelid, upslanting [[palpebral fissure]]s (the separation between the upper and lower eyelids), shorter limbs, a [[single transverse palmar crease]] (a single instead of a double crease across one or both palms), [[hypotonia|poor muscle tone]], and a larger than normal space between the big and second toes. Health concerns for individuals with Down's syndrome include a higher risk for [[congenital heart defect]]s, [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], recurrent [[otitis|ear infections]] that may lead to hearing loss, [[obstructive sleep apnea]], [[thyroid]] dysfunctions, and obesity.
[[Early childhood intervention]], screening for common problems, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, and vocational training can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Education and proper care will improve [[quality of life]] significantly, despite genetic limitations.{{cite journal |author=Roizen, NJ; Patterson, D |title=Down's syndrome |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9365 |pages=1281–89 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12699967 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12987-X |format=Review}}","[3, 9]"
Stem cell,Potency definitions,461098580,2011-11-17T12:01:33Z,Heybbyy,"[[Image:Stem cells diagram.png|400px|thumb|right|Pluripotent, embryonic stem cells originate as inner mass cells within a blastocyst. The stem cells can become any tissue in the body, excluding a placenta. Only the morula's cells are totipotent, able to become all tissues and a placenta.]]
[[Image:Human embryonic stem cells.png|thumb|250px|Human [[embryo]]nic stem cells A: Cell colonies that are not yet differentiated. B: [[Nerve]] cell]]
{{Main|Cell potency}}
''Potency'' specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into different cell types) of the stem cell.{{cite book |title=Humanbiotechnology as Social Challenge |editor=Nikolaus Kn oepffler, Dagmar Schipanski, and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner |page=28 |chapter=The Potential of Stem Cells: An Inventory |author=Hans R. Schöler |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd |year=2007 |isbn=0754657558 |isbn13=9780754657552}}
* [[Totipotency|Totipotent]] (a.k.a omnipotent) stem cells can lick it differentiate into xxxxxxxxxPOOxxxxxxxx and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable organism. These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent.{{cite journal |title=Totipotency, pluripotency and nuclear reprogramming |author=Mitalipov S, Wolf D |journal=Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. |year=2009 |volume=114 |pages=185–99 |pmid=19343304 |pmc=2752493 |doi=10.1007/10_2008_45 }}
* [[Pluripotency|Pluripotent]] stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the three [[germ layer]]s.{{cite journal |author=Ulloa-Montoya F, Verfaillie CM, Hu WS |title=Culture systems for pluripotent stem cells |journal=J Biosci Bioeng. |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=12–27 |year=2005 |month=Jul |pmid=16233846 |doi=10.1263/jbb.100.12 }}
* [[Multipotency|Multipotent]] stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of cells.
* [[Oligopotency|Oligopotent]] stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells.
* [[Unipotency|Unipotent]] cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal, which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g., muscle stem cells).","[[Image:Stem cells diagram.png|400px|thumb|right|Pluripotent, embryonic stem cells originate as inner mass cells within a blastocyst. The stem cells can become any tissue in the body, excluding a placenta. Only the morula's cells are totipotent, able to become all tissues and a placenta.]]
[[Image:Human embryonic stem cells.png|thumb|250px|Human [[embryo]]nic stem cells A: Cell colonies that are not yet differentiated. B: [[Nerve]] cell]]
{{Main|Cell potency}}
''Potency'' specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into different cell types) of the stem cell.{{cite book |title=Humanbiotechnology as Social Challenge |editor=Nikolaus Knoepffler, Dagmar Schipanski, and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner |page=28 |chapter=The Potential of Stem Cells: An Inventory |author=Hans R. Schöler |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd |year=2007 |isbn=0754657558 |isbn13=9780754657552}}
* [[Totipotency|Totipotent]] (a.k.a omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable organism. These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent.{{cite journal |title=Totipotency, pluripotency and nuclear reprogramming |author=Mitalipov S, Wolf D |journal=Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. |year=2009 |volume=114 |pages=185–99 |pmid=19343304 |pmc=2752493 |doi=10.1007/10_2008_45 }}
* [[Pluripotency|Pluripotent]] stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the three [[germ layer]]s.{{cite journal |author=Ulloa-Montoya F, Verfaillie CM, Hu WS |title=Culture systems for pluripotent stem cells |journal=J Biosci Bioeng. |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=12–27 |year=2005 |month=Jul |pmid=16233846 |doi=10.1263/jbb.100.12 }}
* [[Multipotency|Multipotent]] stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of cells.
* [[Oligopotency|Oligopotent]] stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells.
* [[Unipotency|Unipotent]] cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal, which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g., muscle stem cells).",[11]
Circadian rhythm,External links,464010565,2011-12-04T10:38:55Z,Hordaland,"* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[fi:Sisäinen kello]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]","* [http://csd-n.org Circadian Sleep Disorders Organization]
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythms| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}
[[ca:Ritme circadià]]
[[cs:Cirkadiánní rytmus]]
[[da:Døgnrytme]]
[[de:Circadiane Rhythmik]]
[[el:Κιρκαδικός ρυθμός]]
[[es:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[fa:ساعت زیستی]]
[[fr:Rythme circadien]]
[[ko:일주기 생체 리듬]]
[[it:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[he:שעון ביולוגי]]
[[ht:Ritm sikadyen]]
[[hu:Cirkadián ritmus]]
[[nl:Circadiaan ritme]]
[[ja:概日リズム]]
[[no:Døgnrytme]]
[[nn:Døgnrytme]]
[[pl:Rytm okołodobowy]]
[[pt:Ritmo circadiano]]
[[ro:Ritmul circadian]]
[[ru:Циркадный ритм]]
[[simple:Circadian rhythm]]
[[sr:Биолошки часовник]]
[[sh:Biološki časovnik]]
[[fi:Sisäinen kello]]
[[sv:Dygnsrytm]]
[[ur:یوماوی آہنگ]]",[11]
Circadian rhythm,History,464240259,2011-12-05T17:23:55Z,90.200.192.51,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Hmmistoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[11]
Instruction cycle,Fetch cycle,465801177,2011-12-14T11:45:12Z,Intr199,"MDR\gets [Memory]_{MAR address}; PC\gets [PC]+1 (Increment the PC for next cycle at the same time)
IR\gets [MDR]The registers used above, besides the ones described earlier, are the Memory Address Register (MAR) and the Memory Data Register (MDR), which are used (at least conceptually) in the accessing of memory. Often, the MDR is expressed as the MBR (Memory Buffer Register). Fetch and execute example (written in RTL - Register Transfer Language):
PC=0x5AF , AC=0x7EC3 , M[0x5AF]=0x932E , M[0x32E]=0x09AC , M[0x9AC]=0x8B9F.
T0 : AR = 0x5AF (PC)
T1 : IR = 0x932E (M[AR]) , PC=0x5BO
T2 : DECODE = ADD opCode 0x932E , AR=0x32E , I=1. (Indirect instruction)
T3 : AR = 0x9AC (M[AR])
T4 : DR = 0x8B9F
T5 : AC = 0x8B9F + 0x7EC3 = 0x0A62, E = 1 (carry out) , SC = 0 Summary: this example is for an ADD Instruction which made Indirect where:
T0-T1 is the Fetch operation.
T2 is the operation code Decode.
T3 Indirect Memory reference
T4-T5 Execute ADD operation",Step 1 of the Instruction Cycle is called the Fetch Cycle. These steps are the same for each instruction. The fetch cycle processes the instruction from the instruction word which contains an [[opcode]].,"[1, 2, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,475465265,2012-02-06T21:44:35Z,Kikiuo1,"{{Ref improve section|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''Drosophilla'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","{{Ref improve section|date=October 2007}}
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are anoying to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651}} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''Drosophilla'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Down syndrome,Epidemiology,477570919,2012-02-18T18:03:54Z,Fayedizard,"[[File:Maternal Age Effect.png|thumb|150px|Graph showing probability of Down syndrome as a function of maternal age.]]
The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at one per 800 to one per 1000 births.Based on estimates by National Institute of Child Health & Human Development {{cite web |title = Down syndrome rates |url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/downsyndrome/down.htm#Questions |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060901004316/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/downsyndrome/down.htm#Questions |archivedate=2006-09-01 |accessdate = 2006-06-21}}
In 2006, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] estimated the rate as one per 733 live births in the United States (5429 new cases per year).{{cite journal |author=Center for Disease Control |title=Improved National Prevalence Estimates for 18 Selected Major Birth Defects, United States, 1999–2001 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |volume=54 |issue=51 & 52 |date=6 January 2006 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5451a2.htm |pages=1301–05 |pmid=16397457}} Approximately 95% of these are trisomy 21. Down syndrome occurs in all ethnic groups and among all economic classes.
[[Maternal age effect|Maternal age]] influences the chances of conceiving a baby with Down syndrome. At maternal age 20 to 24, the probability is one in 1562; at age 35 to 39 the probability is one in 214, and above age 45 the probability is one in 19.{{cite journal |author = Huether, CA |year = 1998 |title = Maternal age specific risk rate estimates for Down syndrome among live births in whites and other races from Ohio and metropolitan Atlanta, 1970-1989 |journal = J Med Genet |volume =35 |issue=6 |pages = 482–90 |doi = 10.1136/jmg.35.6.482 |last2 = Ivanovich |first2 = J |last3 = Goodwin |first3 = BS |last4 = Krivchenia |first4 = EL |last5 = Hertzberg |first5 = VS |last6 = Edmonds |first6 = LD |last7 = May |first7 = DS |last8 = Priest|first8 = J H |pmc=1051343 |pmid = 9643290}} Although the probability increases with maternal age, 80% of children with Down syndrome are born to women under the age of 35,Estimate from {{cite web |title=National Down Syndrome Center |url=http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/package3.php |accessdate = 2006-04-21}} reflecting the overall fertility of that age group. Recent data also suggest that [[Paternal age effect|paternal age]], especially beyond 42,{{cite web |url=http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/d/down_syndrome/prevalence.htm |title=Prevalence and Incidence of Down Syndrome |accessdate=2008-02-17 |date=2008-02-04 |work=Diseases Center-Down Syndrome |publisher=Adviware Pty Ltd. |quote=incidence increases...especially when...the father is older than age 42}} also increases the risk of Down syndrome manifesting.Warner, Jennifer. ""Dad's Age Raises Down Syndrome Risk, Too"", {{cite web |title=WebMD Medical News |url=http://www.webmd.com/infertility-and-reproduction/news/20030701/dad-age-down-syndrome |accessdate= 2007-09-29}}
Current research (as of 2008) has shown that Down syndrome is due to a random event during the formation of sex cells or pregnancy. There has been no evidence that it is due to parental behavior (other than age) or environmental factors.","[[File:Maternal Age Effect.png|thumb|150px|Graph showing probability of Down syndrome as a function of maternal age.]]
The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at one per 800 to one per 1000 births.Based on estimates by National Institute of Child Health & Human Development {{cite web |title = Down syndrome rates |url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/downsyndrome/down.htm#Questions |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060901004316/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/downsyndrome/down.htm#Questions |archivedate=2006-09-01 |accessdate = 2006-06-21}}
In 2006, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] estimated the rate as one per 733 live births in the United States (5429 new cases per year).{{cite journal |author=Center for Disease Control |title=Improved National Prevalence Estimates for 18 Selected Major Birth Defects, United States, 1999–2001 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |volume=54 |issue=51 & 52 |date=6 January 2006 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5451a2.htm |pages=1301–05 |pmid=16397457}} Approximately 95% of these are trisomy 21. Down syndrome occurs in all ethnic groups and among all economic classes.
[[Maternal age effect|Maternal age]] influences the chances of conceiving a baby with Down syndrome. At maternal age 20 to 24, the probability is one in 1562; at age 35 to 39 the probability is one in 214, and above age 45 the probability is one in 19.{{cite journal |author = Huether, CA |year = 1998 |title = Maternal age specific risk rate estimates for Down syndrome among live births in whites and other races from Ohio and metropolitan Atlanta, 1970-1989 |journal = J Med Genet |volume =35 |issue=6 |pages = 482–90 |doi = 10.1136/jmg.35.6.482 |last2 = Ivanovich |first2 = J |last3 = Goodwin |first3 = BS |last4 = Krivchenia |first4 = EL |last5 = Hertzberg |first5 = VS |last6 = Edmonds |first6 = LD |last7 = May |first7 = DS |last8 = Priest|first8 = J H |pmc=1051343 |pmid = 9643290}} Although the probability increases with maternal age, 80% of children with Down syndrome are born to women under the age of 35,Estimate from {{cite web |title=National Down Syndrome Center |url=http://www.ndsccenter.org/resources/package3.php |accessdate = 2006-04-21}} reflecting the overall fertility of that age group. Recent data also suggest that [[Paternal age effect|paternal age]], especially beyond 42,{{cite web |url=http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/d/down_syndrome/prevalence.htm |title=Prevalence and Incidence of Down Syndrome |accessdate=2008-02-17 |date=2008-02-04 |work=Diseases Center-Down Syndrome |publisher=Adviware Pty Ltd. |quote=incidence increases...especially when...the father is older than age 42}} also increases the risk of Down syndrome manifesting.Warner, Jennifer. ""Dad's Age Raises Down Syndrome Risk, Too"", {{cite web |title=WebMD Medical News |url=http://www.webmd.com/infertility-and-reproduction/news/20030701/dad-age-down-syndrome |accessdate= 2007-09-29}}",[2]
Circadian rhythm,See also,478696105,2012-02-25T00:19:45Z,Kwamikagami,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Photosensitive ganglion cell]]: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm.","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Photosensitive ganglion cell]]: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm.
* [[Polyphasic sleep]]
* [[Segmented sleep]]",[9]
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,479670751,2012-03-01T16:16:00Z,Gorton k,"To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures; they exhibit temperature compensation.''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and the thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues, and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures; they exhibit temperature compensation.''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","[3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),479711010,2012-03-01T20:49:24Z,Gorton k,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a biological processes which displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by (or composed of) [[circadian oscillator]]s, and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a biological processes which displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by (or composed of) a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","[3, 4, 9]"
K-d tree,Complexity,479938531,2012-03-03T06:17:15Z,Kirigiri,"* Building a static ''k''-d tree from ''n'' points takes:
** [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log2 ''n'') time if an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort is used to compute the median at each level;
** O(''n'' log ''n'') time if a linear [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithm such as the one described in Cormen ''et al.''{{Introduction to Algorithms}} Chapter 10. is used, or if the ''n'' points are sorted in each of the ''k'' dimensions using an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort ''prior'' to building the ''k''-d tree.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(''n''1-1/k +''m'') time, where ''m'' is the number of the reported points, and ''k'' the dimension of the ''k''-d tree.","* Building a static ''k''-d tree from ''n'' points takes:
** [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log2 ''n'') time if an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort is used to compute the median at each level;
** O(''n'' log ''n'') time if a linear-time [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithm such as the one described in Cormen ''et al.''{{Introduction to Algorithms}} Chapter 10. is used;
** O([''k''-1]''n'' log ''n'') time if ''n'' points are sorted in each of ''k'' dimensions ''prior'' to building the ''k''-d tree.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(''n''1-1/k +''m'') time, where ''m'' is the number of the reported points, and ''k'' the dimension of the ''k''-d tree.","[3, 10]"
K-d tree,Complexity,479939913,2012-03-03T06:34:52Z,Kirigiri,"* Building a static ''k''-d tree from ''n'' points takes:
** [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log2 ''n'') time if an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort is used to compute the median at each level;
** O(''n'' log ''n'') time if a linear-time [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithm such as the one described in Cormen ''et al.''{{Introduction to Algorithms}} Chapter 10. is used;
** O([''k''-1]''n'' log ''n'') time if ''n'' points are sorted in each of ''k'' dimensions ''prior'' to building the ''k''-d tree.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(''n''1-1/k +''m'') time, where ''m'' is the number of the reported points, and ''k'' the dimension of the ''k''-d tree.","* Building a static ''k''-d tree from ''n'' points takes:
** [[Big O notation|O]](''n'' log2 ''n'') time if an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort is used to compute the median at each level;
** O(''n'' log ''n'') time if a linear-time [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] algorithm such as the one described in Cormen ''et al.''{{Introduction to Algorithms}} Chapter 10. is used;
** O([''k''-1]''n'' log ''n'') time if ''n'' points are sorted in each of ''k'' dimensions ''prior'' to building the ''k''-d tree. This sorting takes O(''kn'' log ''n'') time.
* Inserting a new point into a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Removing a point from a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(log ''n'') time.
* Querying an axis-parallel range in a balanced ''k''-d tree takes O(''n''1-1/k +''m'') time, where ''m'' is the number of the reported points, and ''k'' the dimension of the ''k''-d tree.","[1, 10]"
Prion,Heavy metal poisoning hypothesis,480129633,2012-03-04T11:17:16Z,137.186.47.81,"Recent reports suggest that imbalance of brain metal homeostasis is a significant cause of PrPSc-associated neurotoxicity, though the underlying mechanisms are difficult to explain based on existing information. Proposed hypotheses include a functional role for PrPC in metal metabolism, and loss of this function due to aggregation to the disease associated PrPSc form as the cause of brain metal imbalance. Other views suggest gain of toxic function by PrPSc due to sequestration of PrPC-associated metals within the aggregates, resulting in the generation of redox-active PrPSc complexes. The physiological implications of some PrPC-metal interactions are known, while others are still unclear. The pathological implications of PrPC-metal interaction include metal-induced oxidative damage, and in some instances conversion of PrPC to a PrPSc-like form.{{cite book |author= Singh N et al.| year=2010 |chapter=Prion Protein and Metal Interaction: Physiological and Pathological Implications|title=The Prion Protein | publisher=Savanna Press | isbn= 978-0-9543335-2-2}}","Ash of hamsters is a vector of encephalopathy. That eliminates protein or [[DNA|D.N.A.]] as a vector, and allows [[manganism]] as a model of disease.{{cite journal |author=Collins SJ, Lawson VA, Masters CL |title=Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies |journal=Lancet |volume=363 |issue=9402 |pages=51–61 |year=2004 |pmid=14723996 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15171-9}}{{cite journal |author=Brown P, Rau EH, Johnson BK, Bacote AE, Gibbs CJ, Gajdusek DC |title=New studies on the heat resistance of hamster-adapted scrapie agent: threshold survival after ashing at 600 degrees C suggests an inorganic template of replication |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=97 |issue=7 |pages=3418–21 |year=2000 |month=March |pmid=10716712 |pmc=16254 |doi=10.1073/pnas.050566797 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10716712 |accessdate=2010-02-28}} This agrees with Purdey's epidemiolgy, where encephalopathy is rampant among inhabitants of a Manganese mining operation. {{cite web|http://books.google.ca/books?id=JpW_UmvGfoEC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=manganese+mining+purdey&source=bl&ots=u5jZWwckSw&sig=chZfMgejK0GvjGDQ1KoMkKbXpoI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xUxTT7DjG4Xu0gH_yeT_DQ&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=manganese%20mining%20purdey&f=false|title=Animal Pharm}} It also agrees with research that shows Manganese makes a protein into a polymer, which is therefore protease resistant. {{cite pmid|22007749}}","[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9]"
K-d tree,Construction,480173869,2012-03-04T16:55:46Z,Kirigiri,"Since there are many possible ways to choose axis-aligned splitting planes, there are many different ways to construct ''k''-d trees. The canonical method of ''k''-d tree construction has the following constraints:
* As one moves down the tree, one cycles through the axes used to select the splitting planes. (For example, in a 3-dimensional tree, the root would have an ''x''-aligned plane, the root's children would both have ''y''-aligned planes, the root's grandchildren would all have ''z''-aligned planes, the root's great-grandchildren would all have ''x''-aligned planes, the root's great-great-grandchildren would all have ''y''-aligned planes, and so on.)
* Points are inserted by selecting the [[median]] of the points being put into the subtree, with respect to their coordinates in the axis being used to create the splitting plane. (Note the assumption that we feed the entire set of ''n'' points into the algorithm up-front.)
This method leads to a [[balanced tree|balanced]] ''k''-d tree, in which each leaf node is about the same distance from the root. However, balanced trees are not necessarily optimal for all applications.
Note also that it is not ''required'' to select the median point. In that case, the result is simply that there is no guarantee that the tree will be balanced. A simple heuristic to avoid coding a complex linear-time [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] [[algorithm]], or using an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort of all ''n'' points, is to use sort to find the median of a ''fixed'' number of ''randomly'' selected points to serve as the splitting plane. In practice, this technique often results in nicely balanced trees.
Given a list of ''n'' points, the following algorithm uses a median-finding sort to construct a balanced ''k''-d tree containing those points.
'''function''' kdtree (''list of points'' pointList, ''int'' depth)
{
''// Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values''
'''var''' ''int'' axis := depth '''mod''' k;
''// Sort point list and choose median as pivot element''
'''[[Selection algorithm|select]]''' median '''by''' axis '''from''' pointList;
''// Create node and construct subtrees''
'''var''' ''tree_node'' node;
node.location := median;
node.leftChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''before''' median, depth+1);
node.rightChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''after''' median, depth+1);
'''return''' node;
}
It is common that points ""after"" the median include only the ones that are strictly greater than the median. For points that lie on the median, it is possible to define a ""superkey"" function that compares the points in all dimensions. In some cases, it is acceptable to let points equal to the median lie on one side of the median, for example, by splitting the points into a ""less than"" subset and a ""greater than or equal to"" subset.
The above algorithm implemented in the [[Python (programming language)|Python programming language]] is as follows:
class Node: pass
def kdtree(point_list, depth=0):
if not point_list:
return None
# Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values
k = len(point_list[0]) # assumes all points have the same dimension
axis = depth % k
# Sort point list and choose median as pivot element
point_list.sort(key=lambda point: point[axis])
median = len(point_list) // 2 # choose median
# Create node and construct subtrees
node = Node()
node.location = point_list[median]
node.left_child = kdtree(point_list[:median], depth + 1)
node.right_child = kdtree(point_list[median + 1:], depth + 1)
return node
[[Image:Kdtree 2d.svg|right|thumb|300px|The resulting ''k''-d tree decomposition.]]
[[Image:Tree 0001.svg|right|thumb|300px|The resulting ''k''-d tree.]]
Example usage would be:
point_list = [(2,3), (5,4), (9,6), (4,7), (8,1), (7,2)]
tree = kdtree(point_list)
The tree generated is shown on the right.
This algorithm creates the [[invariant (computer science)|invariant]] that for any node, all the nodes in the left [[subtree]] are on one side of a splitting [[plane (mathematics)|plane]], and all the nodes in the right subtree are on the other side. Points that lie on the splitting plane may appear on either side. The splitting plane of a node goes through the point associated with that node (referred to in the code as ''node.location'').
A novel tree-building algorithm builds a balanced ''k''-d tree in O(''kn'' log ''n'') time by sorting ''n'' points in ''k'' dimensions independently and ''prior'' to building the ''k''-d tree.I. Wald and V. Hvran. [http://dcgi.felk.cvut.cz/cgg/~havran/ARTICLES/ingo06rtKdtree.pdf On building fast kd-trees for ray tracing, and on doing that in O(NlogN)] [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:sJ7XuH1grawJ:citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi%3D10.1.1.140.2707%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf+&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESg3NWyi_-vPPrvNBR3Z12qs0mswaOSFMUzBtHD37xiN23FJvNyzZwQ56BV2xJmnGks0uhf_scVVszu_eP_y-OE4NtXUS2rIfgB3bmzlvawtkAS7S0_dbk_57x5Sa6MmYCRVVf8R&sig=AHIEtbSjJndZKfV7dZyBNXINZZgSBkdk9A On building fast kd-trees for ray tracing, and on doing that in O(NlogN)]. IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing, pp. 61-69, 2006.H. M. Kakde. [http://www.cs.fsu.edu/~lifeifei/cis5930/kdtree.pdf Range searching using kd tree. pp. 1-12, 2005][http://www.scribd.com/doc/26091526/Range-Searching-Using-Kd-Tree Range searching using kd tree. pp. 1-12, 2005] An acceptable sorting algorithm is [[Heapsort]] that creates a [[sorted array]] in O(''n'' log ''n'') time. The results of these ''k a priori'' sorts are represented using ''k'' arrays of length ''n'', whose elements contain indices that reference the ''n'' points. These indices are not the (''x'', ''y'', ''z'', ''w'', etc.) coordinates of the points, but rather the point ''numbers'' from 0 to ''n''-1. The ''k'' arrays of indices (or index arrays) are numbered from 0 to ''k''-1. The ''n'' points that are referenced by index array 0, from the first array element to the last, have monotonically increasing ''x''-coordinates. The same ''n'' points that are referenced by index array 1, from the first array element to the last, have monotonically increasing ''y''-coordinates. This pattern continues for index arrays 2, 3, etc. that reference the ''n'' points such that these points have monotonically increasing ''z''-, ''w''-, etc. coordinates, respectively, as provided by the ''a priori'' sort. This sort does not reorder the ''n'' points, but instead reorders the references to these points in each of the ''k'' index arrays.
In order to build the first level of the ''k''-d tree, the median element of the first index array (array 0) is chosen; let the ''value'' of this median element be called median 0. Due to the ''a priori'' sort, the point that is referenced by median 0 defines a splitting plane of constant ''x'' that partitions array 0 into two sub-arrays. One sub-array includes all array elements that lie below the median element and that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are less than the ''x'' of the splitting plane. The other sub-array includes all array elements that lie above the median element and that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are greater than or equal to the ''x'' of the splitting plane.
None of the other ''k''-1 index arrays have been partitioned by this ''x''-splitting plane, because these other arrays all have been sorted relative to some other coordinate (''y'', ''z'', ''w'', etc.). Hence, ''each'' of these ''k''-1 index arrays must be partitioned by the ''x''-splitting plane to form two sub-arrays via the following procedure: (1) consider each element of the index array in ''a priori'' sorted order; (2) ignore the array element whose ''value'' equals median 0, because the point that is referenced by this element defines the ''x''-splitting plane; (3) for all other array elements, test the ''x'' coordinate of the point that is referenced by the element against the ''x''-splitting plane; and (4) partition the array element into one or the other of two sub-arrays, depending on which side of the ''x''-splitting plane the point lies. One sub-array accepts elements that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are less than the ''x'' of the splitting plane. The other sub-array accepts elements whose ''x'' coordinates are greater than or equal to the ''x'' of the splitting plane. Taken together, these two sub-arrays comprise one less element than the index array from which they were partitioned. This omitted element defines the ''x''-splitting plane, so its ''value'' is stored in the node at the first level of the ''k''-d tree.
This partitioning procedure produces 2''k''-2 sub-arrays that are partitioned by the ''x''-splitting plane. Two more sub-arrays are obtained from index array 0 that was partitioned earlier during the ''a priori'' sort. In all, there are 2''k'' sub-arrays that preserve the ''a priori'' sorted order in all ''k'' dimensions, and that may be used to build the two sub-trees at the next level of the ''k''-d tree. The ''k'' sub-arrays that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are less than the ''x'' of the splitting plane are used to build the left sub-tree. The ''k'' sub-arrays that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are greater than or equal to the ''x'' of the splitting plane are used to build the right sub-tree. In order to build the sub-trees at the next level of the ''k''-d tree, the median element of sub-array 1 is chosen, and defines a ''y''-splitting plane by which ''k''-1 sub-arrays (including sub-array 0) must be partitioned. At progressively deeper levels of the ''k''-d tree, the median elements of sub-arrays 2, 3, etc. are chosen, and define ''z''-, ''w''-, etc. splitting planes, respectively, as required by the ''k''-d sort. Recursive tree-building terminates when sub-arrays comprise either one or two elements, because these cases are trivial and require no further partitioning to solve.
Due to elements that are omitted from the sub-arrays at each level of the ''k''-d tree, somewhat less than O([''k''-1]''n'') comparisons are performed when building each of the log ''n'' levels of the balanced ''k''-d tree, and hence the computational complexity of building the entire ''k''-d tree is less than O([''k''-1]''n'' log ''n''). However, the ''a priori'' sort has O(''kn'' log ''n'') complexity, which is greater than the complexity of building the ''k''-d tree. An implementation of this algorithm in the [[C (programming language)|C programming language]] is shown below. This program may be compiled and run to construct an exemplary ''k''-d tree from three-dimensional points. The program is designed to handle an arbitrary number of dimensions.
#include
#include
typedef struct kdNode
{
int n;
struct kdNode *left, *right;
} KDNODE_T;
/* This function allocates and initializes a kdNode structure. */
KDNODE_T *newKDnode(int i)
{
KDNODE_T *kdPtr = (KDNODE_T *)malloc(sizeof(KDNODE_T));
kdPtr->n = i;
kdPtr->left = kdPtr->right = NULL;
return kdPtr;
}
/*
* This function builds a k-d tree by recursively partitioning
* the index arrays and adding nodes to the tree. These arrays
* are permuted cyclically for successive levels of the tree in
* order that sorting occur on x, y, z, w...
*
* Calling parameters are as follows:
*
* index - index arrays sorted by x, y, z, w...
* t - temporary index array
* first - first element of the index arrays
* last - last element of the index arrays
* xyz - array containing x, y, z, w... coordinates
* dim - the number of dimensions to sort
* depth - the depth in the tree
*/
KDNODE_T *buildKDtree(int **index, int t[], int first, int last,
int **xyz, int dim, int depth)
{
KDNODE_T *kdPtr;
/* The 'axis' permutes as x, y, z, w... and is used to address 'xyz'. */
int axis = depth % dim;
/* If only one element was passed to this function, add it to the tree. */
if (last == first) {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
}
/*
* Otherwise, if two elements were passed to this function, determine
* which element is the left child and which is the right child.
* If the two children have equal coordinates, arbitrarily pick the
* 'last' element as the >= child, in order to split as < and >=.
*/
else if (last == first + 1) {
if (xyz[index[0][first]][axis] < xyz[index[0][last]][axis]) {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
kdPtr->left = newKDnode(index[0][first]);
}
else if (xyz[index[0][first]][axis] > xyz[index[0][last]][axis]) {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][first]);
kdPtr->left = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
}
else {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][first]);
kdPtr->right = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
}
}
/* Otherwise, more than two elements were passed to this function. */
else {
/*
* The median element of index[0] is taken as the element about
* which the other index arrays will be partitioned. But search
* the lower elements of index[0] to ensure that no elements of
* this array below the median element have coordinates equal to
* that of the median element. This approach splits as < and >=.
*/
int median = (first + last) / 2;
int split = xyz[index[0][median]][axis];
while (median > first && xyz[index[0][median-1]][axis] == split) {
median--;
}
/* Store the median element of index[0] in a new kdNode. */
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][median]);
/* Copy index[0] to the temporary index array. */
for (int i = first; i <= last; i++) {
t[i] = index[0][i];
}
/*
* Process each of the other index arrays in a priori sorted
* order and partition it by comparing coordinates. Copy the
* result from index[i] to index[i-1], thus permuting the index
* arrays. Skip the element of index[i] that equals the median.
*/
int ltIndex = first - 1;
int geIndex = median;
for (int i = 1; i < dim; i++) {
ltIndex = first - 1;
geIndex = median;
for (int j = first; j <= last; j++) {
if (index[i][j] != kdPtr->n) {
if (xyz[index[i][j]][axis] < split) {
index[i-1][++ltIndex] = index[i][j];
} else {
index[i-1][++geIndex] = index[i][j];
}
}
}
}
/* Copy the temporary array to index[dim-1] to finish permutation. */
for (int i = first; i <= last; i++) {
index[dim-1][i] = t[i];
}
/*
* Recursively build the left branch of the tree if the ltIndex group
* of the index arrays is not empty.
*/
if (ltIndex >= first) {
kdPtr->left = buildKDtree(index, t, first, ltIndex, xyz, dim, depth+1);
}
/*
* Recursively build the right branch of the tree if the geIndex group
* of the index arrays is not empty.
*/
if (geIndex > median) {
kdPtr->right = buildKDtree(index, t, median+1, geIndex, xyz, dim, depth+1);
}
}
return kdPtr;
}
/*
* Heapsort functions from p. 77 of ""C, a Reference Manual"", 4th Edition
* by Harbison & Steele, modified to sort the elements of the index array
* via comparison of the corresponding elements of the coordinate array.
*/
#define SWAP(x, y) (temp = (x), (x) = (y), (y) = temp)
/*
* If xyz[v[m+1]][axis] through xyz[v[n]][axis] are already in heap
* form, put xyz[v[m]][axis] through xyz[v[n]][axis] into heap form.
*/
void adjust(int v[], int m, int n, int **xyz, int axis)
{
int *b, j, k, temp;
b = v - 1; /* b is ""1-origin"", i.e., v[j] is the same as b[j-1] */
j = m;
k = m + m;
while (k <= n) {
if ( (k < n) && (xyz[b[k]][axis] < xyz[b[k+1]][axis]) ) ++k;
if (xyz[b[j]][axis] < xyz[b[k]][axis]) SWAP(b[j], b[k]);
j = k;
k = k + k;
}
}
/* Sort xyz[b[0]][axis]...xyz[v[n-1]][axis] into the form of a heap. */
void heapsort(int v[], int n, int **xyz, int axis)
{
int *b, j, temp;
b = v - 1; /* b is ""1-origin"", i.e., v[j] is the same as b[j-1] */
/* Put the array into the form of a heap. */
for (j = n/2; j > 0; j--) adjust(v, j, n, xyz, axis);
/*
* Repeatedly extract the largest element and
* put it at the end of the unsorted region.
*/
for (j = n-1; j > 0; j--) {
SWAP(b[1], b[j+1]);
adjust(v, 1, j, xyz, axis);
}
}
/* Print the k-d tree ""sideways"" with the root at the left. */
void printKDtree(KDNODE_T *kdPtr, int **xyz, int dim, int depth)
{
if (kdPtr) {
printKDtree(kdPtr->right, xyz, dim, depth+1);
for (int i=0; in][0]);
for (int i=1; in][i]);
printf(""%d)\n"", xyz[kdPtr->n][dim-1]);
printKDtree(kdPtr->left, xyz, dim, depth+1);
}
}
#define DIM (3)
#define PNT (15)
/* Create a simple k-d tree and print its topology for inspection. */
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
/* Declare the 2D array 'points' that contains (x,y,z) coordinates. */
int points[PNT][DIM] = { {2,3,3}, {5,4,2}, {9,6,7}, {4,7,9}, {8,1,5},
{7,2,6}, {9,4,1}, {8,4,2}, {9,7,8}, {6,3,1},
{3,4,5}, {1,6,8}, {9,5,3}, {2,1,3}, {8,7,6} };
/* Copy the 2D array 'points' to the 'xyz' array of arrays. */
int **xyz = (int **)malloc(PNT*sizeof(int *));
for (int i=0; i","Since there are many possible ways to choose axis-aligned splitting planes, there are many different ways to construct ''k''-d trees. The canonical method of ''k''-d tree construction has the following constraints:
* As one moves down the tree, one cycles through the axes used to select the splitting planes. (For example, in a 3-dimensional tree, the root would have an ''x''-aligned plane, the root's children would both have ''y''-aligned planes, the root's grandchildren would all have ''z''-aligned planes, the root's great-grandchildren would all have ''x''-aligned planes, the root's great-great-grandchildren would all have ''y''-aligned planes, and so on.)
* Points are inserted by selecting the [[median]] of the points being put into the subtree, with respect to their coordinates in the axis being used to create the splitting plane. (Note the assumption that we feed the entire set of ''n'' points into the algorithm up-front.)
This method leads to a [[balanced tree|balanced]] ''k''-d tree, in which each leaf node is about the same distance from the root. However, balanced trees are not necessarily optimal for all applications.
Note also that it is not ''required'' to select the median point. In that case, the result is simply that there is no guarantee that the tree will be balanced. A simple heuristic to avoid coding a complex linear-time [[Selection algorithm|median-finding]] [[algorithm]], or using an O(''n'' log ''n'') sort of all ''n'' points, is to use sort to find the median of a ''fixed'' number of ''randomly'' selected points to serve as the splitting plane. In practice, this technique often results in nicely balanced trees.
Given a list of ''n'' points, the following algorithm uses a median-finding sort to construct a balanced ''k''-d tree containing those points.
'''function''' kdtree (''list of points'' pointList, ''int'' depth)
{
''// Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values''
'''var''' ''int'' axis := depth '''mod''' k;
''// Sort point list and choose median as pivot element''
'''[[Selection algorithm|select]]''' median '''by''' axis '''from''' pointList;
''// Create node and construct subtrees''
'''var''' ''tree_node'' node;
node.location := median;
node.leftChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''before''' median, depth+1);
node.rightChild := kdtree(points '''in''' pointList '''after''' median, depth+1);
'''return''' node;
}
It is common that points ""after"" the median include only the ones that are strictly greater than the median. For points that lie on the median, it is possible to define a ""superkey"" function that compares the points in all dimensions. In some cases, it is acceptable to let points equal to the median lie on one side of the median, for example, by splitting the points into a ""less than"" subset and a ""greater than or equal to"" subset.
The above algorithm implemented in the [[Python (programming language)|Python programming language]] is as follows:
class Node: pass
def kdtree(point_list, depth=0):
if not point_list:
return None
# Select axis based on depth so that axis cycles through all valid values
k = len(point_list[0]) # assumes all points have the same dimension
axis = depth % k
# Sort point list and choose median as pivot element
point_list.sort(key=lambda point: point[axis])
median = len(point_list) // 2 # choose median
# Create node and construct subtrees
node = Node()
node.location = point_list[median]
node.left_child = kdtree(point_list[:median], depth + 1)
node.right_child = kdtree(point_list[median + 1:], depth + 1)
return node
[[Image:Kdtree 2d.svg|right|thumb|300px|The resulting ''k''-d tree decomposition.]]
[[Image:Tree 0001.svg|right|thumb|300px|The resulting ''k''-d tree.]]
Example usage would be:
point_list = [(2,3), (5,4), (9,6), (4,7), (8,1), (7,2)]
tree = kdtree(point_list)
The tree generated is shown on the right.
This algorithm creates the [[invariant (computer science)|invariant]] that for any node, all the nodes in the left [[subtree]] are on one side of a splitting [[plane (mathematics)|plane]], and all the nodes in the right subtree are on the other side. Points that lie on the splitting plane may appear on either side. The splitting plane of a node goes through the point associated with that node (referred to in the code as ''node.location'').
A novel tree-building algorithm builds a balanced ''k''-d tree in O(''kn'' log ''n'') time by sorting ''n'' points in ''k'' dimensions independently and ''prior'' to building the ''k''-d tree.I. Wald and V. Hvran. [http://dcgi.felk.cvut.cz/cgg/~havran/ARTICLES/ingo06rtKdtree.pdf On building fast kd-trees for ray tracing, and on doing that in O(NlogN)] [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:sJ7XuH1grawJ:citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi%3D10.1.1.140.2707%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf+&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESg3NWyi_-vPPrvNBR3Z12qs0mswaOSFMUzBtHD37xiN23FJvNyzZwQ56BV2xJmnGks0uhf_scVVszu_eP_y-OE4NtXUS2rIfgB3bmzlvawtkAS7S0_dbk_57x5Sa6MmYCRVVf8R&sig=AHIEtbSjJndZKfV7dZyBNXINZZgSBkdk9A On building fast kd-trees for ray tracing, and on doing that in O(NlogN)]. IEEE Symposium on Interactive Ray Tracing, pp. 61-69, 2006.H. M. Kakde. [http://www.cs.fsu.edu/~lifeifei/cis5930/kdtree.pdf Range searching using kd tree. pp. 1-12, 2005][http://www.scribd.com/doc/26091526/Range-Searching-Using-Kd-Tree Range searching using kd tree. pp. 1-12, 2005] A suitable sorting algorithm is [[Heapsort]] that creates a [[sorted array]] in O(''n'' log ''n'') time. The results of these ''k a priori'' sorts are represented using ''k'' arrays of length ''n'', whose elements contain indices (''i.e.'', the numbers 0 through ''n''-1) that reference the ''n'' points. These ''k'' arrays of indices (or index arrays) are numbered from 0 to ''k''-1. Due to the ''a priori'' sort, the elements of index array 0, from first to last, reference the ''n'' points such that the points' ''x''-coordinates increase monotonically. Similarly, the elements of index arrays 1, 2, 3, etc., from first to last, reference the same ''n'' points such that the points' ''y''-, ''z''-, ''w''-, etc. coordinates, respectively, increase monotonically.
In order to build the first level of the ''k''-d tree, the median element of the first index array (array 0) is chosen. Let the ''value'' of this median element be called median 0. Due to the ''a priori'' sort, the point that is referenced by median 0 defines a splitting plane of constant ''x'' that partitions array 0 into two subarrays. One subarray includes all array elements that lie below the median element and that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are less than the ''x'' of the splitting plane. The other subarray includes all array elements that lie above the median element and that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are greater than or equal to the ''x'' of the splitting plane.
None of the other ''k''-1 index arrays have been partitioned by this ''x''-splitting plane, because these other arrays all have been sorted relative to some other coordinate (''y'', ''z'', ''w'', etc.). Hence, ''each'' of these ''k''-1 index arrays must be partitioned by the ''x''-splitting plane to form two subarrays via the following procedure: (1) consider each element of the index array in ''a priori'' sorted order; (2) ignore the array element whose ''value'' equals median 0, because the point that is referenced by this element defines the ''x''-splitting plane; (3) for all other array elements, test the ''x'' coordinate of the point that is referenced by the element against the ''x''-splitting plane; and (4) partition the array element into one or the other of two subarrays, depending on which side of the ''x''-splitting plane the point lies. The ""left"" subarray accepts elements that reference points whose ''x'' coordinates are less than the ''x'' of the splitting plane. The ""right"" subarray accepts elements whose ''x'' coordinates are greater than or equal to the ''x'' of the splitting plane. Taken together, these two subarrays comprise one less element than the index array from which they were partitioned. This omitted element defines the ''x''-splitting plane, and its ''value'' is stored in the tree node at the first level of the ''k''-d tree.
This partitioning procedure produces 2''k''-2 sub-arrays that are partitioned by the ''x''-splitting plane. Two more subarrays are obtained from index array 0 that was partitioned about median 0 during the ''a priori'' sort. In all, these 2''k'' subarrays preserve the ''a priori'' sorted order in all ''k'' dimensions, and may be used to build the two [[subtree|subtrees]] at the next level of the ''k''-d tree. The ''k'' ""left"" subarrays are used to build the left subtree. The ''k'' ""right"" subarrays are used to build the right subtree. In order to build each subtree at the next level of the ''k''-d tree, the median element of subarray 1 is chosen, and defines a ''y''-splitting plane by which ''k''-1 subarrays (including subarray 0) must be partitioned. At progressively deeper levels of the ''k''-d tree, the median elements of subarrays 2, 3, etc. are chosen, and define ''z''-, ''w''-, etc. splitting planes, respectively, as required by the ''k''-d sort. Recursive tree-building terminates when the subarrays comprise either one or two elements, because these cases are trivial and require no further partitioning to solve.
Due to elements that are omitted from the subarrays at each level of the ''k''-d tree, somewhat less than O([''k''-1]''n'') comparisons are performed when building each of the log ''n'' levels of the balanced ''k''-d tree. Hence, the computational complexity of building the entire ''k''-d tree is less than O([''k''-1]''n'' log ''n''). However, the ''a priori'' sort has O(''kn'' log ''n'') complexity, which is greater than the complexity of building the ''k''-d tree. An implementation of this algorithm in the [[C (programming language)|C programming language]] is shown below. This program may be compiled and run to construct an exemplary ''k''-d tree from three-dimensional points. The program is designed to handle an arbitrary number of dimensions.
#include
#include
typedef struct kdNode
{
int n;
struct kdNode *left, *right;
} KDNODE_T;
/* This function allocates and initializes a kdNode structure. */
KDNODE_T *newKDnode(int i)
{
KDNODE_T *kdPtr = (KDNODE_T *)malloc(sizeof(KDNODE_T));
kdPtr->n = i;
kdPtr->left = kdPtr->right = NULL;
return kdPtr;
}
/*
* This function builds a k-d tree by recursively partitioning
* the index arrays and adding nodes to the tree. These arrays
* are permuted cyclically for successive levels of the tree in
* order that sorting occur on x, y, z, w...
*
* Calling parameters are as follows:
*
* index - index arrays sorted by x, y, z, w...
* t - temporary index array
* first - first element of the index arrays
* last - last element of the index arrays
* xyz - array containing x, y, z, w... coordinates
* dim - the number of dimensions to sort
* depth - the depth in the tree
*/
KDNODE_T *buildKDtree(int **index, int t[], int first, int last,
int **xyz, int dim, int depth)
{
KDNODE_T *kdPtr;
/* The 'axis' permutes as x, y, z, w... and is used to address 'xyz'. */
int axis = depth % dim;
/* If only one element was passed to this function, add it to the tree. */
if (last == first) {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
}
/*
* Otherwise, if two elements were passed to this function, determine
* which element is the left child and which is the right child.
* If the two children have equal coordinates, arbitrarily pick the
* 'last' element as the >= child, in order to split as < and >=.
*/
else if (last == first + 1) {
if (xyz[index[0][first]][axis] < xyz[index[0][last]][axis]) {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
kdPtr->left = newKDnode(index[0][first]);
}
else if (xyz[index[0][first]][axis] > xyz[index[0][last]][axis]) {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][first]);
kdPtr->left = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
}
else {
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][first]);
kdPtr->right = newKDnode(index[0][last]);
}
}
/* Otherwise, more than two elements were passed to this function. */
else {
/*
* The median element of index[0] is taken as the element about
* which the other index arrays will be partitioned. But search
* the lower elements of index[0] to ensure that no elements of
* this array below the median element have coordinates equal to
* that of the median element. This approach splits as < and >=.
*/
int median = (first + last) / 2;
int split = xyz[index[0][median]][axis];
while (median > first && xyz[index[0][median-1]][axis] == split) {
median--;
}
/* Store the median element of index[0] in a new kdNode. */
kdPtr = newKDnode(index[0][median]);
/* Copy index[0] to the temporary index array. */
for (int i = first; i <= last; i++) {
t[i] = index[0][i];
}
/*
* Process each of the other index arrays in a priori sorted
* order and partition it by comparing coordinates. Copy the
* result from index[i] to index[i-1], thus permuting the index
* arrays. Skip the element of index[i] that equals the median.
*/
int ltIndex = first - 1;
int geIndex = median;
for (int i = 1; i < dim; i++) {
ltIndex = first - 1;
geIndex = median;
for (int j = first; j <= last; j++) {
if (index[i][j] != kdPtr->n) {
if (xyz[index[i][j]][axis] < split) {
index[i-1][++ltIndex] = index[i][j];
} else {
index[i-1][++geIndex] = index[i][j];
}
}
}
}
/* Copy the temporary array to index[dim-1] to finish permutation. */
for (int i = first; i <= last; i++) {
index[dim-1][i] = t[i];
}
/*
* Recursively build the left branch of the tree if the ltIndex group
* of the index arrays is not empty.
*/
if (ltIndex >= first) {
kdPtr->left = buildKDtree(index, t, first, ltIndex, xyz, dim, depth+1);
}
/*
* Recursively build the right branch of the tree if the geIndex group
* of the index arrays is not empty.
*/
if (geIndex > median) {
kdPtr->right = buildKDtree(index, t, median+1, geIndex, xyz, dim, depth+1);
}
}
return kdPtr;
}
/*
* Heapsort functions from p. 77 of ""C, a Reference Manual"", 4th Edition
* by Harbison & Steele, modified to sort the elements of the index array
* via comparison of the corresponding elements of the coordinate array.
*/
#define SWAP(x, y) (temp = (x), (x) = (y), (y) = temp)
/*
* If xyz[v[m+1]][axis] through xyz[v[n]][axis] are already in heap
* form, put xyz[v[m]][axis] through xyz[v[n]][axis] into heap form.
*/
void adjust(int v[], int m, int n, int **xyz, int axis)
{
int *b, j, k, temp;
b = v - 1; /* b is ""1-origin"", i.e., v[j] is the same as b[j-1] */
j = m;
k = m + m;
while (k <= n) {
if ( (k < n) && (xyz[b[k]][axis] < xyz[b[k+1]][axis]) ) ++k;
if (xyz[b[j]][axis] < xyz[b[k]][axis]) SWAP(b[j], b[k]);
j = k;
k = k + k;
}
}
/* Sort xyz[b[0]][axis]...xyz[v[n-1]][axis] into the form of a heap. */
void heapsort(int v[], int n, int **xyz, int axis)
{
int *b, j, temp;
b = v - 1; /* b is ""1-origin"", i.e., v[j] is the same as b[j-1] */
/* Put the array into the form of a heap. */
for (j = n/2; j > 0; j--) adjust(v, j, n, xyz, axis);
/*
* Repeatedly extract the largest element and
* put it at the end of the unsorted region.
*/
for (j = n-1; j > 0; j--) {
SWAP(b[1], b[j+1]);
adjust(v, 1, j, xyz, axis);
}
}
/* Print the k-d tree ""sideways"" with the root at the left. */
void printKDtree(KDNODE_T *kdPtr, int **xyz, int dim, int depth)
{
if (kdPtr) {
printKDtree(kdPtr->right, xyz, dim, depth+1);
for (int i=0; in][0]);
for (int i=1; in][i]);
printf(""%d)\n"", xyz[kdPtr->n][dim-1]);
printKDtree(kdPtr->left, xyz, dim, depth+1);
}
}
#define DIM (3)
#define PNT (15)
/* Create a simple k-d tree and print its topology for inspection. */
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
/* Declare the 2D array 'points' that contains (x,y,z) coordinates. */
int points[PNT][DIM] = { {2,3,3}, {5,4,2}, {9,6,7}, {4,7,9}, {8,1,5},
{7,2,6}, {9,4,1}, {8,4,2}, {9,7,8}, {6,3,1},
{3,4,5}, {1,6,8}, {9,5,3}, {2,1,3}, {8,7,6} };
/* Copy the 2D array 'points' to the 'xyz' array of arrays. */
int **xyz = (int **)malloc(PNT*sizeof(int *));
for (int i=0; i","[3, 9]"
AngularJS,Releases,480200201,2012-03-04T19:52:40Z,99.100.101.232,,"Jan 17, 2012 - 0.10.6 - ""bubblewrap-cape""
Nov 8, 2011 - 0.10.5 - ""steel-fist""
Aug 21, 2011 - 0.9.19 - ""canine-psychokinesis""
Jul 29, 2011 - 0.9.18 - ""jiggling-armfat""
Jun 30, 2011 - 0.9.17 - ""vegetable-reanimation""
Jun 7, 2011 - 0.9.16 - ""weather-control""
April 11, 2011 - 0.9.15 - ""lethal-stutter""
April 1, 2011 - 0.9.14 - ""key-maker""
Mar 14, 2011 - 0.9.13 - ""curdling-stare""
Mar 4, 2011 - 0.9.12 - ""thought-implanter""
Feb 9, 2011 - 0.9.11 - ""snow-maker""
Feb 1, 2011 - 0.9.10 - ""flea-whisperer""
Jan 14, 2011 - 0.9.9 - ""time-shift""
Dec 24, 2010 - 0.9.8 - ""astral-projection""
Dec 10, 2010 - 0.9.7 - ""sonic-scream""
Dec 7, 2010 - 0.9.6 - ""night vision""
Nov 25, 2010 - 0.9.5 - ""turkey-blast""
Nov 19, 2010 - 0.9.4 - ""total-recall""
Nov 11, 2010 - 0.9.3 - ""cold-resistance""
Nov 3, 2010 - 0.9.2 - ""faunal-mimicry""
Oct 26, 2010 - 0.9.1 - ""repulsion-field""
Oct 21, 2010 - 0.9.0 - ""Dragon Breath""
TODO - releases back to 2009.","[1, 10]"
AngularJS,Development Team,480201824,2012-03-04T20:03:29Z,PaulHammant,,"Adam Abrons and Misko Hevery developed the first version together in 2009. Adam was a freelancer, and Misko a Googler at the time, both in the San Francisco Bay area. Adam has stepped away from the project for the time being and works at Square in San Francisco (full time). Misko continues with Angular with new co-developers Igor Minar, and Vojtěch ""Vojta"" Jína, who like Misko work at Google and were also born in [[Slovakia]]. Misko's other lauded open source project is JsTestDriver which is a top rated JavaScript testing technology, that leases execution space from attached browses open on remote machines. Angular leverages JsTestDriver for its own test-suite of course.","[1, 4, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,History,480443479,2012-03-06T04:51:01Z,ClueBot NG,"The earliest known account of a shopping spree dates from the poopoo time of the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Bo","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","[1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,History,480444183,2012-03-06T04:58:14Z,RA0808,"The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th
279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918,
poo brain.","The earliest known account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian oscillator|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early seventies and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),481958106,2012-03-15T02:04:48Z,64.93.246.210,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is a biological processes which displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by (or composed of) a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is any biological process which displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by (or composed of) a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].",[3]
Circadian rhythm,See also,484009527,2012-03-26T13:33:27Z,Millergonomics,"* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Photosensitive ganglion cell]]: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm.
* [[Polyphasic sleep]]
* [[Segmented sleep]]","* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circasemidian rhythm]]
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Photosensitive ganglion cell]]: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm.
* [[Polyphasic sleep]]
* [[Segmented sleep]]","[4, 9]"
Human cloning,(Top),485436757,2012-04-04T02:12:28Z,Stephen G. Brown,"''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. It does not usually refer to [[monozygotic]] [[multiple birth]]s nor the reproduction of human [[Cell (biology)|cells]] or [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]]. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical [[twins]] are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.
There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: ''therapeutic cloning'' and ''reproductive cloning''. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research. Reproductive cloning w and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}","''Human cloning''' is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. It does not usually refer to [[monozygotic]] [[multiple birth]]s nor the reproduction of human [[Cell (biology)|cells]] or [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]]. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical [[twins]] are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.
There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: ''therapeutic cloning'' and ''reproductive cloning''. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research. Reproductive cloning would involve making cloned humans.
A third type of cloning called replacement cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}","[1, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,Importance in animals,488678263,2012-04-22T17:27:56Z,PhnomPencil,"{{Light Ethology}}
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [[brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
{{cquote|Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.{{Cite web |title= Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs}}}}","{{Light Ethology}}
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [[Neural oscillation|brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
{{cquote|Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.{{Cite web |title= Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs}}}}",[11]
Medical cannabis,United States,490838469,2012-05-05T20:17:59Z,98.169.129.228,"{{Main|Medical cannabis in the United States}}
[[File:Discount Medical Marijuana - 2.jpg|thumb|right|Medical Marijuana Dispensary]]
In the [[United States]] federal level of government, cannabis ''[[wikt:per se|per se]]'' has been made criminal by implementation of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] which classifies cannabis as a [[Schedule I drug]], the strictest classification on par with [[heroin]], [[LSD]] and [[Ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]], and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] [[Gonzales v. Raich|ruled]] in 2005 that the [[Commerce Clause]] of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] allowed the government to ban the use of cannabis, including medical use. The United States [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] states ""marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision"".{{cite web|url=http://www.justice.gov/dea/marijuana_position.html |title=The DEA Position On Marijuana |publisher=[[Drug Enforcement Administration]] |year=2006 |accessdate=11 August 2009 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100828044917/http://www.justice.gov/dea/marijuana_position.html |archivedate=28 August 2010}}
Eighteen [[U.S. state|states]] have legalized medical cannabis: [[Alaska]],{{cite web |url=http://www.hss.state.ak.us/dph/bvs/marijuana.htm |title=Marijuana Registry |publisher=Alaska Health and Social Services |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Arizona]],{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Arizona Becomes 15th State to Approve Medical Marijuana |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2010-11-14 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/us/politics/15arizona.html |accessdate=2010-11-15 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}} [[California]],{{cite web |url=http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/mmp/Pages/Medical%20Marijuana%20Program.aspx |title=Medical Marijuana Program |publisher=California Department of Public Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Colorado]],{{cite web |url=http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hs/medicalmarijuana/marijuanafactsheet.html |title=Colorado Medical Marijuana Registry |publisher=Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Delaware]],{{cite web |url=http://delawarechronic.com/laws/ |title=Delaware Medical Marijuana Patient Laws |publisher=Chronic Resource for Delaware Marijuana |date= |accessdate=2012-01-20}}{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/13/us-delaware-legalizes-medical-marijuana-idUSTRE74C6X120110513 |title=Delaware legalizes medical marijuana |publisher=Reuters |date=2011-05-13 |accessdate=2012-01-20}} [[Hawaii]],{{cite web |url=http://hawaii.gov/psd/law-enforcement/narcotics-enforcement |title=Narcotics Enforcement Division|publisher=Hawaii Department of Public Safety |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Maine]],{{cite web |url=http://pressherald.mainetoday.com/story.php?id=241787&ac=PHnws |title=Maine's cannabis contradiction |last=Nemitz |first=Bill |date=2009-02-26 |publisher=Portland Press Herald |accessdate=2009-10-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090502054211/http://pressherald.mainetoday.com/story.php?id=241787&ac=PHnws |archivedate=2009-05-02}} [[Michigan]],{{cite web |url=http://www.michigan.gov/mdch/0,1607,7-132-27417_51869---,00.html |title=Michigan Medical Marijuana Program |publisher=Michigan Department of Community Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Montana]],{{cite web |url=http://www.dphhs.mt.gov/medicalmarijuana/ |title=Montana Medical Marijuana Program |publisher=Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Nevada]],{{cite web |url=http://health.nv.gov/MedicalMarijuana.htm |title=Medical Marijuana |publisher=Nevada Department of Health and Human Services |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[New Jersey]],{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/12/nyregion/12marijuana.html?hp |title=New Jersey Lawmakers Pass Medical Marijuana Bill |publisher=nytimes.com |date=11-01-2010 |accessdate=15 May 2010 |first=David |last=Kocieniewski}} [[New Mexico]],{{cite web |url=http://www.health.state.nm.us/idb/medical_cannabis.shtml |title=Medical Cannabis Program |publisher=New Mexico Department of Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Oregon]],{{cite web |url=http://www.oregon.gov/DHS/ph/ommp |title=Oregon Medical Marijuana Program (OMMP) |publisher=State of Oregon – Department of Human Services |accessdate=2009-10-07}} [[Rhode Island]],{{cite web |url=http://www.health.ri.gov/hsr/mmp/index.php |title=Medical Marijuana Program (MMP) |publisher=Rhode Island Department of Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Vermont]],{{cite web |url=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/cjs/marijuana.htm |title=Vermont Marijuana Registry: A Guide for Patients and Physicians |publisher=Vermont Criminal Information Center |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Virginia]],{{cite web |url=http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-251.1 |title=§ 18.2–251.1. Possession or distribution of marijuana for medical purposes permitted |publisher=Virginia Department of Health |accessdate=2010-08-30}} [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]];{{cite web |url=http://www.doh.wa.gov/hsqa/medical-marijuana/default.htm|title=Medical Marijuana Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=Washington State Department of Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} and Washington D.C.{{cite news| url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/dc/2010/07/medical_marijuana_now_legal.html | work=The Washington Post | title=Medical marijuana now legal}} Maryland allows for reduced or no penalties if cannabis use has a medical basis.{{Cite news |title=US medical cannabis policy eased |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8315603.stm |date=20 October 2009 |work=[[BBC News]] |accessdate=30 October 2009}}NORML - {{cite web |url=http://norml.org/legal/item/maryland-medical-marijuana?category_id=835 | title=Maryland Medical Marijuana}}{{cite web |url=http://mlis.state.md.us/2011rs/billfile/SB0308.htm | title=BILL INFO-2011 Regular Session-SB 308}} Despite its legality in Washington, and Michigan, an employee can still be fired if they test positive on a drug test, despite having a doctor's recommendation.{{cite web |url=http://medicalmarijuanabill.com/2011/06/employers-fire-legally-washington/ |title=Employers now able to fire medical marijuana users legally in Washington |publisher=MedicalMarijuanaBill.com |date=2011-06-13 |accessdate=2011-07-31}} California, Colorado, New Mexico, Maine, Rhode Island, Montana, and Michigan are currently the only states to utilize [[dispensary|dispensaries]] to sell medical cannabis. California's medical cannabis industry took in about $2 billion a year and generated $100 million in state sales taxes during 2008{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/31/technology/31online.html |title=Legitimizing Marijuana |first=Dan |last=Mitchell |date=31 May 2008 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=11 August 2009}} with an estimated 2,100 dispensaries, co-operatives, wellness clinics and taxi delivery services in the sector colloquially known as “cannabusiness”.[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/health/article6851523.ece The Times – California dreaming of full marijuana legalisation], The Times, September 28, 2009
On 19 October 2009 the US Deputy Attorney General issued a US Department of Justice memorandum to ""All United States Attorneys"" providing clarification and guidance to federal prosecutors in US States that have enacted laws authorizing the medical use of marijuana. The document is intended solely as ""a guide to the exercise of investigative and prosecutorial discretion and as guidance on resource allocation and federal priorities."" The US Deputy Attorney General David W. Ogden provided seven criteria, the application of which acts as a guideline to prosecutors and federal agents to ascertain whether a patients use, or their caregivers provision, of medical cannabis ""represents part of a recommended treatment regiment consistent with applicable state law"", and recommends against prosecuting patients using medical cannabis products according to state laws. Not applying those criteria, the Dep. Attorney General Ogden concludes, would likely be ""an inefficient use of limited federal resources"". The memorandum does not change any laws. Sale of cannabis remains illegal under federal law.{{cite web |url=http://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/medical-marijuana.pdf |title=19 October 2009; Office of the Deputy Attorney General, US Dept. of Justice, Washington D.C. 20530. Memorandum for Selected United States Attorneys. Subject: Investigations and Prosecutions in States Authorizing the Medical Use of Marijuana |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-20}} The [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]]'s position, that marijuana has no accepted value in the treatment of any disease in the United States, has also remained the same.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}}
[[File:US-patent-6630507.pdf|thumb|right|The [[Health and Human Services]] Division of the [[Federal government of the United States]] holds a [[patent]] {{patent|US|6630507}} for medical cannabis.]]
The [[Health and Human Services]] Division of the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] holds a [[patent]] {{patent|US|6630507}} for medical cannabis. The patent, ""Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants"", issued October 2003{{US patent reference |number=6630507 |y=2003 |m=10 |d=07 |inventor=Hampson, Aidan J.; Axelrod, Julius; Grimaldi, Maurizio |title=Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants}} reads: {{cquote|[[Cannabinoids]] have been found to have [[antioxidant]] properties, unrelated to [[NMDA]] receptor antagonism. This new found property makes cannabinoids useful in the treatment and [[prophylaxis]] of wide variety of [[oxidation]] associated diseases, such as [[ischemic]], age-related, [[inflammation|inflammatory]] and [[autoimmune]] diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as [[stroke]] and [[Physical trauma|trauma]], or in the treatment of [[neurodegenerative diseases]], such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia... .{{Cite news|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/257008 |title=Opinion: US Government Holds Patent For Medical Marijuana, Shows Hipocrisy |publisher=[[DigitalJournal.com]] |date=7 July 2008 |first=Michael |last=Billy |accessdate=11 August 2009}}}}","{{Main|Medical cannabis in the United States}}
[[File:Discount Medical Marijuana - 2.jpg|thumb|right|Medical Marijuana Dispensary]]
In the [[United States]] federal level of government, cannabis ''[[wikt:per se|per se]]'' has been made criminal by implementation of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] which classifies cannabis as a [[Schedule I drug]], the strictest classification on par with [[heroin]], [[LSD]] and [[Ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]], and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] [[Gonzales v. Raich|ruled]] in 2005 that the [[Commerce Clause]] of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] allowed the government to ban the use of cannabis, including medical use. The United States [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] states ""marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision"".{{cite web|url=http://www.justice.gov/dea/marijuana_position.html |title=The DEA Position On Marijuana |publisher=[[Drug Enforcement Administration]] |year=2006 |accessdate=11 August 2009 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100828044917/http://www.justice.gov/dea/marijuana_position.html |archivedate=28 August 2010}}
Nineteen [[U.S. state|states]] have legalized medical cannabis: [[Alaska]],{{cite web |url=http://www.hss.state.ak.us/dph/bvs/marijuana.htm |title=Marijuana Registry |publisher=Alaska Health and Social Services |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Arizona]],{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Arizona Becomes 15th State to Approve Medical Marijuana |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2010-11-14 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/us/politics/15arizona.html |accessdate=2010-11-15 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}} [[California]],{{cite web |url=http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/mmp/Pages/Medical%20Marijuana%20Program.aspx |title=Medical Marijuana Program |publisher=California Department of Public Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Colorado]],{{cite web |url=http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hs/medicalmarijuana/marijuanafactsheet.html |title=Colorado Medical Marijuana Registry |publisher=Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Connecticut}},{{cite web |url=http://abclocal.go.com/kabc/story?section=news/national_world&id=8649691|title=News of Connecticut Legislature Passing Bill to Legalize Medical Marijuana |publisher=ABC News|accessdate=2012-05-05}} [[Delaware]],{{cite web |url=http://delawarechronic.com/laws/ |title=Delaware Medical Marijuana Patient Laws |publisher=Chronic Resource for Delaware Marijuana |date= |accessdate=2012-01-20}}{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/13/us-delaware-legalizes-medical-marijuana-idUSTRE74C6X120110513 |title=Delaware legalizes medical marijuana |publisher=Reuters |date=2011-05-13 |accessdate=2012-01-20}} [[Hawaii]],{{cite web |url=http://hawaii.gov/psd/law-enforcement/narcotics-enforcement |title=Narcotics Enforcement Division|publisher=Hawaii Department of Public Safety |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Maine]],{{cite web |url=http://pressherald.mainetoday.com/story.php?id=241787&ac=PHnws |title=Maine's cannabis contradiction |last=Nemitz |first=Bill |date=2009-02-26 |publisher=Portland Press Herald |accessdate=2009-10-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090502054211/http://pressherald.mainetoday.com/story.php?id=241787&ac=PHnws |archivedate=2009-05-02}} [[Michigan]],{{cite web |url=http://www.michigan.gov/mdch/0,1607,7-132-27417_51869---,00.html |title=Michigan Medical Marijuana Program |publisher=Michigan Department of Community Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Montana]],{{cite web |url=http://www.dphhs.mt.gov/medicalmarijuana/ |title=Montana Medical Marijuana Program |publisher=Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Nevada]],{{cite web |url=http://health.nv.gov/MedicalMarijuana.htm |title=Medical Marijuana |publisher=Nevada Department of Health and Human Services |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[New Jersey]],{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/12/nyregion/12marijuana.html?hp |title=New Jersey Lawmakers Pass Medical Marijuana Bill |publisher=nytimes.com |date=11-01-2010 |accessdate=15 May 2010 |first=David |last=Kocieniewski}} [[New Mexico]],{{cite web |url=http://www.health.state.nm.us/idb/medical_cannabis.shtml |title=Medical Cannabis Program |publisher=New Mexico Department of Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Oregon]],{{cite web |url=http://www.oregon.gov/DHS/ph/ommp |title=Oregon Medical Marijuana Program (OMMP) |publisher=State of Oregon – Department of Human Services |accessdate=2009-10-07}} [[Rhode Island]],{{cite web |url=http://www.health.ri.gov/hsr/mmp/index.php |title=Medical Marijuana Program (MMP) |publisher=Rhode Island Department of Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Vermont]],{{cite web |url=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/cjs/marijuana.htm |title=Vermont Marijuana Registry: A Guide for Patients and Physicians |publisher=Vermont Criminal Information Center |accessdate=2009-10-08}} [[Virginia]],{{cite web |url=http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-251.1 |title=§ 18.2–251.1. Possession or distribution of marijuana for medical purposes permitted |publisher=Virginia Department of Health |accessdate=2010-08-30}} [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]];{{cite web |url=http://www.doh.wa.gov/hsqa/medical-marijuana/default.htm|title=Medical Marijuana Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=Washington State Department of Health |accessdate=2009-10-08}} and Washington D.C.{{cite news| url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/dc/2010/07/medical_marijuana_now_legal.html | work=The Washington Post | title=Medical marijuana now legal}} Maryland allows for reduced or no penalties if cannabis use has a medical basis.{{Cite news |title=US medical cannabis policy eased |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8315603.stm |date=20 October 2009 |work=[[BBC News]] |accessdate=30 October 2009}}NORML - {{cite web |url=http://norml.org/legal/item/maryland-medical-marijuana?category_id=835 | title=Maryland Medical Marijuana}}{{cite web |url=http://mlis.state.md.us/2011rs/billfile/SB0308.htm | title=BILL INFO-2011 Regular Session-SB 308}} Despite its legality in Washington, and Michigan, an employee can still be fired if they test positive on a drug test, despite having a doctor's recommendation.{{cite web |url=http://medicalmarijuanabill.com/2011/06/employers-fire-legally-washington/ |title=Employers now able to fire medical marijuana users legally in Washington |publisher=MedicalMarijuanaBill.com |date=2011-06-13 |accessdate=2011-07-31}} California, Colorado, New Mexico, Maine, Rhode Island, Montana, and Michigan are currently the only states to utilize [[dispensary|dispensaries]] to sell medical cannabis. California's medical cannabis industry took in about $2 billion a year and generated $100 million in state sales taxes during 2008{{Cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/31/technology/31online.html |title=Legitimizing Marijuana |first=Dan |last=Mitchell |date=31 May 2008 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=11 August 2009}} with an estimated 2,100 dispensaries, co-operatives, wellness clinics and taxi delivery services in the sector colloquially known as “cannabusiness”.[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/health/article6851523.ece The Times – California dreaming of full marijuana legalisation], The Times, September 28, 2009
On 19 October 2009 the US Deputy Attorney General issued a US Department of Justice memorandum to ""All United States Attorneys"" providing clarification and guidance to federal prosecutors in US States that have enacted laws authorizing the medical use of marijuana. The document is intended solely as ""a guide to the exercise of investigative and prosecutorial discretion and as guidance on resource allocation and federal priorities."" The US Deputy Attorney General David W. Ogden provided seven criteria, the application of which acts as a guideline to prosecutors and federal agents to ascertain whether a patients use, or their caregivers provision, of medical cannabis ""represents part of a recommended treatment regiment consistent with applicable state law"", and recommends against prosecuting patients using medical cannabis products according to state laws. Not applying those criteria, the Dep. Attorney General Ogden concludes, would likely be ""an inefficient use of limited federal resources"". The memorandum does not change any laws. Sale of cannabis remains illegal under federal law.{{cite web |url=http://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/medical-marijuana.pdf |title=19 October 2009; Office of the Deputy Attorney General, US Dept. of Justice, Washington D.C. 20530. Memorandum for Selected United States Attorneys. Subject: Investigations and Prosecutions in States Authorizing the Medical Use of Marijuana |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-20}} The [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]]'s position, that marijuana has no accepted value in the treatment of any disease in the United States, has also remained the same.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}}
[[File:US-patent-6630507.pdf|thumb|right|The [[Health and Human Services]] Division of the [[Federal government of the United States]] holds a [[patent]] {{patent|US|6630507}} for medical cannabis.]]
The [[Health and Human Services]] Division of the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] holds a [[patent]] {{patent|US|6630507}} for medical cannabis. The patent, ""Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants"", issued October 2003{{US patent reference |number=6630507 |y=2003 |m=10 |d=07 |inventor=Hampson, Aidan J.; Axelrod, Julius; Grimaldi, Maurizio |title=Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants}} reads: {{cquote|[[Cannabinoids]] have been found to have [[antioxidant]] properties, unrelated to [[NMDA]] receptor antagonism. This new found property makes cannabinoids useful in the treatment and [[prophylaxis]] of wide variety of [[oxidation]] associated diseases, such as [[ischemic]], age-related, [[inflammation|inflammatory]] and [[autoimmune]] diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as [[stroke]] and [[Physical trauma|trauma]], or in the treatment of [[neurodegenerative diseases]], such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia... .{{Cite news|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/257008 |title=Opinion: US Government Holds Patent For Medical Marijuana, Shows Hipocrisy |publisher=[[DigitalJournal.com]] |date=7 July 2008 |first=Michael |last=Billy |accessdate=11 August 2009}}}}",[10]
Context-free grammar,Language inclusion,491168853,2012-05-07T12:17:12Z,131.155.71.84,"Given two CFGs, can the first generate all strings that the second can generate?
If this problem is decidable, then we could use it to determine whether two CFGs G1 and G2 generate the same language by checking whether L(G1) is a subset of L(G2) and L(G2) is a subset of L(G1).","Given two CFGs, can the first generate all strings that the second can generate?
If this problem were decidable, then we could use it to determine whether two CFGs G1 and G2 generate the same language by checking whether L(G1) is a subset of L(G2) and L(G2) is a subset of L(G1).",[11]
Stem cell,Toxicity Screening,497148901,2012-06-12T00:53:20Z,Potionism,"[[Hepatotoxicity]] and drug-induced liver injury account for a substantial number of failures of new drugs in development, highlighting the need for screening assays such as stem cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells, that are capable of detecting toxicity early in the [[drug development]] process.{{cite journal |author= Greenhough S, Hay DC. |title=Stem Cell-Based Toxicity Screening: Recent Advances in Hepatocyte Generation |url=http://adisonline.com/pharmaceuticalmedicine/Abstract/2012/26020/Stem_Cell_Based_Toxicity_Screening__Recent.2.aspx |journal=Pharm Med |volume=26 |issue=2 |page=85-89 |year=2012}}","[[Hepatotoxicity]] and drug-induced liver injury account for a substantial number of failures of new drugs in development and market withdrawal, highlighting the need for screening assays such as stem cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells, that are capable of detecting toxicity early in the [[drug development]] process.{{cite journal |author= Greenhough S, Hay DC. |title=Stem Cell-Based Toxicity Screening: Recent Advances in Hepatocyte Generation |url=http://adisonline.com/pharmaceuticalmedicine/Abstract/2012/26020/Stem_Cell_Based_Toxicity_Screening__Recent.2.aspx |journal=Pharm Med |volume=26 |issue=2 |page=85-89 |year=2012}}",[3]
Alzheimer's disease,External links,499262611,2012-06-25T10:23:40Z,ساجد امجد ساجد,"{{Commons category|Alzheimer's disease}}
*[http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/alzheimers-disease-research-centers Alzheimer's Disease Research Centers] National Institute of Aging
*[http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center] National Institute of Aging
*[http://www.alz.org/index.asp Alzheimer's Association] Alzheimer's Association
*[http://memory.ucsf.edu/ UCSF Memory and Aging Center] University of California San Francisco
{{Mental and behavioral disorders|selected=neurological}}
{{CNS diseases of the nervous system }}
{{Amyloidosis}}
{{featured article}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alzheimer's Disease}}
[[Category:Alzheimer's disease| ]]
[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]]
[[Category:Learning disabilities]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Dementia]]
[[Category:Aphasias]]
{{Link GA|es}}
{{Link GA|ru}}
{{Link FA|no}}
[[af:Alzheimer se siekte]]
[[ar:مرض ألزهايمر]]
[[an:Malautía d'Alzheimer]]
[[ast:Alzheimer]]
[[az:Alçheimer xəstəliyi]]
[[be:Хвароба Альцгеймера]]
[[be-x-old:Хвароба Альцгаймэра]]
[[bg:Болест на Алцхаймер]]
[[bs:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[ca:Malaltia d'Alzheimer]]
[[cs:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[cy:Clefyd Alzheimer]]
[[da:Alzheimers sygdom]]
[[de:Alzheimer-Krankheit]]
[[et:Alzheimeri tõbi]]
[[el:Νόσος Αλτσχάιμερ]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Alzheimer]]
[[eo:Alzheimer-malsano]]
[[eu:Alzheimer]]
[[fa:بیماری آلزایمر]]
[[hif:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[fr:Maladie d'Alzheimer]]
[[fy:Sykte fan Alzheimer]]
[[ga:Galar Alzheimer]]
[[gl:Alzhéimer]]
[[gan:老人痴呆症]]
[[ko:알츠하이머병]]
[[hy:Ալցհայմերի հիվանդություն]]
[[hi:अलजाइमर रोग]]
[[hr:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[io:Alzheimer-maladeso]]
[[id:Alzheimer]]
[[is:Alzheimer]]
[[it:Morbo di Alzheimer]]
[[he:מחלת אלצהיימר]]
[[jv:Alzheimer]]
[[kn:ಆಲ್ಝೈಮರ್ನ ಕಾಯಿಲೆ]]
[[ka:ალცჰაიმერის დაავადება]]
[[sw:Ugonjwa wa Alzheimer]]
[[la:Morbus Alzheimerianus]]
[[lv:Alcheimera slimība]]
[[lb:Alzheimer]]
[[lt:Alzheimerio liga]]
[[hu:Alzheimer-kór]]
[[mk:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[ml:ആൽറ്റ്സ്ഹൈമേഴ്സ് രോഗം]]
[[ms:Penyakit Alzheimer]]
[[mn:Альцхаймерын өвчин]]
[[my:အယ်လ်ဇိုင်းမား ရောဂါ]]
[[nl:Ziekte van Alzheimer]]
[[ne:अल्जाइमर]]
[[ja:アルツハイマー型認知症]]
[[no:Alzheimers sykdom]]
[[nn:Alzheimers sjukdom]]
[[oc:Malautiá d'Alzheimer]]
[[pnb:الزایمر]]
[[pl:Choroba Alzheimera]]
[[pt:Mal de Alzheimer]]
[[ro:Boala Alzheimer]]
[[ru:Болезнь Альцгеймера]]
[[sq:Sëmundja e Alzheimerit]]
[[scn:Morbu di Alzheimer]]
[[si:ඇල්zසයිම' රෝගය]]
[[simple:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[sk:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[sl:Alzheimerjeva bolezen]]
[[sr:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[sh:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[su:Panyakit Alzheimer]]
[[fi:Alzheimerin tauti]]
[[sv:Alzheimers sjukdom]]
[[ta:ஆல்சைமர் நோய்]]
[[te:మతిమరపు వ్యాధి]]
[[th:โรคอัลไซเมอร์]]
[[tr:Alzheimer hastalığı]]
[[uk:Хвороба Альцгеймера]]
[[vi:Bệnh Alzheimer]]
[[war:Sakit nga Alzheimer]]
[[yi:אלצהיימערס קרענק]]
[[zh-yue:腦退化]]
[[bat-smg:Alzhaimerė lėga]]
[[zh:阿兹海默病]]","{{Commons category|Alzheimer's disease}}
*[http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/alzheimers-disease-research-centers Alzheimer's Disease Research Centers] National Institute of Aging
*[http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers Alzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center] National Institute of Aging
*[http://www.alz.org/index.asp Alzheimer's Association] Alzheimer's Association
*[http://memory.ucsf.edu/ UCSF Memory and Aging Center] University of California San Francisco
{{Mental and behavioral disorders|selected=neurological}}
{{CNS diseases of the nervous system }}
{{Amyloidosis}}
{{featured article}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alzheimer's Disease}}
[[Category:Alzheimer's disease| ]]
[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]]
[[Category:Learning disabilities]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Dementia]]
[[Category:Aphasias]]
{{Link GA|es}}
{{Link GA|ru}}
{{Link FA|no}}
[[af:Alzheimer se siekte]]
[[ar:مرض ألزهايمر]]
[[an:Malautía d'Alzheimer]]
[[ast:Alzheimer]]
[[az:Alçheimer xəstəliyi]]
[[be:Хвароба Альцгеймера]]
[[be-x-old:Хвароба Альцгаймэра]]
[[bg:Болест на Алцхаймер]]
[[bs:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[ca:Malaltia d'Alzheimer]]
[[cs:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[cy:Clefyd Alzheimer]]
[[da:Alzheimers sygdom]]
[[de:Alzheimer-Krankheit]]
[[et:Alzheimeri tõbi]]
[[el:Νόσος Αλτσχάιμερ]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Alzheimer]]
[[eo:Alzheimer-malsano]]
[[eu:Alzheimer]]
[[fa:بیماری آلزایمر]]
[[hif:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[fr:Maladie d'Alzheimer]]
[[fy:Sykte fan Alzheimer]]
[[ga:Galar Alzheimer]]
[[gl:Alzhéimer]]
[[gan:老人痴呆症]]
[[ko:알츠하이머병]]
[[hy:Ալցհայմերի հիվանդություն]]
[[hi:अलजाइमर रोग]]
[[hr:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[io:Alzheimer-maladeso]]
[[id:Alzheimer]]
[[is:Alzheimer]]
[[it:Morbo di Alzheimer]]
[[he:מחלת אלצהיימר]]
[[jv:Alzheimer]]
[[kn:ಆಲ್ಝೈಮರ್ನ ಕಾಯಿಲೆ]]
[[ka:ალცჰაიმერის დაავადება]]
[[sw:Ugonjwa wa Alzheimer]]
[[la:Morbus Alzheimerianus]]
[[lv:Alcheimera slimība]]
[[lb:Alzheimer]]
[[lt:Alzheimerio liga]]
[[hu:Alzheimer-kór]]
[[mk:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[ml:ആൽറ്റ്സ്ഹൈമേഴ്സ് രോഗം]]
[[ms:Penyakit Alzheimer]]
[[mn:Альцхаймерын өвчин]]
[[my:အယ်လ်ဇိုင်းမား ရောဂါ]]
[[nl:Ziekte van Alzheimer]]
[[ne:अल्जाइमर]]
[[ja:アルツハイマー型認知症]]
[[no:Alzheimers sykdom]]
[[nn:Alzheimers sjukdom]]
[[oc:Malautiá d'Alzheimer]]
[[pnb:الزایمر]]
[[pl:Choroba Alzheimera]]
[[pt:Mal de Alzheimer]]
[[ro:Boala Alzheimer]]
[[ru:Болезнь Альцгеймера]]
[[sq:Sëmundja e Alzheimerit]]
[[scn:Morbu di Alzheimer]]
[[si:ඇල්zසයිම' රෝගය]]
[[simple:Alzheimer's disease]]
[[sk:Alzheimerova choroba]]
[[sl:Alzheimerjeva bolezen]]
[[sr:Алцхајмерова болест]]
[[sh:Alzheimerova bolest]]
[[su:Panyakit Alzheimer]]
[[fi:Alzheimerin tauti]]
[[sv:Alzheimers sjukdom]]
[[ta:ஆல்சைமர் நோய்]]
[[te:మతిమరపు వ్యాధి]]
[[th:โรคอัลไซเมอร์]]
[[tr:Alzheimer hastalığı]]
[[uk:Хвороба Альцгеймера]]
[[ur:الزائمر]]
[[vi:Bệnh Alzheimer]]
[[war:Sakit nga Alzheimer]]
[[yi:אלצהיימערס קרענק]]
[[zh-yue:腦退化]]
[[bat-smg:Alzhaimerė lėga]]
[[zh:阿兹海默病]]",[11]
AngularJS,(Top),499372154,2012-06-26T00:48:55Z,203.217.57.96,"{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS-large.png|thumb|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.0
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2012|06|13}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| website = {{URL|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[Open-source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] framework. Its goal is to augment browser-based applications with [[Model–View–Controller]] (MVC) capability, reduce the amount of JavaScript needed to make web applications functional. These type of apps are also known as [[Single-page_application|Single-Page Applications]]
Originally created in 2009 by [[Miško Hevery]] and [[Adam Abrons]] as the front end for a online [[JSON]] storage service that would have been priced by the mega-byte system for easy-to-make applications for the enterprise. This venture was positioned as ""GetAngular.com"" and had some signed-up users. The Way Back Machine has snapshots from Q3 2009, but these days the website redirects to 'angular.org', given Angular's intention to fit anyone's JSON serving and receiving backend.
The technology re-writes a page that a browser has loaded. At one level it re-reads the source of the page and obeys turing-complete directives. At another level it binds input or output parts of the page to a models represented in a vanilla JavaScript variable. Those JavaScript variables can be manually composed or retrieved over the wire from static or dynamic JSON resources. The page language is a superset of HTML. Extra attributes exist to support Angular directives and with Angular's library loaded these are acted upon. Without Angular loaded the extra attributes are typically ignored by current and modern browsers.","{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS-large.png|thumb|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.0.1
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2012|06|25}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| website = {{URL|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[Open-source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] framework. Its goal is to augment browser-based applications with [[Model–View–Controller]] (MVC) capability, reduce the amount of JavaScript needed to make web applications functional. These type of apps are also known as [[Single-page_application|Single-Page Applications]]
Originally created in 2009 by [[Miško Hevery]] and [[Adam Abrons]] as the front end for a online [[JSON]] storage service that would have been priced by the mega-byte system for easy-to-make applications for the enterprise. This venture was positioned as ""GetAngular.com"" and had some signed-up users. The Way Back Machine has snapshots from Q3 2009, but these days the website redirects to 'angular.org', given Angular's intention to fit anyone's JSON serving and receiving backend.
The technology re-writes a page that a browser has loaded. At one level it re-reads the source of the page and obeys turing-complete directives. At another level it binds input or output parts of the page to a models represented in a vanilla JavaScript variable. Those JavaScript variables can be manually composed or retrieved over the wire from static or dynamic JSON resources. The page language is a superset of HTML. Extra attributes exist to support Angular directives and with Angular's library loaded these are acted upon. Without Angular loaded the extra attributes are typically ignored by current and modern browsers.",[10]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),499506833,2012-06-26T21:17:24Z,ClueBot NG,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[demonic animals]], [[mutated fungi]] and [[shape-shifting reptilians]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[Satan]]'', meaning ""demon butthole"" (or ""smelly pirate hooker""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","[3, 4, 9]"
Port (computer networking),Common port numbers,500902998,2012-07-06T05:01:54Z,110.32.240.19,"{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''well-known ports'', the ''registered ports'', and the ''dynamic'' or ''private ports''.
The well-known ports are those from 0 through 1023. Examples include:
*''20 & 21'': [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP)
*''22'': [[Secure Shell]] (SSH)
*''23'': [[Telnet]] remote login service
*''25'': [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP)
*''53'': [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) service
*''80'': [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP) used in the [[World Wide Web]]
*''110'': [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3)
*''119'': [[Network News Transfer Protocol]] (NNTP)
*''143'': [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP)
*''161'': [[Simple Network Management Protocol]] (SNMP)
*''443'': [[HTTP Secure]] (HTTPS)
The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. IANA maintains the official list.{{cite web
|url= http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
|title=Port Numbers
|publisher= Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
}} The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152 through 65535. One common use is for [[ephemeral port]]s.","{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''well-known ports'', the ''registered ports'', and the ''dynamic'' or ''private ports''.
The well-known ports are those from 0 through 1023. Examples include:
*''20 & 21'': [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP)
*''22'': [[Secure Shell]] (SSH)
*''23'': [[Telnet]] remote login service
*''25'': [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP)
*''53'': [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) service
*''80'': [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP) used in the [[World Wide Web]]
*''110'': [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3)
*''119'': [[Network News Transfer Protocol]] (NNTP)
*''143'': [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP)
*''161'': [[Simple Network Management Protocol]] (SNMP)
*''443'': [[HTTP Secure]] (HTTPS)
*""666"": [[Doom]] (Doom)
*""995"": [[Secure Post Office Protocol]] (Secure POP)
The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. IANA maintains the official list.{{cite web
|url= http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
|title=Port Numbers
|publisher= Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
}} The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152 through 65535. One common use is for [[ephemeral port]]s.","[1, 9]"
Port (computer networking),Common port numbers,500903076,2012-07-06T05:02:44Z,110.32.240.19,"{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''well-known ports'', the ''registered ports'', and the ''dynamic'' or ''private ports''.
The well-known ports are those from 0 through 1023. Examples include:
*''20 & 21'': [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP)
*''22'': [[Secure Shell]] (SSH)
*''23'': [[Telnet]] remote login service
*''25'': [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP)
*''53'': [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) service
*''80'': [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP) used in the [[World Wide Web]]
*''110'': [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3)
*''119'': [[Network News Transfer Protocol]] (NNTP)
*''143'': [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP)
*''161'': [[Simple Network Management Protocol]] (SNMP)
*''443'': [[HTTP Secure]] (HTTPS)
*""666"": [[Doom]] (Doom)
*""995"": [[Secure Post Office Protocol]] (Secure POP)
The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. IANA maintains the official list.{{cite web
|url= http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
|title=Port Numbers
|publisher= Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
}} The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152 through 65535. One common use is for [[ephemeral port]]s.","{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''well-known ports'', the ''registered ports'', and the ''dynamic'' or ''private ports''.
The well-known ports are those from 0 through 1023. Examples include:
*''20 & 21'': [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP)
*''22'': [[Secure Shell]] (SSH)
*''23'': [[Telnet]] remote login service
*''25'': [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP)
*''53'': [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) service
*''80'': [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP) used in the [[World Wide Web]]
*''110'': [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3)
*''119'': [[Network News Transfer Protocol]] (NNTP)
*''143'': [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP)
*''161'': [[Simple Network Management Protocol]] (SNMP)
*''443'': [[HTTP Secure]] (HTTPS)
666: [[Doom]] (Doom)
995: [[Secure Post Office Protocol]] (Secure POP)
The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. IANA maintains the official list.{{cite web
|url= http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
|title=Port Numbers
|publisher= Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
}} The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152 through 65535. One common use is for [[ephemeral port]]s.",[11]
Gene therapy,2010,501829800,2012-07-12T04:09:42Z,Dmlevy 99,"A paper by Komáromy ''et'' al. published in April 2010, deals with gene therapy for a form of [[achromatopsia]] in dogs. Achromatopsia, or complete color blindness, is presented as an ideal model to develop gene therapy directed to cone photoreceptors. Cone function and day vision have been restored for at least 33 months in two young dogs with achromatopsia. However, the therapy was less efficient for older dogs.{{cite doi|10.1093/hmg/ddq136}}","A paper by Komáromy ''et'' al. published in April 2010, deals with gene therapy for a form of [[achromatopsia]] in dogs. Achromatopsia, or complete color blindness, is presented as an ideal model to develop gene therapy directed to cone photoreceptors. Cone function and day vision have been restored for at least 33 months in two young dogs with achromatopsia. However, the therapy was less efficient for older dogs.{{cite doi|10.1093/hmg/ddq136}}
In addition, in September 2010, it was declared that a Beta thalassemia patient in France was ""cured"" of his thalassemia through a lentiviral vector. Headed by Dr. Phillipe Leboulche, the study used a lentiviral vector to transduce the human β-globin gene into purified blood and marrow cells obtained from the patient. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/728656 Between 21 and 33 months after the transplant, the percentage of vector-bearing cells in his blood gradually increased, and today, the 18-year-old patient is transfusion independent (ever since June 2008). http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/728656 His hemoglobin levels are presently stable at 9 to 10 g/dL and about a third of the hemoglobin contains the form introduced by the viral vector. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/728656 The clinical trial is, therefore, being heralded as a success around the world.","[1, 4, 5, 10]"
Bubble sort,Rabbits and turtles,501875298,2012-07-12T12:32:33Z,76.6.166.98,"The positions of the elements in bubble sort will play a large part in determining its performance. Large elements at the beginning of the list do not pose a problem, as they are quickly swapped. Small elements towards the end, however, move to the beginning extremely slowly. This has led to these types of elements being named rabbits and turtles, respectively.
Various efforts have been made to eliminate turtles to improve upon the speed of bubble sort. [[Cocktail sort]] achieves this goal fairly well, but it retains ''[[Big O notation|O(n2)]]'' worst-case complexity. [[Comb sort]] compares elements separated by large gaps, and can move turtles extremely quickly before proceeding to smaller and smaller gaps to smooth out the list. Its average speed is comparable to faster algorithms like [[quicksort]].","The positions of the elements in bubble sort will play a large part in determining its performance. Large elements at the beginning of the list do not pose a problem, as they are quickly swapped. Small elements towards the end, however, move to the beginning extremely slowly. This has led to these types of elements being named rabbits and turtles, respectively.
Various efforts have been made to eliminate turtles to improve upon the speed of bubble sort. [[Cocktail sort]] is a bi-directional bubble sort that goes from beginning to end, and then reverses itself, going end to beginning. It can move turtles fairly well, but it retains ''[[Big O notation|O(n2)]]'' worst-case complexity. [[Comb sort]] compares elements separated by large gaps, and can move turtles extremely quickly before proceeding to smaller and smaller gaps to smooth out the list. Its average speed is comparable to faster algorithms like [[quicksort]].",[3]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,504087987,2012-07-25T09:38:13Z,Sidelight12,"Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.{{Cite journal |author=Yin, L.; Wang, J.; Klein, P.S.; Lazar, M.A. |title=Nuclear receptor Rev-erbalpha is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5763 |pages=1002–5 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16484495 |doi= 10.1126/science.1121613 |laysummary=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/lithium-blocks-enzyme-to-help-cells-clocks-keep-on-tickin.shtml |laysource=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |laydate=February 17, 2006}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |author=Martino, T.A. |title=Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=294 |issue=5 |pages=R1675–83 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18272659 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00829.2007 |last2=Oudit |first2=G.Y. |last3=Herzenberg |first3=A.M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Tata |first4=N. |last5=Koletar |first5=M. M. |last6=Kabir |first6=G. M. |last7=Belsham |first7=D. D. |last8=Backx |first8=P. H. |last9=Ralph |first9=M. R.}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{Cite journal |author=Straif, K. |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |month=December |year=2007 |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=30 November 2007 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X |last2=Baan |first2=R. |last3=Grosse |first3=Y. |display-authors=4 |last4=Secretan |first4=Béatrice |last5=Ghissassi |first5=Fatiha El |last6=Bouvard |first6=Véronique |last7=Altieri |first7=Andrea |last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Lamia |last9=Cogliano |first9=Vincent}}","Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.{{Cite journal |author=Yin, L.; Wang, J.; Klein, P.S.; Lazar, M.A. |title=Nuclear receptor Rev-erbalpha is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5763 |pages=1002–5 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16484495 |doi= 10.1126/science.1121613 |laysummary=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/lithium-blocks-enzyme-to-help-cells-clocks-keep-on-tickin.shtml |laysource=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |laydate=February 17, 2006}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |author=Martino, T.A. |title=Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=294 |issue=5 |pages=R1675–83 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18272659 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00829.2007 |last2=Oudit |first2=G.Y. |last3=Herzenberg |first3=A.M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Tata |first4=N. |last5=Koletar |first5=M. M. |last6=Kabir |first6=G. M. |last7=Belsham |first7=D. D. |last8=Backx |first8=P. H. |last9=Ralph |first9=M. R.}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{Cite journal |author=Straif, K. |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |month=December |year=2007 |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=30 November 2007 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X |last2=Baan |first2=R. |last3=Grosse |first3=Y. |display-authors=4 |last4=Secretan |first4=Béatrice |last5=Ghissassi |first5=Fatiha El |last6=Bouvard |first6=Véronique |last7=Altieri |first7=Andrea |last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Lamia |last9=Cogliano |first9=Vincent}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}",[1]
Circadian rhythm,Human health,504096384,2012-07-25T11:15:29Z,Chiswick Chap,"{{mergefrom|Sleep architecture|discuss=Talk:Circadian rhythm#Merger proposal|date=December 2010}}
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.{{cite journal |author=Grote L, Mayer J, Penzel T, Cassel W, Krzyzanek E, Peter JH, von Wichert P |title=Nocturnal hypertension and cardiovascular risk: consequences for diagnosis and treatment |journal=J Cardiovasc Pharmacol |year=1994 |volume=24 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=S26–38 |pmid=7898092}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=10 May 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}{{cite journal |author=Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L |year=2008 |title=Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults |journal=Clinical Geriatrics |month=March |pages=2–8}}{{cite web |title=New Discovery: Prehistoric Body Clock in Humans Same as That in Algae |date=28 January 2011 |publisher=The Daily Galaxy |url=http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/01/new-discovery-prehistoric-body-clock-in-humans-same-as-that-in-algae.html}}","Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.{{cite journal |author=Grote L, Mayer J, Penzel T, Cassel W, Krzyzanek E, Peter JH, von Wichert P |title=Nocturnal hypertension and cardiovascular risk: consequences for diagnosis and treatment |journal=J Cardiovasc Pharmacol |year=1994 |volume=24 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=S26–38 |pmid=7898092}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=10 May 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}{{cite journal |author=Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L |year=2008 |title=Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults |journal=Clinical Geriatrics |month=March |pages=2–8}}{{cite web |title=New Discovery: Prehistoric Body Clock in Humans Same as That in Algae |date=28 January 2011 |publisher=The Daily Galaxy |url=http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/01/new-discovery-prehistoric-body-clock-in-humans-same-as-that-in-algae.html}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Sleep architecture,504111380,2012-07-25T13:32:34Z,Chiswick Chap,,"{{main|Sleep architecture}}
'''Sleep architecture''' describes the structure and pattern of [[sleep]], varying widely across species with differing patterns of phasing of rapid and non-rapid eye movement sleep ([[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM]] and [[Non-rapid eye movement sleep|NREM]]), and involving factors including sleep duration in a 24 hour period and circadian rhythm.McNamara, P., R. A. Barton, and C. L. Nunn. ''Evolution of sleep: Phylogenetic and functional perspectives''. Cambridge University Press, 2010.","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,504113023,2012-07-25T13:45:55Z,Sidelight12,"Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [[left ventricular]] (reverse) remodelling.{{cite journal |author=Grote L, Mayer J, Penzel T, Cassel W, Krzyzanek E, Peter JH, von Wichert P |title=Nocturnal hypertension and cardiovascular risk: consequences for diagnosis and treatment |journal=J Cardiovasc Pharmacol |year=1994 |volume=24 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=S26–38 |pmid=7898092}}
[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{Cite journal |author=Pilcher, J.J.; Michalowski, K.R.; Carrigan, R.D. |title=The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep |journal=Behavioral Medicine |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=71–6 |year=2001 |pmid=11763827 |doi=10.1080/08964280109595773}}{{Cite web |author=Emily Rolston, Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, and Rosanne Keathley |title=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |publisher=Liberty University |work=Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students |year=2007 |url= http://aahperd.confex.com/aahperd/2007/finalprogram/paper_10353.htm |accessdate=2008-11-11}}
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [[seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD), [[delayed sleep phase syndrome]] (DSPS) and other [[circadian rhythm disorder]]s.{{Cite web |author=Sabah Quraishi |title=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |publisher=Serendip |work=Circadian Rhythms and Sleep |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro01/web1/Quirashi.html |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=10 May 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that [[Light effects on circadian rhythm|light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms]].{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}{{cite journal |author=Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L |year=2008 |title=Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults |journal=Clinical Geriatrics |month=March |pages=2–8}}{{cite web |title=New Discovery: Prehistoric Body Clock in Humans Same as That in Algae |date=28 January 2011 |publisher=The Daily Galaxy |url=http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/01/new-discovery-prehistoric-body-clock-in-humans-same-as-that-in-algae.html}}
",[11]
Port (computer networking),(Top),506695358,2012-08-10T08:45:33Z,123.243.192.66,"{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}
In [[computer networking]] a '''port''' is an application-specific or process-specific software construct serving as a communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system. A port is associated with an [[IP address]] of the host, as well as the type of protocol used for communication. The protocols that primarily use the ports are the [[Transport Layer]] protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) of the [[Internet Protocol Suite]]. A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit number, commonly known as the '''port number'''. The port number completes the destination address for a communications session. Thus, different IP addresses or protocols may use the same port number for communication, e.g. on a given host or interface UDP and TCP may use the same port number, or on a host with two interfaces, both addresses are associated with a port having the same number.
A range of [[well-known ports]] is reserved by convention to identify specific service types on a host. In the [[client-server]] model of application architecture ports are used to provide a [[multiplexing]] service on each port number that network clients connect to for service initiation, after which communication is reestablished on other connection-specific port number.","+1 port of 8- = 2
for documenting the then current usages and establishing a socket number catalog in RFC 322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a phone call, ""''describing the function and socket numbers of network service programs at each HOST''"".RFC 322, ''Well Known Socket Numbers'', V. Cerf, J. Postel (26 March 1972)
This catalog was subsequently published as RFC 433 in December 1972 and included a list of hosts and their port numbers and the corresponding function used at each host in the network. This first registry function served primarily as documentation of usage and indicated that port number usage was conflicting between some hosts for ""''useful public services''"".RFC 433, ''Socket number list'', J. Postel, N. Neigus (22 December 1972)
The document promised a resolution of the conflicts based on a standard that Postel had published in May 1972 in RFC 349, in which he first proposed official assignments of port numbers to network services and suggested a dedicated administrative function, which he call a ''czar'', to maintain a registry.RFC 349, ''Proposed Standard Socket Numbers'' J. Postel (30 May 1972)
The 256 values of the AEN were divided into the following ranges:
*0 through 63: network-wide standard functions
*64 through 127: host-specific functions
*128 through 239: reserved for future use
*240 through 255: any experimental function
The [[Telnet]] service received the first official assignment of the value 1.
In detail, the first set of assignments was:
In the early ARPANET, the AEN was also called a ''socket name'',RFC 197, ''Initial Connection Protocol--Reviewed'', A. Shoshani, E. Harslem (14 July 1971) and was used with the Initial Connection Protocol (ICP), a component of the [[Network Control Program]] (NCP)NIC 7104, ''ARPANET Protocol Handbook''{{cite book
|title=ARPANET Protocol Handbook
|first=Jon|last=Postel
|coauthors=Feinler, E.
|year=1978
|publisher=Network Information Center
|location=Menlo Park, CA
}} NCP was the forerunner of the modern Internet protocols. Today the terminology ''service name'' is still closely connected with port numbers, the former being text strings used in some network functions to represent a numerical port number.","[1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
AngularJS,Development Team,509562787,2012-08-28T07:21:13Z,Iiigooo,"Adam Abrons and Miško Hevery developed the first version together in 2009. Adam was a freelancer, and Miško a Googler at the time, both in the San Francisco Bay area. Adam has stepped away from the project for the time being and works at Square in San Francisco (full time). Miško continues with Angular with new co-developers Igor Minár, and Vojta Jína, who like Miško work at Google and were also born in [[Czechoslovakia]].","Adam Abrons and Miško Hevery developed the first version together in 2009. Adam was a freelancer, and Miško a Googler at the time, both in the San Francisco Bay area. Adam has stepped away from the project for the time being and works at Square in San Francisco (full time). Miško continues with Angular with new co-developers Igor Minár, and Vojta Jína, who like Miško work at Google and were also born in [[Slovakia]].",[9]
AngularJS,The Philosophy of Angular,509799039,2012-08-29T17:10:36Z,Daniel.Cardenas,"Angular is built around the belief that declarative code is better than imperative when it comes to building UIs and wiring software components together, while imperative code is excellent for expressing business logic.
Design goals:
* Decouple DOM manipulation from app logic. This improves the testability of the code.
* Regard app testing as equal in importance to app writing. Testing difficulty is dramatically affected by the way the code is structured.
* Decouple the client side of an app from the server side. This allows development work to progress in parallel, and allows for reuse of both sides.
* Guide developers through the entire journey of building an app: from designing the UI, through writing the business logic, to testing.
* Make common tasks trivial and difficult tasks possible.","Angular is built around the belief that [[declarative programming]] is better than [[imperative programming]] when it comes to building UIs and wiring software components together, while imperative code is excellent for expressing business logic.
Design goals:
* Decouple DOM manipulation from app logic. This improves the testability of the code.
* Regard app testing as equal in importance to app writing. Testing difficulty is dramatically affected by the way the code is structured.
* Decouple the client side of an app from the server side. This allows development work to progress in parallel, and allows for reuse of both sides.
* Guide developers through the entire journey of building an app: from designing the UI, through writing the business logic, to testing.
* Make common tasks trivial and difficult tasks possible.",[9]
DNA sequencing,History,511253846,2012-09-07T17:50:16Z,JHCaufield,"RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }}
The chain-termination method developed by Sanger and coworkers in 1977 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Coulson AR |title=A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=441–8 |year=1975 |month=May |pmid=1100841 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2 }}{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |year=1977 |month=December |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 |bibcode = 1977PNAS...74.5463S }}","RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }}
The [[Sanger sequencing|chain-termination method]] developed by Sanger and coworkers in 1977 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Coulson AR |title=A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=441–8 |year=1975 |month=May |pmid=1100841 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2 }}{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |year=1977 |month=December |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 |bibcode = 1977PNAS...74.5463S }}",[9]
Prion,Protein-only hypothesis,513339089,2012-09-18T09:23:15Z,Tse2,"Prior to the discovery of prions, it was thought that all [[pathogen]]s used [[nucleic acid]]s to direct their replication. The ""protein-only hypothesis"" states that a protein structure can replicate without the use of nucleic acid. This was initially controversial as it contradicts the so-called ""[[central dogma of molecular biology]]"", which describes nucleic acid as the central form of replicative information.
Evidence in favor of a protein-only hypothesis includes:
*No virus particles, bacteria, or fungi have been conclusively associated with prion diseases, although ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' has been known to be associated with infectious, yet non-lethal prions, such as [[Sup35p]].
*No nucleic acid has been conclusively associated with infectivity; agent is resistant to [[ultraviolet radiation]].
*No immune response to infection.
*PrPSc experimentally transmitted between one species and another results in PrPSc with the amino-acid sequence of the recipient species, suggesting that replication of the donor agent does not occur.
*Familial prion disease occurs in families with a mutation in the PrP gene, and mice with PrP mutations develop prion disease despite controlled conditions where transmission is prevented.
*Animals lacking PrPC do not contract prion disease.
*Infectious prions can be formed ''de novo'' from purified non-infectious components, in the absence of gene-coding nucleic acids.","Prior to the discovery of prions, it was thought that all [[pathogen]]s used [[nucleic acid]]s to direct their replication. The ""protein-only hypothesis"" states that a protein structure can replicate without the use of nucleic acid. This was initially controversial as it contradicts the so-called ""[[central dogma of molecular biology]]"", which describes nucleic acid as the central form of replicative information.
Evidence in favor of a protein-only hypothesis includes:
*No virus particles, bacteria, or fungi have been conclusively associated with prion diseases, although ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' has been known to be associated with infectious, yet non-lethal prions, such as [[Sup35p]].
*No nucleic acid has been conclusively associated with infectivity; agent is resistant to [[ultraviolet radiation]].
*No immune response to infection.
*PrPSc experimentally transmitted between one species and another results in PrPSc with the amino-acid sequence of the recipient species, suggesting that replication of the donor agent does not occur.
*Familial prion disease occurs in families with a mutation in the PrP gene, and mice with PrP mutations develop prion disease despite controlled conditions where transmission is prevented.
*Animals lacking PrPC do not contract prion disease.",[2]
DNA sequencing,History,513425834,2012-09-18T20:07:59Z,JHCaufield,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953, {{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953, {{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }}
The first full genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }}","[1, 4, 7, 9]"
DNA sequencing,Illumina (Solexa) sequencing,516320341,2012-10-06T14:52:54Z,Californiadreams,"[[Solexa]], now part of [[Illumina (company)|Illumina]], developed a sequencing technology based on reversible dye-terminators aquired from [[Manteia Predictive Medicine]] in 2004. DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified so that local clonal colonies, initially coined ""DNA colonies"", are formed. This technology had been developed in late 1996 at Glaxo-Welcome's Geneva Biomedical Research Institute (GBRI), by Dr Pascal Mayer and Dr Laurent Farinelli patents WO 9844151, WO 9844152, WO 0018957, WO 0246456, WO 03074734f>, and was publicly presented for the first time in 1998 [http://www.slideshare.net/pascalmayer/dna-colony-massively-parrallel-sequencing-ams98-presentation DNA colony massively parallel sequencing ams98 presentation]. A non-clonal surface amplification method, named “bridge amplification”, was also been described independently at the same period.{{US patent|5641658}} Four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added, and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA are extended one nucleotide at a time and image acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies, exceeding at will the imaging field of the camera, to be treated simultaneously. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and unlimited sequencing capacity. A camera takes images of the [[Fluorescent labeling|fluorescently labeled]] nucleotidets, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle.{{cite journal |author=Mardis ER |title=Next-generation DNA sequencing methods |journal=Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet |volume=9 |issue= |pages=387–402 |year=2008 |pmid=18576944 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164359 |url=}}","[[Solexa]], now part of [[Illumina (company)|Illumina]], developed a sequencing technology based on reversible dye-terminators aquired from [[Manteia Predictive Medicine]] in 2004. DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified so that local clonal colonies, initially coined ""DNA colonies"", are formed. This technology had been invented and developed in late 1996 at Glaxo-Welcome's Geneva Biomedical Research Institute (GBRI), by Dr Pascal Mayer and Dr Laurent Farinelli patents WO 9844151, WO 9844152, WO 0018957, WO 0246456, WO 03074734f>, and was publicly presented for the first time in 1998 [http://www.slideshare.net/pascalmayer/dna-colony-massively-parrallel-sequencing-ams98-presentation DNA colony massively parallel sequencing ams98 presentation]. A non-clonal surface amplification method, named “bridge amplification”, has also been described independently at the same period.{{US patent|5641658}}. To determine the sequence, four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added, and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA are extended one nucleotide at a time and image acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies, exceeding at will the imaging field of the camera, to be treated simultaneously and analyzed thanks to numerous images taken by a single camera. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and unlimited sequencing capacity. With an optimal configuration, instrument throughput is thus dictated solely by the analogic-to-digital conversion rate of the camera, multiplied by the number of cameras and divided by the number of pixels per DNA colony required for visualizing them optimally (approximately 10 pixels/colony). In 2012, with cameras operating at more than 10 Mhz A/D conversion rates and available optics, fluidics and enzymatics , throughput can be multiples of 1 million nucleotides/second, corresponding roughly to 1 human genome equivalent at 1x coverage per hour per instrument, and 1 human genome re-sequenced (at approx. 30x) per day per instrument (equipped with a single camera). The camera takes images of the [[Fluorescent labeling|fluorescently labeled]] nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle.{{cite journal |author=Mardis ER |title=Next-generation DNA sequencing methods |journal=Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet |volume=9 |issue= |pages=387–402 |year=2008 |pmid=18576944 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164359 |url=}}.","[1, 3, 4, 10]"
DNA sequencing,Next-generation methods,518151530,2012-10-16T17:08:15Z,JHCaufield,"The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven the development of high-throughput sequencing (or next-generation sequencing) technologies that [[multiplex (assay)|parallelize]] the sequencing process, producing thousands or millions of sequences at once.{{cite journal |author=Hall N |title=Advanced sequencing technologies and their wider impact in microbiology |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=210 |issue=Pt 9 |pages=1518–25 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17449817|doi=10.1242/jeb.001370 }}{{cite journal |author=Church GM |title=Genomes for all |journal=Sci. Am. |volume=294 |issue=1 |pages=46–54 |year=2006|month=January |pmid=16468433 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0106-46 }} High-throughput sequencing technologies are intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator methods. In ultra-[[high-throughput sequencing]] as many as 500,000 sequencing-by-synthesis operations may be run in parallel.{{cite book|title=Massively Parallel, Optical, and Neural Computing in the United States|author=Gilbert Kalb, Robert Moxley|publisher=Moxley|year=1992|isbn=90-5199-097-9}}{{Cite pmid|18832462}}{{Cite pmid|19679224}}","The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven the development of high-throughput sequencing (or next-generation sequencing) technologies that [[multiplex (assay)|parallelize]] the sequencing process, producing thousands or millions of sequences at once.{{cite journal |author=Hall N |title=Advanced sequencing technologies and their wider impact in microbiology |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=210 |issue=Pt 9 |pages=1518–25 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17449817|doi=10.1242/jeb.001370 }}{{cite journal |author=Church GM |title=Genomes for all |journal=Sci. Am. |volume=294 |issue=1 |pages=46–54 |year=2006|month=January |pmid=16468433 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0106-46 }} High-throughput sequencing technologies are intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator methods. In ultra-[[high-throughput sequencing]] as many as 500,000 sequencing-by-synthesis operations may be run in parallel.{{cite book|title=Massively Parallel, Optical, and Neural Computing in the United States|author=Gilbert Kalb, Robert Moxley|publisher=Moxley|year=1992|isbn=90-5199-097-9}}{{Cite pmid|18832462}}{{Cite pmid|19679224}}
{| class=""wikitable"" border=""1""
|+ Comparison of next-generation sequencing methods {{cite journal|last=Liu|first=Lin|coauthors=Li, Yinhu; Li, Siliang; Hu, Ni; He, Yimin; Pong, Ray; Lin, Danni; Lu, Lihua; Law, Maggie|title=Comparison of Next-Generation Sequencing Systems|journal=Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology|date=1 January 2012|volume=2012|pages=1–11|doi=10.1155/2012/251364}}
! Method !! Pyrosequencing (454) !! Sequencing by synthesis !! Sequencing by ligation (SOLiD sequencing) !! Chain termination (Sanger sequencing)
|-
| '''Read length''' || 700 bp || 50 to 100 bp ||50+35 or 50+50 bp || 400 to 900 bp
|-
| '''Accuracy''' || 99.9% || 98% || 99.9% || 99.9%
|-
| '''Reads per run''' || 1 million || 3 billion || 1.2 to 1.4 billion || N/A
|-
| '''Time per run''' || 24 hours || 3 to 10 days ||1 to 2 weeks || 20 minutes to 3 hours
|-
| '''Cost per 1 million bases (in US$)''' || $10 || $0.07 || $0.13 || $2400
|-
| '''Advantages''' || Large read size. Fast. || ||Low cost per base. || Long individual reads. Useful for many applications.
|-
| '''Disadvantages''' || Runs are expensive. May show high error rate in areas of repeated nucleotides. || ||Slower than other methods. || More expensive and impractical for larger sequencing projects.
|}","[1, 4, 7, 10]"
DNA sequencing,Sequencing by hybridization,518564918,2012-10-18T19:14:45Z,JHCaufield,"'[[Sequencing by hybridization]]'' is a non-enzymatic method that uses a [[DNA microarray]]. A single pool of DNA whose sequence is to be determined is fluorescently labeled and hybridized to an array containing known sequences. Strong hybridization signals from a given spot on the array identifies its sequence in the DNA being sequenced.{{cite journal |author=Hanna GJ |title=Comparison of Sequencing by Hybridization and Cycle Sequencing for Genotyping of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Reverse Transcriptase |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=2715–21 |date=1 July 2000|pmid=10878069 |pmc=87006 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10878069 |author-separator=, |author2=Johnson VA |author3=Kuritzkes DR |display-authors=3 |last4=Richman |first4=DD |last5=Martinez-Picado |first5=J |last6=Sutton |first6=L |last7=Hazelwood |first7=JD |last8=d'Aquila |first8=RT }} [[Mass spectrometry]] may be used to determine mass differences between DNA fragments produced in chain-termination reactions.{{cite journal| title=Mass-spectrometry DNA sequencing| author= J.R. Edwards, H.Ruparel, and J. Ju| journal=Mutation Research| volume=573| issue=1–2| pages=3–12|year=2005| pmid=15829234| doi=10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.07.021}}","'[[Sequencing by hybridization]]'' is a non-enzymatic method that uses a [[DNA microarray]]. A single pool of DNA whose sequence is to be determined is fluorescently labeled and hybridized to an array containing known sequences. Strong hybridization signals from a given spot on the array identifies its sequence in the DNA being sequenced.{{cite journal |author=Hanna GJ |title=Comparison of Sequencing by Hybridization and Cycle Sequencing for Genotyping of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Reverse Transcriptase |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=2715–21 |date=1 July 2000|pmid=10878069 |pmc=87006 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10878069 |author-separator=, |author2=Johnson VA |author3=Kuritzkes DR |display-authors=3 |last4=Richman |first4=DD |last5=Martinez-Picado |first5=J |last6=Sutton |first6=L |last7=Hazelwood |first7=JD |last8=d'Aquila |first8=RT }}","[2, 8]"
DNA sequencing,History,519403191,2012-10-23T15:23:48Z,JHCaufield,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by [[Frederick Sanger]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]],Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970's. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[University of Cambridge]] and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }}","[1, 3, 4]"
DNA sequencing,History,519405906,2012-10-23T15:40:15Z,JHCaufield,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970's. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[University of Cambridge]] and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), between 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970's. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[University of Cambridge]] and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] and Smith announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{needs citation}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully-automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987.","[1, 4, 5, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Further reading,519869982,2012-10-26T02:35:46Z,67.212.25.122,"{{Refbegin}}
* Aschoff, J. (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Albrecht, U.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Nevo, E. |title=Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=24 |pages=13751–6 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11707566 |pmc=61113 |doi=10.1073/pnas.181484498|bibcode = 2001PNAS...9813751A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Albrecht, U.; Nevo, E. |title=Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=18 |pages=11718–23 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12193657 |pmc=129335 |doi=10.1073/pnas.182423299|bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911718A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Ditty, J.L.; Williams, S.B.; Golden, S.S. |title=A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=513–43 |year=2003 |pmid=14616072 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.142716}}
* Dunlap, J.C.; Loros, J.; DeCoursey, P.J. (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
* {{Cite journal |author=Dvornyk, V.; Vinogradova, O.; Nevo, E. |title=Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=2495–500 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12604787 |pmc=151369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0130099100|bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.2495D }}
* Koukkari, W.L.; Sothern, R.B. (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
* {{Cite journal |author=Martino, T. |date=April 2004 |title=Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart |journal=Journal of Molecular Medicine |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–64 |pmid=14985853 |doi=10.1007/s00109-003-0520-1 |last2=Arab |first2=S. |last3=Straume |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Belsham |first4=Denise D. |last5=Tata |first5=Nazneen |last6=Cai |first6=Fang |last7=Liu |first7=Peter |last8=Trivieri |first8=Maria |last9=Ralph |first9=Martin}}
* Refinetti, R. (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
* {{Cite journal |author=Takahashi, J.S.; Zatz, M. |title=Regulation of circadian rhythmicity |journal=Science |volume=217 |issue=4565 |pages=1104–11 |date=September 1982 |doi=10.1126/science.6287576 |pmid= 6287576|bibcode = 1982Sci...217.1104T }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Tomita, J.; Nakajima, M.; Kondo, T.; Iwasaki, H. |title=No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5707 |pages=251–4 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15550625 |doi=10.1126/science.1102540|bibcode = 2005Sci...307..251T }}
* {{Cite book |last=Moore-Ede |first=Martin C. |last2=Sulszman |first2=Frank M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Charles A. |year=1982 |title=The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System |publisher= Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-674-13581-4}}
{{Refend}}","{{Refbegin}}
* Aschoff, J. (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clock''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Albrecht, U.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Nevo, E. |title=Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=24 |pages=13751–6 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11707566 |pmc=61113 |doi=10.1073/pnas.181484498|bibcode = 2001PNAS...9813751A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Albrecht, U.; Nevo, E. |title=Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=18 |pages=11718–23 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12193657 |pmc=129335 |doi=10.1073/pnas.182423299|bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911718A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Ditty, J.L.; Williams, S.B.; Golden, S.S. |title=A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=513–43 |year=2003 |pmid=14616072 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.142716}}
* Dunlap, J.C.; Loros, J.; DeCoursey, P.J. (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
* {{Cite journal |author=Dvornyk, V.; Vinogradova, O.; Nevo, E. |title=Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=2495–500 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12604787 |pmc=151369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0130099100|bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.2495D }}
* Koukkari, W.L.; Sothern, R.B. (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
* {{Cite journal |author=Martino, T. |date=April 2004 |title=Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart |journal=Journal of Molecular Medicine |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–64 |pmid=14985853 |doi=10.1007/s00109-003-0520-1 |last2=Arab |first2=S. |last3=Straume |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Belsham |first4=Denise D. |last5=Tata |first5=Nazneen |last6=Cai |first6=Fang |last7=Liu |first7=Peter |last8=Trivieri |first8=Maria |last9=Ralph |first9=Martin}}
* Refinetti, R. (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
* {{Cite journal |author=Takahashi, J.S.; Zatz, M. |title=Regulation of circadian rhythmicity |journal=Science |volume=217 |issue=4565 |pages=1104–11 |date=September 1982 |doi=10.1126/science.6287576 |pmid= 6287576|bibcode = 1982Sci...217.1104T }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Tomita, J.; Nakajima, M.; Kondo, T.; Iwasaki, H. |title=No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5707 |pages=251–4 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15550625 |doi=10.1126/science.1102540|bibcode = 2005Sci...307..251T }}
* {{Cite book |last=Moore-Ede |first=Martin C. |last2=Sulszman |first2=Frank M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Charles A. |year=1982 |title=The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System |publisher= Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-674-13581-4}}
{{Refend}}",[11]
Prion,Multi-component hypothesis,523469686,2012-11-17T09:41:11Z,Rjwilmsi,"Despite much effort, significant titers of prion infectivity have never been produced by refolding pure PrP molecules, raising doubt about the validity of the ""protein only"" hypothesis. In addition the ""protein only"" hypothesis fails to provide a molecular explanation for the ability of prion strains to target specific areas of the brain in distinct patterns. These shortcomings, along with additional experimental data, have given rise to the ""multi-component"" or ""cofactor variation"" hypothesis.{{cite journal|last=Supattapone|title=What makes a prion infectious?|journal=Science|year=2010|pmid=20185716}}
In 2007, biochemist Surachai Supattapone and his colleagues at [[Dartmouth College]] produced purified infectious prions ''de novo'' from defined components (PrPC, co-purified lipids, and a synthetic polyanionic molecule).{{cite journal |author=Deleault NR, Harris BT, Rees JR, Supattapone S |title=Formation of native prions from minimal components in vitro |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=104 |issue=23 |pages=9741–6 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17535913 |pmc=1887554 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702662104 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17535913 |accessdate=2010-02-28|bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.9741D }} These researchers also showed that the polyanionic molecule required for prion formation was selectively incorporated into high-affinity complexes with PrP molecules, leading them to hypothesize that infectious prions may be composed of multiple host components, including PrP, lipid, and polyanionic molecules, rather than PrPSc alone.{{cite journal |author=Geoghegan JC, Valdes PA, Orem NR, ''et al.'' |title=Selective incorporation of polyanionic molecules into hamster prions |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=282 |issue=50 |pages=36341–53 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=17940287 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M704447200 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17940287 |accessdate=2010-02-28 |pmc=3091164}}
In 2010, Jiyan Ma and colleagues at The Ohio State University produced infectious prions from a recipe of bacterially expressed recombinant PrP, POPG phospholipid, and RNA, further supporting the multi-component hypothesis.{{cite journal |author=Wang F, Wang X, Yuan CG, Ma J |title=Generating a prion with bacterially expressed recombinant prion protein |journal=Science |volume=327 |issue=5969 |pages=1132–5 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20110469 |pmc=2893558 |doi=10.1126/science.1183748 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=20110469 |accessdate=2010-02-28|bibcode = 2010Sci...327.1132W }} This finding is in contrast to studies that found minimal infectious prions produced from recombinant PrP alone.{{cite journal |author=Legname G, Baskakov IV, Nguyen HO, ''et al.'' |title=Synthetic mammalian prions |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5684 |pages=673–6 |year=2004 |month=July |pmid=15286374 |doi=10.1126/science.1100195 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15286374 |accessdate=2010-02-28|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..673L }}{{cite journal |author=Makarava N, Kovacs GG, Bocharova O, ''et al.'' |title=Recombinant prion protein induces a new transmissible prion disease in wild-type animals |journal=Acta Neuropathologica |volume=119 |issue=2 |pages=177–87 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20052481 |pmc=2808531 |doi=10.1007/s00401-009-0633-x}}
In 2012, Supattapone and colleagues purified the membrane lipid phosphatidylethanolamine as a solitary endogenous cofactor capable of facilitating the formation of high titer recombinant prions derived from multiple prion strains.{{cite journal|pmid=22586108}} They also reported that the cofactor was essential for maintaining the infectious conformation of PrPSc, and that cofactor molecules dictate the strain properties of infectious prions.{{cite journal|pmid=22711839}}","Despite much effort, significant titers of prion infectivity have never been produced by refolding pure PrP molecules, raising doubt about the validity of the ""protein only"" hypothesis. In addition the ""protein only"" hypothesis fails to provide a molecular explanation for the ability of prion strains to target specific areas of the brain in distinct patterns. These shortcomings, along with additional experimental data, have given rise to the ""multi-component"" or ""cofactor variation"" hypothesis.{{cite journal|last=Supattapone|title=What makes a prion infectious?|journal=Science|year=2010|pmid=20185716|doi=10.1126/science.1187790|volume=327|issue=5969|pages=1091–2}}
In 2007, biochemist Surachai Supattapone and his colleagues at [[Dartmouth College]] produced purified infectious prions ''de novo'' from defined components (PrPC, co-purified lipids, and a synthetic polyanionic molecule).{{cite journal |author=Deleault NR, Harris BT, Rees JR, Supattapone S |title=Formation of native prions from minimal components in vitro |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=104 |issue=23 |pages=9741–6 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17535913 |pmc=1887554 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702662104 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17535913 |accessdate=2010-02-28|bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.9741D }} These researchers also showed that the polyanionic molecule required for prion formation was selectively incorporated into high-affinity complexes with PrP molecules, leading them to hypothesize that infectious prions may be composed of multiple host components, including PrP, lipid, and polyanionic molecules, rather than PrPSc alone.{{cite journal |author=Geoghegan JC, Valdes PA, Orem NR, ''et al.'' |title=Selective incorporation of polyanionic molecules into hamster prions |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=282 |issue=50 |pages=36341–53 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=17940287 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M704447200 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17940287 |accessdate=2010-02-28 |pmc=3091164}}
In 2010, Jiyan Ma and colleagues at The Ohio State University produced infectious prions from a recipe of bacterially expressed recombinant PrP, POPG phospholipid, and RNA, further supporting the multi-component hypothesis.{{cite journal |author=Wang F, Wang X, Yuan CG, Ma J |title=Generating a prion with bacterially expressed recombinant prion protein |journal=Science |volume=327 |issue=5969 |pages=1132–5 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20110469 |pmc=2893558 |doi=10.1126/science.1183748 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=20110469 |accessdate=2010-02-28|bibcode = 2010Sci...327.1132W }} This finding is in contrast to studies that found minimal infectious prions produced from recombinant PrP alone.{{cite journal |author=Legname G, Baskakov IV, Nguyen HO, ''et al.'' |title=Synthetic mammalian prions |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5684 |pages=673–6 |year=2004 |month=July |pmid=15286374 |doi=10.1126/science.1100195 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15286374 |accessdate=2010-02-28|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..673L }}{{cite journal |author=Makarava N, Kovacs GG, Bocharova O, ''et al.'' |title=Recombinant prion protein induces a new transmissible prion disease in wild-type animals |journal=Acta Neuropathologica |volume=119 |issue=2 |pages=177–87 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20052481 |pmc=2808531 |doi=10.1007/s00401-009-0633-x}}
In 2012, Supattapone and colleagues purified the membrane lipid phosphatidylethanolamine as a solitary endogenous cofactor capable of facilitating the formation of high titer recombinant prions derived from multiple prion strains.{{cite journal|pmid=22586108 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1204498109 | volume=109 | issue=22 | title=Isolation of phosphatidylethanolamine as a solitary cofactor for prion formation in the absence of nucleic acids | year=2012 | month=May | author=Deleault NR, Piro JR, Walsh DJ, ''et al.'' | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | pages=8546–51}} They also reported that the cofactor was essential for maintaining the infectious conformation of PrPSc, and that cofactor molecules dictate the strain properties of infectious prions.{{cite journal|pmid=22711839 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1206999109 | volume=109 | issue=28 | title=Cofactor molecules maintain infectious conformation and restrict strain properties in purified prions | year=2012 | month=July | author=Deleault NR, Walsh DJ, Piro JR, ''et al.'' | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | pages=E1938–46}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),524156419,2012-11-21T07:44:02Z,Materialscientist,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}}) is any biological process that displays AIDs of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}}) is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","[3, 4, 9]"
AngularJS,Releases,526531251,2012-12-05T15:31:38Z,Abondhal,"{| class=""wikitable sortable"" style=""margin:auto; margin:0 0 0 2em;""
|+ AngularJS versions
|-
! Release Date
! Version
! Description
|-
| Sept 5, 2012
| 1.0.2
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/09/angularjs-102-debilitating-awesomeness.html 1.0.2 debilitating-awesomeness]
|-
| Jun 25, 2012
| 1.0.1
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-101-thorium-shielding.html 1.0.1 thorium-shielding]
|-
| Jun 13, 2012
| 1.0
| temporal-domination
|-
| Jun 12, 2012
| 1.0.0rc12
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-100rc12-regression.html 1.0.0rc12 - ""regression-extermination""]
|-
| Jun 12, 2012
| 1.0.0rc12
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-100rc12-regression.html 1.0.0rc12 - ""regression-extermination""]
|-
| Jun 11, 2012
| 1.0.0rc11
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-100rc11-promise-resolution.html - ""promise-resolution""]
|-
| May 24, 2012
| 1.0.0rc10
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/05/angularjs-100rc10-tesseract.html - ""tesseract-giftwrapping""]
|-
| May 15, 2012
| 1.0.0rc9
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/05/angularjs-100rc9-eggplant-teleportation.html - ""eggplant-teleportation""]
|-
| May 6, 2012
| 1.0.0rc8
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md#1.0.0rc8 - ""blooming-touch""]
|-
| Apr 30, 2012
| 1.0.0rc7
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md#1.0.0rc7 - ""rc-generation""]
|-
| Apr 20, 2012
| 1.0.0rc6
| ""runny-nose""
|-
| Apr 12, 2012
| 1.0.0rc5
| ""reality|distortion""
|-
| Apr 6, 2012
| 1.0.0rc4
| ""insomnia|induction""
|-
| Mar 30, 2012
| 1.0.0rc3
| ""barefoot|telepathy""
|-
| Mar 21, 2012
| 1.0.0rc2
| ""silence|absorption""
|-
| Mar 14, 2012
| 1.0.0rc1
| ""moiré|vision""
|-
| Jan 17, 2012
| 0.10.6
| ""bubblewrap|cape""
|-
| Nov 8, 2011
| 0.10.5
| ""steel|fist""
|-
| Sep 2, 2011
| 0.10.0
| ""chicken|hands""
|-
| Aug 21, 2011
| 0.9.19
| ""canine|psychokinesis""
|-
| Jul 29, 2011
| 0.9.18
| ""jiggling|armfat""
|-
| Jun 30, 2011
| 0.9.17
| ""vegetable|reanimation""
|-
| Jun 7, 2011
| 0.9.16
| ""weather|control""
|-
| April 11, 2011
| 0.9.15
| ""lethal|stutter""
|-
| April 1, 2011
| 0.9.14
| ""key|maker""
|-
| Mar 14, 2011
| 0.9.13
| ""curdling|stare""
|-
| Mar 4, 2011
| 0.9.12
| ""thought|implanter""
|-
| Feb 9, 2011
| 0.9.11
| ""snow|maker""
|-
| Feb 1, 2011
| 0.9.10
| ""flea|whisperer""
|-
| Jan 14, 2011
| 0.9.9
| ""time|shift""
|-
| Dec 24, 2010
| 0.9.8
| ""astral|projection""
|-
| Dec 10, 2010
| 0.9.7
| ""sonic|scream""
|-
| Dec 7, 2010
| 0.9.6
| ""night vision""
|-
| Nov 25, 2010
| 0.9.5
| ""turkey|blast""
|-
| Nov 19, 2010
| 0.9.4
| ""total|recall""
|-
| Nov 11, 2010
| 0.9.3
| ""cold|resistance""
|-
| Nov 3, 2010
| 0.9.2
| ""faunal|mimicry""
|-
| Oct 26, 2010
| 0.9.1
| ""repulsion|field""
|-
| Oct 21, 2010
| 0.9.0
| ""Dragon Breath""
|}","{| class=""wikitable sortable"" style=""margin:auto; margin:0 0 0 2em;""
|+ AngularJS versions
|-
! Release Date
! Version
! Codename
|-
| Nov 26, 2012
| 1.1.1
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md pathological-kerning]
|-
| Nov 26, 2012
| 1.0.3
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md bouncy-thunder]
|-
| Aug 31, 2012
| 1.1.0
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md increase-gravatas]
|-
| Aug 31, 2012
| 1.0.2
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/09/angularjs-102-debilitating-awesomeness.html debilitating-awesomeness]
|-
| Jun 25, 2012
| 1.0.1
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-101-thorium-shielding.html thorium-shielding]
|-
| Jun 13, 2012
| 1.0.0
| temporal-domination
|-
| Jun 12, 2012
| 1.0.0rc12
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-100rc12-regression.html regression-extermination]
|-
| Jun 10, 2012
| 1.0.0rc11
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/06/angularjs-100rc11-promise-resolution.html promise-resolution]
|-
| May 23, 2012
| 1.0.0rc10
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/05/angularjs-100rc10-tesseract.html tesseract-giftwrapping]
|-
| May 14, 2012
| 1.0.0rc9
| [http://blog.angularjs.org/2012/05/angularjs-100rc9-eggplant-teleportation.html eggplant-teleportation]
|-
| May 6, 2012
| 1.0.0rc8
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md#1.0.0rc8 blooming-touch]
|-
| Apr 30, 2012
| 1.0.0rc7
| [https://github.com/angular/angular.js/blob/master/CHANGELOG.md#1.0.0rc7 rc-generation]
|-
| Apr 20, 2012
| 1.0.0rc6
| runny-nose
|-
| Apr 12, 2012
| 1.0.0rc5
| reality-distortion
|-
| Apr 5, 2012
| 1.0.0rc4
| insomnia-induction
|-
| Mar 29, 2012
| 1.0.0rc3
| barefoot-telepathy
|-
| Mar 20, 2012
| 1.0.0rc2
| silence-absorption
|-
| Mar 13, 2012
| 1.0.0rc1
| moiré-vision
|-
| Jan 17, 2012
| 0.10.6
| bubblewrap-cape
|-
| Nov 8, 2011
| 0.10.5
| steel-fist
|-
| Oct 22, 2011
| 0.10.4
| human-torch
|-
| Oct 13, 2011
| 0.10.3
| shattering-heartbeat
|-
| Oct 8, 2011
| 0.10.2
| sneaky-seagull
|-
| Sep 9, 2011
| 0.10.1
| inexorable-juggernaut
|-
| Sep 2, 2011
| 0.10.0
| chicken-hands
|-
| Aug 20, 2011
| 0.9.19
| canine-psychokinesis
|-
| Jul 29, 2011
| 0.9.18
| jiggling-armfat
|-
| Jun 30, 2011
| 0.9.17
| vegetable-reanimation
|-
| Jun 7, 2011
| 0.9.16
| weather-control
|-
| April 11, 2011
| 0.9.15
| lethal-stutter
|-
| April 1, 2011
| 0.9.14
| key-maker
|-
| Mar 13, 2011
| 0.9.13
| curdling-stare
|-
| Mar 3, 2011
| 0.9.12
| thought-implanter
|-
| Feb 8, 2011
| 0.9.11
| snow-maker
|-
| Jan 26, 2011
| 0.9.10
| flea-whisperer
|-
| Jan 13, 2011
| 0.9.9
| time-shift
|-
| Dec 23, 2010
| 0.9.8
| astral-projection
|-
| Dec 10, 2010
| 0.9.7
| sonic-scream
|-
| Dec 6, 2010
| 0.9.6
| night-vision
|-
| Nov 25, 2010
| 0.9.5
| turkey-blast
|-
| Nov 18, 2010
| 0.9.4
| total-recall
|-
| Nov 10, 2010
| 0.9.3
| cold-resistance
|-
| Nov 3, 2010
| 0.9.2
| faunal-mimicry
|-
| Oct 26, 2010
| 0.9.1
| repulsion-field
|-
| Oct 20, 2010
| 0.9.0
| dragon-breath
|}","[1, 10]"
Port (computer networking),Examples,526632628,2012-12-06T01:20:26Z,This.is.mvw,"An example for the use of ports is the [[e-mail|Internet mail system]]. A server used for sending and receiving email generally needs two services. The first service is used to transport email to and from other servers. This is accomplished with the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP). The SMTP service application usually listens on TCP port 25 for incoming requests. The second service is usually either the [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP) or the [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP) which is used by [[e-mail client]] applications on user's personal computers to fetch email messages from the server. The POP service listens on TCP port number 110. Both services may be running on the same host computer, in which case the port number distinguishes the service that was requested by a remote computer, be it a user's computer or another mail server.
While the listening port number of a server is well defined ([[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] calls these the [[well known ports]]), the client's port number is often chosen from the dynamic port range (see below).
In some applications, the client and the server each use specific port numbers assigned by the IANA. A good example of this is [[DHCP]] in which the client always uses UDP port 68 and the server always uses UDP port 67","An example for the use of ports is the [[e-mail|Internet mail system]]. A server used for sending and receiving email generally needs two services. The first service is used to transport email to and from other servers. This is accomplished with the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP). The SMTP service application usually listens on TCP port 25 for incoming requests. The second service is usually either the [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP) or the [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP) which is used by [[e-mail client]] applications on user's personal computers to fetch email messages from the server. The POP service listens on TCP port number 110, while the IMAP service listens on TCP port number 143. Both services may be running on the same host computer, in which case the port number distinguishes the service that was requested by a remote computer, be it a user's computer or another mail server.
While the listening port number of a server is well defined ([[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] calls these the [[well known ports]]), the client's port number is often chosen from the dynamic port range (see below).
In some applications, the client and the server each use specific port numbers assigned by the IANA. A good example of this is [[DHCP]] in which the client always uses UDP port 68 and the server always uses UDP port 67","[1, 10]"
Context-free grammar,Grammar ambiguity,527152145,2012-12-09T08:32:52Z,Gerasimovd,,"Given a CFG, can we determine if it is [[Ambiguous grammar | non-ambiguous]]?
The undecidability of this problem follows from the fact that if such an algorithm to determine it existed, we would be able to solve the [[Post correspondence problem]], which is known to be undecidable.","[1, 4, 9]"
Trie,External links,528025105,2012-12-14T15:48:00Z,MrOllie,"* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/trie.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Trie]
* [http://blog.ivank.net/trie-in-as3.html Trie implementation and visualisation in flash]
* [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~lloyd/tildeAlgDS/Tree/Trie/ Tries] by Lloyd Allison
* [http://www.topcoder.com/tc?module=Static&d1=tutorials&d2=usingTries Using Tries] Topcoder tutorial
* [http://linux.thai.net/~thep/datrie/datrie.html An Implementation of Double-Array Trie]
* [http://tom.biodome.org/briandais.html de la Briandais Tree] {{Dead_link|date=February 2012}}
* [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.lisp/browse_thread/thread/01e485291d150938/9aacb626fa26c516 Discussing a trie implementation in Lisp]
* [http://serverkit.org/apiref-wip/node59.html ServerKit ""parse trees"" implement a form of Trie in C]
* [http://scanty-evidence-1.heroku.com/past/2010/5/10/ruby_trie/ A Trie implemented in Ruby]
* [http://www.nedprod.com/programs/portable/nedtries/ A reference implementation of bitwise tries in C and C++]
* [http://www.superliminal.com/sources/TrieMap.java.html A reference implementation in Java]
* [http://www.technicalypto.com/2010/04/trie-in-java.html A quick tutorial on TRIE in Java and C++]
* [https://github.com/kpol/trie A reference implementation in C#]
* [https://github.com/badgerman/critbit A C implementation of crit-bit tries]
* [http://code.google.com/p/judyarray A compact C implementation of Judy Tries]
* [http://search.cpan.org/~hammond/data-trie-0.01/Trie.pm Data::Trie] and [http://search.cpan.org/~avif/Tree-Trie-1.7/Trie.pm Tree::Trie] [[Perl]] implementations.","* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/trie.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Trie]
* [http://blog.ivank.net/trie-in-as3.html Trie implementation and visualisation in flash]
* [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~lloyd/tildeAlgDS/Tree/Trie/ Tries] by Lloyd Allison
* [http://serverkit.org/apiref-wip/node59.html ServerKit ""parse trees"" implement a form of Trie in C]
* [http://search.cpan.org/~hammond/data-trie-0.01/Trie.pm Data::Trie] and [http://search.cpan.org/~avif/Tree-Trie-1.7/Trie.pm Tree::Trie] [[Perl]] implementations.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,528502129,2012-12-17T17:55:22Z,GreggEdwards,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{Cite journal |last=Regestein |first=Quentin R. |coauthor=Pavlova, Milena |date=September 1995 |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–345 |publisher=Elsevier Science Inc. |format=Abstract |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{Cite journal |last=Regestein |first=Quentin R. |coauthor=Pavlova, Milena |date=September 1995 |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–345 |publisher=Elsevier Science Inc. |format=Abstract |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
{{web cite
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| access.date=2012-12-17
}}",[11]
Gene therapy,1990s,530220121,2012-12-29T00:19:26Z,Zujua,"The first approved gene therapy case in the United States took place on September 14, 1990, at the National Institute of Health. It was performed on a four year old girl named Ashanti DeSilva. It was a treatment for a genetic defect that left her with an immune system deficiency. The effects were only temporary, but successful.{{cite pmid|7570001}}
New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. This technique has the potential to treat the blood disorder [[thalassaemia]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and some cancers.{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2915-subtle-gene-therapy-tackles-blood-disorder.html |title=Subtle gene therapy tackles blood disorder – 11 October 2002 |publisher=New Scientist |date= |accessdate=2010-08-17}}
Researchers at [[Case Western Reserve University]] and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane.{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2257-dna-nanoballs-boost-gene-therapy.html |title=DNA nanoballs boost gene therapy – 12 May 2002 |publisher=New Scientist |date= |accessdate=2010-08-17}}
Sickle cell disease is successfully treated in mice.{{cite web|last=Fisher |first=Jennifer |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/article/display/12938/ |title=Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease – The Scientist – Magazine of the Life Sciences |publisher=The Scientist |date= |accessdate=2010-08-17}}
in 1992 Doctor Claudio Bordignon working at the Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy performed the first procedure of gene therapy using hematopoietic stem cells as vectors to deliver genes intended to correct hereditary diseases.{{cite doi|10.1038/356465a0}} In 2002 this work led to the publication of the first successful gene therapy treatment for adenosine deaminase-deficiency (SCID).
The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID ([[severe combined immune deficiency]] or ""bubble boy"" disease) held from 2000 and 2002 was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany.{{Cite journal|author=Cavazzana-Calvo M, Thrasher A, Mavilio F |title=The future of gene therapy |journal=Nature |volume=427 |issue=6977 |pages=779–81 |year=2004 |month=Feb |pmid=14985734 |doi=10.1038/427779a |bibcode = 2004Natur.427..779C }}
In 1993 Andrew Gobea was born with [[severe combined immunodeficiency]] (SCID). Genetic screening before birth showed that he had SCID. Blood was removed from Andrew's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, containing stem cells. The allele that codes for [[Adenosine deaminase|ADA]] was obtained and was inserted into a retrovirus. Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which the viruses entered and inserted the gene into the stem cells' chromosomes. Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andrew's blood system via a vein. Injections of the ADA enzyme were also given weekly. For four years T-cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene. After four years more treatment was needed.
The 1999 death of [[Jesse Gelsinger]] in a gene-therapy experiment resulted in a significant setback to gene therapy research in the United States.{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/10/11/AR2010101102946.html |title=First patient treated in stem cell study |publisher=Washington Post |date= 10-11-2010 |accessdate=10-11-2010}}{{cite web|url=http://www.medpagetoday.com/Genetics/GeneralGenetics/6275 |title=Death Prompts FDA to Suspend Arthritis Gene Therapy Trial |publisher=Medpage Today |date= 7-27-2007 |accessdate=10-11-2010}} As a result, the U.S. FDA suspended several clinical trials pending the re-evaluation of ethical and procedural practices in the field.{{cite web|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EF73B590C718EDDA80894D8404482 |title=Gene Therapy Ordered Halted At University |publisher=New York Times |date=1-22-2000 |accessdate=10-11-2010}}","The first approved gene therapy case in the United States took place on September 14, 1990, at the National Institute of Health. It was performed on a four year old girl named Ashanti DeSilva. It was a treatment for a genetic defect that left her with [[adenosine deaminase deficiency|ADA]]-[[severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]], a severe immune system deficiency. The effects were only temporary, but successful.{{cite pmid|7570001}}
New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. This technique has the potential to treat the blood disorder [[thalassaemia]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and some cancers.{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2915-subtle-gene-therapy-tackles-blood-disorder.html |title=Subtle gene therapy tackles blood disorder – 11 October 2002 |publisher=New Scientist |date= |accessdate=2010-08-17}}
Researchers at [[Case Western Reserve University]] and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane.{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2257-dna-nanoballs-boost-gene-therapy.html |title=DNA nanoballs boost gene therapy – 12 May 2002 |publisher=New Scientist |date= |accessdate=2010-08-17}}
Sickle cell disease is successfully treated in mice.{{cite web|last=Fisher |first=Jennifer |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/article/display/12938/ |title=Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease – The Scientist – Magazine of the Life Sciences |publisher=The Scientist |date= |accessdate=2010-08-17}}
In 1992 Doctor Claudio Bordignon working at the Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy performed the first procedure of gene therapy using hematopoietic stem cells as vectors to deliver genes intended to correct hereditary diseases.{{cite doi|10.1038/356465a0}} In 2002 this work led to the publication of the first successful gene therapy treatment for adenosine deaminase-deficiency (SCID).
The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID ([[severe combined immune deficiency]] or ""bubble boy"" disease) held from 2000 and 2002 was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany.{{Cite journal|author=Cavazzana-Calvo M, Thrasher A, Mavilio F |title=The future of gene therapy |journal=Nature |volume=427 |issue=6977 |pages=779–81 |year=2004 |month=Feb |pmid=14985734 |doi=10.1038/427779a |bibcode = 2004Natur.427..779C }}
In 1993 Andrew Gobea was born with [[severe combined immunodeficiency]] (SCID). Genetic screening before birth showed that he had SCID. Blood was removed from Andrew's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, containing stem cells. The allele that codes for [[Adenosine deaminase|ADA]] was obtained and was inserted into a retrovirus. Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which the viruses entered and inserted the gene into the stem cells' chromosomes. Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andrew's blood system via a vein. Injections of the ADA enzyme were also given weekly. For four years T-cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene. After four years more treatment was needed.
The 1999 death of [[Jesse Gelsinger]] in a gene-therapy experiment resulted in a significant setback to gene therapy research in the United States.{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/10/11/AR2010101102946.html |title=First patient treated in stem cell study |publisher=Washington Post |date= 10-11-2010 |accessdate=10-11-2010}}{{cite web|url=http://www.medpagetoday.com/Genetics/GeneralGenetics/6275 |title=Death Prompts FDA to Suspend Arthritis Gene Therapy Trial |publisher=Medpage Today |date= 7-27-2007 |accessdate=10-11-2010}} As a result, the U.S. FDA suspended several clinical trials pending the re-evaluation of ethical and procedural practices in the field.{{cite web|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EF73B590C718EDDA80894D8404482 |title=Gene Therapy Ordered Halted At University |publisher=New York Times |date=1-22-2000 |accessdate=10-11-2010}}","[3, 4, 9]"
Medical cannabis,Pharmaceutical products,531209963,2013-01-04T04:21:33Z,Anon lynx,,"* '''Nabiximols''' ([[United States Adopted Name|USAN]],United States Adopted Names Coincil: [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/365/nabiximols.pdf Statement on a nonproprietary name] trade name '''Sativex''') is an aerosolized mist for oral administration intended for the treatment of pain.","[1, 4, 9]"
Gene therapy,2008,533130860,2013-01-15T01:31:59Z,75.21.92.124,"{{Main|Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina}}
In May 2008, two more groups, one at the University of Florida and another at the University of Pennsylvania, reported positive results in independent clinical trials using gene therapy to treat Leber's congenital amaurosis.
In all three clinical trials, patients recovered functional vision without apparent side-effects.{{cite doi|10.1056/NEJMoa0802315}}{{cite doi|10.1038/mt.2009.277}}{{cite doi|10.1056/NEJMc0903652}}{{cite doi|10.1056/NEJMoa0802268}} These studies, which used [[adeno-associated virus]], have spawned a number of new studies investigating gene therapy for human retinal disease.","{{Main|Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina}}
In May 2008, two more groups, one at the University of Florida and another at the University of Pennsylvania, reported positive results in independent clinical trials using gene therapy to treat Leber's congenital amaurosis.
In all three clinical trials, patients recovered functional vision without apparent side-effectsThese studies, which used [[adeno-associated virus]], have spawned a number of new studies investigating gene therapy for human retinal disease.",[8]
Genetically modified food,Textured soy protein,533935902,2013-01-20T01:45:04Z,Jytdog,"Textured soy protein (TSP) is made by forming a dough from soybean meal with water in a screw-type [[Food extrusion|extruder]], and heating with or without steam. The dough is extruded through a die into various possible shapes and dried in an oven. The extrusion [[technology]] changes the structure of the soy protein, resulting in a fibrous, spongy matrix similar in texture to meat. TSP is used as a low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products.{{cite book |author=Circle, Sidney Joseph; Smith, Allan H. |title=Soybeans: chemistry and technology |publisher=Avi Pub. Co |location=Westport, Conn |year=1972 |pages= |isbn=0-87055-111-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}{{cite book |author=Liu, KeShun |title=Soybeans : Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |publisher=Aspen Publishers |location=Gaithersburg, Md |year=1997 |pages= |isbn=0-8342-1299-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}","Textured soy protein (TSP) is made by forming a dough from soybean meal with water in a screw-type [[Food extrusion|extruder]], and heating with or without steam. The dough is extruded through a die into various possible shapes and dried in an oven. The extrusion [[technology]] changes the structure of the soy protein, resulting in a fibrous, spongy matrix similar in texture to meat. TSP is used as a low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products.[https://www.chsinc.com/portal/server.pt/community/1soy_proteins/605/textured_soy_proteins/56626 Textured Soy Proteins]",[11]
Bubble sort,(Top),534116610,2013-01-21T05:16:06Z,114.198.144.98,"{{Infobox Algorithm
|class=[[Sorting algorithm]]
|image=[[File:Bubblesort-edited.png|Static visualization of bubblesort]]
|data=[[Array data structure|Array]]
|best-time=
|average-time=
|time=
|space= auxiliary
|optimal=No
}}
'''Bubble sort''', sometimes incorrectly referred to as '''sinking sort''', is a simple [[sorting algorithm]] that works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing each pair of adjacent items and [[Swap (computer science)|swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top of the list. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. Although the algorithm is simple, most of the other sorting algorithms are more efficient for large lists.","{{Infobox Algorithm
|class=[[Sorting algorithm]]
|image=[[File:Bubblesort-edited.png|Static visualization of bubblesort]]
|data=[[Array data structure|Array]]
|best-time=
|average-time=
|time=
|space= auxiliary
|optimal=No
}}
'''Bubble sort''',( James Utak ) sometimes incorrectly referred to as '''sinking sort''', is a simple [[sorting algorithm]] that works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing each pair of adjacent items and [[Swap (computer science)|swap]]ping them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements ""bubble"" to the top of the list. Because it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a [[comparison sort]]. Although the algorithm is simple, most of the other sorting algorithms are more efficient for large lists.",[11]
Context-free grammar,(Top),534777331,2013-01-25T05:23:02Z,117.211.123.62,"{{refimprove|date=February 2012}}
In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG''')
is a [[formal grammar]] in which every [[Production (computer science)|production rule]] is of the form
:''V'' → ''w''
where ''V'' is a ''single'' [[nonterminal]] symbol, and ''w'' is a string of [[Terminal and nonterminal symbols|terminal]]s and/or nonterminals (''w'' can be empty).
The [[formal language|language]]s generated by context-free grammars are known as the [[context-free language]]s.
A formal grammar is considered ""context free"" when its produc
Context-free grammars are important in [[linguistics]] for describing the structure of sentences and words in [[natural language]], and in [[computer science]] for describing the structure of [[programming language]]s and other formal languages.
In [[linguistics]], some authors use the term '''[[phrase structure grammar]]''' to refer to context-free grammars, whereby phrase structure grammars are distinct from [[dependency grammar]]s. In [[computer science]], a popular notation for context-free grammars is [[Backus–Naur Form]], or ''BNF''.","{{refimprove|date=February 2012}}
The formalism of context-free grammars was developed in the mid-1950s by [[Noam Chomsky]],{{harvtxt|Hopcroft|Ullman|1979}}, p. 106. and also their [[Chomsky hierarchy|classification as a special type]] of [[formal grammar]] (which he called [[phrase-structure grammar]]s).{{citation
| last = Chomsky | first = Noam | authorlink =
| title = Three models for the description of language
| journal = Information Theory, IEEE Transactions
| volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 113–124
| publisher = | date = Sep 1956
| url = http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/18/22738/01056813.pdf?isnumber=22738&prod=STD&arnumber=1056813&arnumber=1056813&arSt=+113&ared=+124&arAuthor=+Chomsky%2C+N.
| doi = 10.1109/TIT.1956.1056813| id = | accessdate = 2007-06-18}} What Chomsky called a phrase structure grammar is also known now as a constituency grammar, whereby constituency grammars stand in contrast to [[dependency grammar]]s. In Chomsky's [[generative grammar]] framework, the syntax of natural language was described by context-free rules combined with transformation rules.
Block structure was introduced into computer [[programming language]]s by the [[Algol (programming language)|Algol]] project (1957–1960), which, as a consequence, also featured a context-free grammar to describe the resulting Algol syntax. This became a standard feature of computer languages, and the notation for grammars used in concrete descriptions of computer languages came to be known as [[Backus-Naur Form]], after two members of the Algol language design committee. The ""block structure"" aspect that context-free grammars capture is so fundamental to grammar that the terms syntax and grammar are often identified with context-free grammar rules, especially in computer science. Formal constraints not captured by the grammar are then considered to be part of the ""semantics"" of the language.
Context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient [[list of algorithms#Parsing|parsing algorithm]]s which, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An [[Earley parser]] is an example of such an algorithm, while the widely used [[LR parser|LR]] and [[LL parser]]s are simpler algorithms that deal only with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars.","[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9]"
Context-free grammar,A regular grammar,534777490,2013-01-25T05:24:36Z,David Eppstein,"Every regular grammar is context-free, but not all context-free grammars are regular. The following context-free grammar, however, is also regular.
:S → a
:S → aS
:S → bS
The terminals here are ''a'' and ''b'', while the only non-terminal is S.
The language described is all nonempty strings of s and s that end in .
This grammar is [[regular grammar|regular]]: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side.
Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a [[nondeterministic finite automaton]], so we know that this is a [[regular language]].
It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using | (the [[pipe symbol]]) to separate them. Hence the grammar above can be described more tersely as follows:
:S → a | aS | bS","Every regular grammar is context-free, but not all context-free grammars are regular. The following context-free grammar, however, is also regular.
:S → a
:S → aS
:S → bS
The terminals here are ''a'' and ''b'', while the only non-terminal is S.
The language described is all nonempty strings of s and s that end in .
This grammar is [[regular grammar|regular]]: no rule has more than one nonterminal in its right-hand side, and each of these nonterminals is at the same end of the right-hand side.
Every regular grammar corresponds directly to a [[nondeterministic finite automaton]], so we know that this is a [[regular language]].
It is common to list all right-hand sides for the same left-hand side on the same line, using | (the [[pipe symbol]]) to separate them. Hence the grammar above can be described more tersely as follows:
:S → a | aS | bS",[11]
K-d tree,Balancing,534873756,2013-01-25T19:16:38Z,Sgoder,"Balancing a ''k''-d tree requires care. Because ''k''-d trees are sorted in multiple dimensions, the [[tree rotation]] technique cannot be used to balance them — this may break the invariant.
Several variants of balanced ''k''-d trees exist. They include divided ''k''-d tree, pseudo ''k''-d tree, ''k''-d B-tree, hB-tree and Bkd-tree. Many of these variants are [[adaptive k-d tree]]s.","Balancing a ''k''-d tree requires care because ''k''-d trees are sorted in multiple dimensions so the [[tree rotation]] technique cannot be used to balance them as this may break the invariant.
Several variants of balanced ''k''-d trees exist. They include divided ''k''-d tree, pseudo ''k''-d tree, ''k''-d B-tree, hB-tree and Bkd-tree. Many of these variants are [[adaptive k-d tree]]s.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Obesity and diabetes,535852212,2013-01-31T12:43:51Z,85.218.103.42,"[[Obesity]] and [[diabetes]] are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignement of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light-dark cycle) play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
Shift-work or chronic jet-lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in our body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.{{cite journal | author = Arble DM, Bass J, Laposky AD, Vitaterna MH, Turek FW | title = Circadian timing of food intake contributes to weight gain | journal = Obesity (Silver Spring) | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 2100-2 | year = 2009 | month = Nov | pmid = 19730426 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2009.264 }} In humans, [[shift-work]] which favors irregular eating times, is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. [[Shift-work]] also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation. It is thus further assumed that this is not only what we eat but when we eat that matters.
Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of our body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events. [[Clock]] mutant mice are hyperphagic, obese and have altered glucose metabolism.{{cite journal | author = Turek FW, Joshu C, Kohsaka A, Lin E, Ivanova G, McDearmon E, Laposky A, Losee-Olson S, Easton A, Jensen DR, Eckel RH, Takahashi JS, Bass J | title = Obesity and metabolic syndrome in circadian Clock mutant mice | journal = Science | volume = 308 | issue = 5724 | pages = 1043–5 | year = 2005 | month = May | pmid = 15845877 | doi = 10.1126/science.1108750 }} Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.
","[[Obesity]] and [[diabetes]] are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignement of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light-dark cycle) play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
Shift-work or chronic jet-lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in our body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.{{cite journal | author = Arble DM, Bass J, Laposky AD, Vitaterna MH, Turek FW | title = Circadian timing of food intake contributes to weight gain | journal = Obesity (Silver Spring) | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 2100-2 | year = 2009 | month = Nov | pmid = 19730426 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2009.264 }} In humans, [[shift-work]] which favors irregular eating times, is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. [[Shift-work]] also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation.{{cite journal| author=Delezie J, Challet E| title=Interactions between metabolism and circadian clocks: reciprocal disturbances. | journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci | year= 2011 | volume= 1243 | issue= | pages= 30-46 | pmid=22211891 | doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06246.x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22211891 }} It is thus further assumed that this is not only what we eat but when we eat that matters.
Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of our body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events. [[Clock]] mutant mice are hyperphagic, obese and have altered glucose metabolism.{{cite journal | author = Turek FW, Joshu C, Kohsaka A, Lin E, Ivanova G, McDearmon E, Laposky A, Losee-Olson S, Easton A, Jensen DR, Eckel RH, Takahashi JS, Bass J | title = Obesity and metabolic syndrome in circadian Clock mutant mice | journal = Science | volume = 308 | issue = 5724 | pages = 1043–5 | year = 2005 | month = May | pmid = 15845877 | doi = 10.1126/science.1108750 }} Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes.{{cite journal| author=Delezie J, Dumont S, Dardente H, Oudart H, Gréchez-Cassiau A, Klosen P et al.| title=The nuclear receptor REV-ERBα is required for the daily balance of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. | journal=FASEB J | year= 2012 | volume= 26 | issue= 8 | pages= 3321-35 | pmid=22562834 | doi=10.1096/fj.12-208751 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22562834 }} However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal| author=Goumidi L, Grechez A, Dumont J, Cottel D, Kafatos A, Moreno LA et al.| title=Impact of REV-ERB alpha gene polymorphisms on obesity phenotypes in adult and adolescent samples. | journal=Int J Obes (Lond) | year= 2012 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=22828941 | doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.117 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22828941 }} {{cite journal| author=Scott EM, Carter AM, Grant PJ| title=Association between polymorphisms in the Clock gene, obesity and the metabolic syndrome in man. | journal=Int J Obes (Lond) | year= 2008 | volume= 32 | issue= 4 | pages= 658-62 | pmid=18071340 | doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803778 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18071340 }}
",[7]
Prion,Discovery,535919721,2013-01-31T21:19:11Z,Drbogdan,"of the Griffith protein-only hypothesis for scrapie propagation in the second edition of his ""[[Central dogma of molecular biology]]"" (1970): while asserting that the flow of sequence information from protein to protein, or from protein to RNA and DNA was ""precluded"", he noted that Griffith's hypothesis was a potential contradiction (although it was not so promoted by Griffith).
{{cite journal |author=Crick F |title=Central dogma of molecular biology |journal=Nature |volume=227 |issue=5258 |pages=561–3 |year=1970 |month=August |pmid=4913914 |doi = 10.1038/227561a0 |url= |bibcode=1970Natur.227..561C}}
The revised hypothesis was later formulated, in part, to accommodate [[reverse transcription]] (which both [[Howard Martin Temin|Howard Temin]] and [[David Baltimore]] discovered in 1970).{{cn|date=November 2012}}
In 1982, [[Stanley B. Prusiner]] of the [[University of California, San Francisco]] announced that his team had purified the hypothetical infectious prion, and that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a specific protein – though they did not manage to isolate the protein until two years after Prusiner's announcement.
{{cite journal |last=Taubes| first= Gary | authorlink=Gary Taubes |title=The game of name is fame. But is it science? |journal=Discover |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages= 28–41 |date=December 1986}}
While the infectious agent was named a prion, the specific protein that the prion was composed of is also known as the '''Pr'''ion '''P'''rotein (PrP), though this protein may occur both in infectious and non-infectious forms. Prusiner won the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1997 for his research into prions.
{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1997|accessdate=2010-02-28|publisher=NobelPrize.org}}
","During the 1960s, radiation biologist [[Tikvah Alper]] and mathematician [[John Stanley Griffith]] developed the hypothesis that some [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] are caused by an infectious agent consisting solely of proteins.{{cite journal |author=Alper T, Cramp WA, Haig DA, Clarke MC |title=Does the agent of scrapie replicate without nucleic acid? |journal=Nature |volume=214 |issue=5090 |pages=764–6 |year=1967 |month=May |pmid=4963878 |doi=10.1038/214764a0 |url= |bibcode = 1967Natur.214..764A }}{{cite journal |author=Griffith JS |title=Self-replication and scrapie |journal=Nature |volume=215 |issue=5105 |pages=1043–4 |year=1967 |month=September |pmid=4964084 |doi=10.1038/2151043a0 |url= |bibcode = 1967Natur.215.1043G }}
Alper and Griffith wanted to account for the discovery that the mysterious infectious agent causing the diseases [[scrapie]] and [[Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease]] resisted [[ionizing radiation]]. (A single ionizing ""hit"" normally destroys an entire infectious particle, and the dose needed to hit half the particles depends on the size of the particles. The data suggested that the infectious agent was too small to be a virus.)
[[Francis Crick]] recognized the potential importance of the Griffith protein-only hypothesis for scrapie propagation in the second edition of his ""[[Central dogma of molecular biology]]"" (1970): while asserting that the flow of sequence information from protein to protein, or from protein to RNA and DNA was ""precluded"", he noted that Griffith's hypothesis was a potential contradiction (although it was not so promoted by Griffith).
{{cite journal |author=Crick F |title=Central dogma of molecular biology |journal=Nature |volume=227 |issue=5258 |pages=561–3 |year=1970 |month=August |pmid=4913914 |doi = 10.1038/227561a0 |url= |bibcode=1970Natur.227..561C}}
The revised hypothesis was later formulated, in part, to accommodate [[reverse transcription]] (which both [[Howard Martin Temin|Howard Temin]] and [[David Baltimore]] discovered in 1970).{{cn|date=November 2012}}
In 1982, [[Stanley B. Prusiner]] of the [[University of California, San Francisco]] announced that his team had purified the hypothetical infectious prion, and that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a specific protein – though they did not manage to isolate the protein until two years after Prusiner's announcement.
{{cite journal |last=Taubes| first= Gary | authorlink=Gary Taubes |title=The game of name is fame. But is it science? |journal=Discover |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages= 28–41 |date=December 1986}}
While the infectious agent was named a prion, the specific protein that the prion was composed of is also known as the '''Pr'''ion '''P'''rotein (PrP), though this protein may occur both in infectious and non-infectious forms. Prusiner won the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1997 for his research into prions.
{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1997/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1997|accessdate=2010-02-28|publisher=NobelPrize.org}}
","[1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9]"
Gene therapy,2012,537996875,2013-02-13T05:27:00Z,99.228.73.196,"The FDA approves clinical trials of the use of gene therapy on [[thalassemia]] major patients in the US. Researchers at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York begin to recruit 10 participants for the study in July 2012.[http://www.mskcc.org/blog/launch-stem-cell-therapy-trial-offers-hope-patients-inherited-blood-disorder On Cancer: Launch of Stem Cell Therapy Trial Offers Hope for Patients with Inherited Blood Disorder | Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]. Mskcc.org (2012-07-16). Retrieved on 2012-12-15. The study is expected to end in 2014.[http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01639690?term=lentiviral+thalassemia&rank=1 ß-Thalassemia Major With Autologous CD34+ Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells Transduced With TNS9.3.55 a Lentiviral Vector Encoding the Normal Human ß-Globin Gene]. ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieved on 2012-12-15.
In July 2012, the [[European Medicines Agency]] recommended approval of a gene therapy treatment for the first time in either Europe or the United States. The treatment, called [[Glybera]], compensates for [[lipoprotein lipase deficiency]], which can cause severe [[pancreatitis]].[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/health/european-agency-recommends-approval-of-a-gene-therapy.html European Agency Backs Approval of a Gene Therapy] July 20, 2012 The recommendation was endorsed by the [[European Commission]] in November 2012Gallagher, James. (2012-11-02) [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20179561 BBC News – Gene therapy: Glybera approved by European Commission]. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-12-15.{{cite web|last=Richards|first=Sabrina|title=Gene Therapy Arrives in Europe|url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33166/title/Gene-Therapy-Arrives-in-Europe/|publisher=The Scientist|accessdate=16 November 2012}} and commercial rollout is expected in late 2013.[http://www.uniqure.com/news/167/182/uniQure-s-Glybera-First-Gene-Therapy-Approved-by-European-Commission.html Press Release]. UniQure (2012-11-02). Retrieved on 2012-12-15.","The FDA approves clinical trials of the use of gene therapy on [[thalassemia]] major patients in the US. Researchers at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York begin to recruit 10 participants for the study in July 2012.[http://www.mskcc.org/blog/launch-stem-cell-therapy-trial-offers-hope-patients-inherited-blood-disorder On Cancer: Launch of Stem Cell Therapy Trial Offers Hope for Patients with Inherited Blood Disorder | Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]. Mskcc.org (2012-07-16). Retrieved on 2012-12-15. The study is expected to end in 2014.[http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01639690?term=lentiviral+thalassemia&rank=1 ß-Thalassemia Major With Autologous CD34+ Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells Transduced With TNS9.3.55 a Lentiviral Vector Encoding the Normal Human ß-Globin Gene]. ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieved on 2012-12-15.
In July 2012, the [[European Medicines Agency]] recommended approval of a gene therapy treatment for the first time in either Europe or the United States. The treatment, called [[Glybera]], compensates for [[lipoprotein lipase deficiency]], which can cause severe [[pancreatitis]].[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/health/european-agency-recommends-approval-of-a-gene-therapy.html European Agency Backs Approval of a Gene Therapy] July 20, 2012 The recommendation was endorsed by the [[European Commission]] in November 2012Gallagher, James. (2012-11-02) [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20179561 BBC News – Gene therapy: Glybera approved by European Commission]. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-12-15.{{cite web|last=Richards|first=Sabrina|title=Gene Therapy Arrives in Europe|url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33166/title/Gene-Therapy-Arrives-in-Europe/|publisher=The Scientist|accessdate=16 November 2012}} and commercial rollout is expected in late 2013.[http://www.uniqure.com/news/167/182/uniQure-s-Glybera-First-Gene-Therapy-Approved-by-European-Commission.html Press Release]. UniQure (2012-11-02). Retrieved on 2012-12-15. huhhhhh",[11]
Port (computer networking),Technical details,538375815,2013-02-15T09:52:12Z,125.16.14.90,"{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}
In [[computer networking]] a '''port''' is an application-specific or process-specific software construct serving as a communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system. A port is associated with an [[IP address]] of the host, as well as the type of protocol used for communication. In plain English, the purpose of ports is to uniquely identify different applications or processes running on a single computer and thereby enable them to share a single physical connection to a [[packet-switched network]] like the [[Internet]].
The protocols that primarily use ports are the [[Transport Layer]] protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) of the [[Internet Protocol Suite]]. A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit number, commonly known as the '''port number'''. The port number, added to a computer's IP address, completes the destination address for a communications session. That is, data packets are routed across the network to a specific destination IP address, and then, upon reaching the destination computer, are further routed to the specific process bound to the destination port number.
Note that it is the combination of IP address and port number ''together'' that must be globally unique. Thus, different IP addresses or protocols may use the same port number for communication; e.g., on a given host or interface UDP and TCP may use the same port number, or on a host with two interfaces, both addresses may be associated with a port having the same number.
Of the thousands of enumerated ports, about 250 [[well-known ports]] are reserved by convention to identify specific service types on a host. In the [[client-server]] model of application architecture, a client computer initiates communication with the server computer by connecting to an initial-connection port number that the service-providing organization has made known to potential client organizations. The server and client only communicate briefly through this port: just long enough for the server, from a set of its own port numbers that it has reserved for [[multiplexing]] connections, to choose one, and to direct the client to reestablish communication through that one for the rest of the ""conversation"".","Transport Layer protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP), specify a source and destination port number in their packet headers. A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 1 to 65535 (port number 0 is reserved and can't be used). A process associates its input or output channels via [[Internet socket]]s, a type of [[file descriptor]], with a transport protocol, a port number and an [[IP address]]. This process is known as ''binding'', and enables sending and receiving data via the network. The [[operating system]]'s networking software has the task of transmitting outgoing dannnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnta from all application ports onto the network, and forwarding arriving network packets to a process by matching the packet's IP address and port number. Only one process may bind to a specific IP address and port combination using the same transport protocol. Common application failures, sometimes called ''port conflicts'', occur when multiple programs attempt to bind to the same port numbers on the same IP address using the same protocol.
Applications implementing common services often use specifically reserved, well-known port numbers for receiving service requests from client hosts. This process is known as ''listening'' and involves the receipt of a request on the well-known port and establishing a one-to-one server-client connection, using the same local port number; other clients may continue to connect to the listening port. This works because a TCP connection is identified by the tuple {local address, local port, remote address, remote port}.{{cite web|last=Postel|first=John|title=RFC 793|url=http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc793.txt|accessdate=29 June 2012}} The well-known ports are defined by convention overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA).
The core network services, such as the World-Wide Web, typically use small port numbers less than 1024. In many operating systems special privileges are required for applications to bind to these ports, because these are often deemed critical to the operation of IP networks. Conversely, the client end of a connection typically uses a high port number allocated for short term use, therefore called an [[ephemeral port]].
The port numbers are encoded in the transport protocol packet header, and they can be readily interpreted not only by the sending and receiving computers, but also by other components of the networking infrastructure. In particular, [[firewall (networking)|firewall]]s are commonly configured to differentiate between packets based on their source or destination port numbers. [[Port forwarding]] is an example application of this.
The practice of attempting to connect to a range of ports in sequence on a single computer is commonly known as [[port scanning]]. This is usually associated either with malicious [[security cracking|cracking]] attempts or with network administrators looking for possible vulnerabilities to help prevent such attacks.
Port connection attempts are frequently monitored and logged by computers. The technique of [[port knocking]] uses a series of port connections (knocks) from a client computer to enable a server connection.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),538875323,2013-02-18T13:38:29Z,ClueBot NG,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
yo yo honey singh Ac-en|icon|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}}) is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}}) is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Genetically modified food,History,539537891,2013-02-21T22:22:16Z,92.19.112.52,"Scientists first discovered that DNA can transfer between organisms in 1946.{{cite journal | author = Lederberg J, Tatum EL | title = Gene recombination in ''E. coli'' | journal = Nature | year = 1946 | volume = 158 | page = 558 | url = | doi = 10.1038/158558a0 | issue = 4016 |bibcode = 1946Natur.158..558L }} The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. In 1994, the transgenic [[Flavr Savr]] tomato was approved by the FDA for marketing in the US - the modification allowed the tomato to delay ripening after picking. In the US in 1995, the following transgenic crops received marketing approval: [[canola]] with modified oil composition (Calgene), ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt) corn/maize (Ciba-Geigy), cotton resistant to the herbicide [[bromoxynil]] (Calgene), Bt cotton (Monsanto), Bt potatoes (Monsanto), soybeans resistant to the herbicide [[glyphosate]] (Monsanto), virus-resistant squash (Asgrow), and additional delayed ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca/Peto, and Monsanto). In 2000, with the creation of [[golden rice]], scientists genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time. As of 2011, the U.S. leads a list of multiple countries in the production of GM crops, and 25 GM crops had received regulatory approval to be grown commercially.{{cite web|last=James|first=C|title=ISAAA Brief 43, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011|work=ISAAA Briefs|publisher=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA)|location=Ithaca, New York|year=2011|url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp|accessdate=2012-06-02}}","German-speaking [[Gregor Mendel]] who is known as the ""father of modern genetics"" made seminal work during his lifetime surrounding the genetics of plants.
Scientists first discovered that DNA can transfer between organisms in 1946.{{cite journal | author = Lederberg J, Tatum EL | title = Gene recombination in ''E. coli'' | journal = Nature | year = 1946 | volume = 158 | page = 558 | url = | doi = 10.1038/158558a0 | issue = 4016 |bibcode = 1946Natur.158..558L }}
The next stepping stone came when [[Francis Crick]] and [[James Watson]] cracked the genetic code at the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1953, identifying the double helix structure of DNA.
The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. In 1994, the transgenic [[Flavr Savr]] tomato was approved by the FDA for marketing in the US - the modification allowed the tomato to delay ripening after picking. In the US in 1995, the following transgenic crops received marketing approval: [[canola]] with modified oil composition (Calgene), ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt) corn/maize (Ciba-Geigy), cotton resistant to the herbicide [[bromoxynil]] (Calgene), Bt cotton (Monsanto), Bt potatoes (Monsanto), soybeans resistant to the herbicide [[glyphosate]] (Monsanto), virus-resistant squash (Asgrow), and additional delayed ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca/Peto, and Monsanto). In 2000, with the creation of [[golden rice]], scientists genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time. As of 2011, the U.S. leads a list of multiple countries in the production of GM crops, and 25 GM crops had received regulatory approval to be grown commercially.{{cite web|last=James|first=C|title=ISAAA Brief 43, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011|work=ISAAA Briefs|publisher=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA)|location=Ithaca, New York|year=2011|url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp|accessdate=2012-06-02}}","[1, 5, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,539756657,2013-02-22T21:35:16Z,Looie496,"* [http://richannel.org/christmas-lectures-1998-nancy-rothwell--times-of-our-lives, Royal Institution Christmas Lectures 1998: Times of our Lives]
* [http://www.circadiansleepdisorders.org Circadian Sleep Disorders Organization]
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
* http://www.youtube.com/123minecraftxyz
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythm| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}","* [http://richannel.org/christmas-lectures-1998-nancy-rothwell--times-of-our-lives, Royal Institution Christmas Lectures 1998: Times of our Lives]
* [http://www.circadiansleepdisorders.org Circadian Sleep Disorders Organization]
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythm| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}",[11]
Medical cannabis,Netherlands,540385307,2013-02-25T22:43:35Z,Materialscientist,"[[File:Bedica, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram, granulaat..jpg|thumb|right|350px|Bedica, flos 5 gram, granulaat medical cannabis in the [[Netherlands]] ]]
Since 2003, the country's pharmacies distribute medicinal cannabis (pharmaceutical form of the natural plant) by prescription, in addition to other drugs containing cannabinoids (dronabinol, Sativex).
The FOUR therapeutic qualities produced by the company Bedrocan and distributed in the pharmacy are:
*Bedrocan (18% dronabinol / THC and < 0,1 % cannabidiol / CBD.
*Bedica, (14% dronabinol / THCand < 0,1 % cannabidiol / CBD)flos 5 gram, granulaat.
*Bediol (11% dronabinol / THCand < 0,1 % cannabidiol / CBD)flos 5 gram, granulaat.
*Bedrobinol (6% dronabinol / THC + 7.5% CBD cannabidiol).
File:Bedrocan, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram.jpg|Bedrocan
File:Bediol, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram, granulaat..jpg|Bediol
File:Bedrobinol, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram.jpg|Bedrobinol
The Office of Medicinal Cannabis (BMC), which reports to the Ministry of Health and Sports of the Netherlands, is responsible for ensuring control of the distribution of these new medicines. Patients pay 9,- euro's per gram.
In 2008, 120 kg of medical marijuana were sold through the network of pharmacies at a price of about 7 [[€]] / g.","[[File:Bedica, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram, granulaat..jpg|thumb|right|350px|Prescription medical cannabis in the [[Netherlands]] ]]
Since 2003, the country's pharmacies distribute medicinal cannabis (pharmaceutical form of the natural plant) by prescription, in addition to other drugs containing cannabinoids (dronabinol, Sativex).
The three therapeutic qualities produced by the company Bedrocan and distributed in the pharmacy are:
*Bedrocan (18% dronabinol / THC)
*Bediol (11% dronabinol / THC)
*Bedrobinol (6% + 7.5% CBD dronabinol).
File:Bedrocan, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram.jpg|Bedrocan
File:Bediol, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram, granulaat..jpg|Bediol
File:Bedrobinol, medicinale cannabis flos 5 gram.jpg|Bedrobinol
The Office of Medicinal Cannabis (BMC), which reports to the Ministry of Health and Sports of the Netherlands, is responsible for ensuring control of the distribution of these new medicines.
In 2008, 120 kg of medical marijuana were sold through the network of pharmacies at a price of about 7 [[€]] / g.","[2, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Importance in animals,540926199,2013-02-27T12:26:59Z,Mesoderm,"{{Light Ethology}}
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [[Neural oscillation|brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
{{cquote|Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.{{Cite web |title= Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs}}}}","Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [[Neural oscillation|brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
{{cquote|Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.{{Cite web |title= Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs}}}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Circadian rhythm and airline pilots,541583542,2013-03-01T20:56:23Z,Tolly4bolly,"Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often traverse multiple timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]]. The [[NTSB]] cites this situation as a contributing factor to many accidentshttp://www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_includes/articlePrint.jsp?storyID=news/FATIGex.xml&headLine=null Aviation Week Article and has conducted multiple research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.http://aeromedical.org/Articles/Pilot_Fatigue.html Pilot Fatigue Studyhttp://www.cnn.com/2009/TRAVEL/05/15/pilot.fatigue.buffalo.crash/index.html CNN Article
===Disruption=== HELOO DER HOWDI
{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.{{Cite journal |author=Yin, L.; Wang, J.; Klein, P.S.; Lazar, M.A. |title=Nuclear receptor Rev-erbalpha is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5763 |pages=1002–5 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16484495 |doi= 10.1126/science.1121613 |laysummary=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/lithium-blocks-enzyme-to-help-cells-clocks-keep-on-tickin.shtml |laysource=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |laydate=February 17, 2006|bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1002Y }}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |author=Martino, T.A. |title=Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=294 |issue=5 |pages=R1675–83 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18272659 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00829.2007 |last2=Oudit |first2=G.Y. |last3=Herzenberg |first3=A.M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Tata |first4=N. |last5=Koletar |first5=M. M. |last6=Kabir |first6=G. M. |last7=Belsham |first7=D. D. |last8=Backx |first8=P. H. |last9=Ralph |first9=M. R.}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{Cite journal |author=Straif, K. |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |month=December |year=2007 |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=30 November 2007 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X |last2=Baan |first2=R. |last3=Grosse |first3=Y. |display-authors=4 |last4=Secretan |first4=Béatrice |last5=Ghissassi |first5=Fatiha El |last6=Bouvard |first6=Véronique |last7=Altieri |first7=Andrea |last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Lamia |last9=Cogliano |first9=Vincent}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cite web |url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2011/09/12/dangers.exposure.white.light |title=Dangers of exposure to 'white' light |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=University of Haifa |accessdate=24 July 2012}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often traverse multiple timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]]. The [[NTSB]] cites this situation as a contributing factor to many accidentshttp://www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_includes/articlePrint.jsp?storyID=news/FATIGex.xml&headLine=null Aviation Week Article and has conducted multiple research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.http://aeromedical.org/Articles/Pilot_Fatigue.html Pilot Fatigue Studyhttp://www.cnn.com/2009/TRAVEL/05/15/pilot.fatigue.buffalo.crash/index.html CNN Article",[2]
Dream,Cultural meaning,542151807,2013-03-05T04:06:38Z,Freebullets,"{{Main|Dream interpretation}}
ommon term within the [[animist]] creation narrative of [[indigenous Australians]] for a personal, or group, [[Creation myth|creation]] and for what may be understood as the ""timeless time"" of formative creation and perpetual creating.[http://environment.gov.au/parks/uluru/culture-history/culture/index.html Uluru - Kata Tjuta National Park: Tjukurpa - Anangu culture] environment.gov.au, 2006-06-23
The [[Sumerians]] in Mesopotamia left evidence of dreams dating back to 3100 BC. According to these early recorded stories, gods and kings, like the 7th century BC scholar-king [[Assurbanipal]], paid close attention to dreams. In his archive of clay tablets, some amounts of the story of the legendary king [[Gilgamesh]] were found.Kurt Seligman, Magic, Supernaturalism and Religion. New York: Random House, 1948, pp. 1-11.
The Mesopotamians believed that the soul, or some part of it, moves out from the body of the sleeping person and actually visits the places and persons the dreamer sees in his sleep. Sometimes the god of dreams is said to carry the dreamer.Roger Callois, ""Logical and Philosophical Problems of the Dream,"" in The Dream and Human Societies. Babylonians and Assyrians divided dreams into ""good,"" which were sent by the gods, and ""bad,"" sent by demons - They also believed that their dreams were [[omens]] and prophecies.. A. Leo Oppenheim, ""Mantic Dreams in the Ancient Near East,"" in G. E. Grunebaum & Roger Callois (eds.), The Dream and Human Societies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. A volume touching on the psychological as well as sociological nature of dreams.
In [[ancient Egypt]], as far back as 2000 BC, the Egyptians wrote down their dreams on [[papyrus]]. People with vivid and significant dreams were thought blessed and were considered special.Lincoln JS. 1935, The dream in primitive cultures, London: Cressett . Ancient Egyptians believed that dreams were like [[oracles]], bringing messages from the gods. They thought that the best way to receive divine revelation was through dreaming and thus they would induce (or ""incubate"") dreams. Egyptians would go to sanctuaries and sleep on special ""dream beds"" in hope of receiving advice, comfort, or healing from the gods.1991. languages of dreaming : Anthropological approaches to the study of dreaming In other cultures. In Gackenbach J, Sheikh A, eds, Dream images: A call to -mental arms, -pp 103-224 . Amityville, N.Y.: Baywood.",{{Main|Dream interpretation}},[2]
Genetically modified food,Lecithin,543546189,2013-03-12T01:58:46Z,173.66.202.54,"[[Image:1-Oleoyl-2-almitoyl-phosphatidylcholine Structural Formulae V.1.png|thumb|250px|An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid in lecithin. Red - choline and phosphate group; Black - glycerol; Green - unsaturated fatty acid; Blue - saturated fatty acid]]
Corn oil and soy oil, already free of protein and DNA, are sources of [[lecithin]], which is widely used in processed food as an [[emulsifier]].Corn Refiners Association. [http://www.corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf Corn Oil] 5th Edition. 2006 Lecithin is highly processed. Therefore, GM protein or DNA from the original GM crop from which it is derived is often undetectable - in other words, it is not substantially different from lecithin derived from non-GM crops.Gertruida M Marx, Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, South Africa. December 2010. [http://etd.uovs.ac.za/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-10042011-094627/unrestricted/MarxGM.pdf MONITORING OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD PRODUCTS IN SOUTH AFRICA] Nonetheless, consumer concerns about genetically modified food have extended to highly purified derivatives from GM food, like lecithin.Staff, FoodNavigator.com, July 1, 2005. [http://www.foodnavigator.com/Science-Nutrition/Danisco-emulsifier-to-subsitute-non-GM-soy-lecithin-as-demand-outstrips-supply Danisco emulsifier to subsitute non-GM soy lecithin as demand outstrips supply] This concern led to policy and regulatory changes in Europe in 2000, when Regulation (EC) 50/2000 was passed[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32000R0050&model=guichett Regulation (EC) 50/2000] which required labelling of food containing additives derived from GMOs, including lecithin. Because it is nearly impossible to detect the origin of derivatives like lecithin, the European regulations require those who wish to sell lecithin in Europe to use a meticulous system of [[Identity preservation]] (IP).John Davison, Yves Bertheau (2007) [http://www.researchgate.net/publication/228628711_EU_regulations_on_the_traceability_and_detection_of_GMOs_difficulties_in_interpretation_implementation_and_compliance EU regulations on the traceability and detection of GMOs: difficulties in interpretation, implementation and compliance] CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2(77)","[[Image:1-Oleoyl-2-almitoyl-phosphatidylcholine Structural Formulae V.1.png|thumb|250px|An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid in lecithin. Red - choline and phosphate group; Black - glycerol; Green - unsaturated fatty acid; Blue - saturated fatty acid]]
Corn oil and soy oil, already free of protein and DNA, are sources of [[lecithin]], which is widely used in processed food as an [[emulsifier]].Corn Refiners Association. [http://www.corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf Corn Oil] 5th Edition. 2006 Lecithin is highly processed. Therefore, GM protein or DNA from the original GM crop from which it is derived is often undetectable with standard testing practices - in other words, it is not substantially different from lecithin derived from non-GM crops.Gertruida M Marx, Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, South Africa. December 2010. [http://etd.uovs.ac.za/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-10042011-094627/unrestricted/MarxGM.pdf MONITORING OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD PRODUCTS IN SOUTH AFRICA] Nonetheless, consumer concerns about genetically modified food have extended to highly purified derivatives from GM food, like lecithin.Staff, FoodNavigator.com, July 1, 2005. [http://www.foodnavigator.com/Science-Nutrition/Danisco-emulsifier-to-subsitute-non-GM-soy-lecithin-as-demand-outstrips-supply Danisco emulsifier to subsitute non-GM soy lecithin as demand outstrips supply] This concern led to policy and regulatory changes in Europe in 2000, when Regulation (EC) 50/2000 was passed[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32000R0050&model=guichett Regulation (EC) 50/2000] which required labelling of food containing additives derived from GMOs, including lecithin. Because it is nearly impossible to detect the origin of derivatives like lecithin with current testing practices, the European regulations require those who wish to sell lecithin in Europe to use a meticulous system of [[Identity preservation]] (IP).John Davison, Yves Bertheau (2007) [http://www.researchgate.net/publication/228628711_EU_regulations_on_the_traceability_and_detection_of_GMOs_difficulties_in_interpretation_implementation_and_compliance EU regulations on the traceability and detection of GMOs: difficulties in interpretation, implementation and compliance] CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2(77)",[3]
DNA sequencing,(Top),544074614,2013-03-14T11:53:14Z,HelenOnline,"se trollarw
{{Genetics sidebar}}
'''DNA sequencing''' is the process of determining the precise order of [[nucleotides]] within a [[DNA]] molecule. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases—[[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]]—in a strand of DNA. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.
Knowledge of DNA sequences has become indispensable for basic biological research, and in numerous applied fields such as diagnostic, [[biotechnology]], [[forensic biology]], and biological [[systematics]]. The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of complete DNA sequences, or [[genome]]
The first DNA sequences were obtained in the early 1970s by academic researchers using laborious methods based on [[two-dimensional chromatography]]. Following the development of [[fluorescence]]-based sequencing methods with [[DNA sequencer|automated analysis]],{{cite journal |author=Olsvik O |title=Use of automated sequencing of polymerase chain reaction-generated amplicons to identify three types of cholera toxin subunit B in Vibrio cholerae O1 strains |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=22–5 |year=1993 |month=January |pmid=7678018 |pmc=262614 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7678018 |author-separator=, |author2=Wahlberg J |author3=Petterson B |display-authors=3 |last4=Uhlén |first4=M |last5=Popovic |first5=T |last6=Wachsmuth |first6=IK |last7=Fields |first7=PI}} DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster.{{cite journal |author=Pettersson E, Lundeberg J, Ahmadian A |title=Generations of sequencing technologies |journal=Genomics |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=105–11 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=18992322 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2008.10.003 |url=}}","{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Genetics sidebar}}
'''DNA sequencing''' is the process of determining the precise order of [[nucleotides]] within a [[DNA]] molecule. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases—[[adenine]], [[guanine]], [[cytosine]], and [[thymine]]—in a strand of DNA. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.
Knowledge of DNA sequences has become indispensable for basic biological research, and in numerous applied fields such as diagnostic, [[biotechnology]], [[forensic biology]], and biological [[systematics]]. The rapid speed of sequencing attained with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the sequencing of complete DNA sequences, or [[genomes]] of numerous types and species of life, including the [[human genome]] and other complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and [[microbe|microbial]] species.
[[File:Radioactive Fluorescent Seq.jpg|thumbnail|An example of the results of automated chain-termination DNA sequencing.]]
The first DNA sequences were obtained in the early 1970s by academic researchers using laborious methods based on [[two-dimensional chromatography]]. Following the development of [[fluorescence]]-based sequencing methods with [[DNA sequencer|automated analysis]],{{cite journal |author=Olsvik O |title=Use of automated sequencing of polymerase chain reaction-generated amplicons to identify three types of cholera toxin subunit B in Vibrio cholerae O1 strains |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=22–5 |year=1993 |month=January |pmid=7678018 |pmc=262614 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7678018 |author-separator=, |author2=Wahlberg J |author3=Petterson B |display-authors=3 |last4=Uhlén |first4=M |last5=Popovic |first5=T |last6=Wachsmuth |first6=IK |last7=Fields |first7=PI}} DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster.{{cite journal |author=Pettersson E, Lundeberg J, Ahmadian A |title=Generations of sequencing technologies |journal=Genomics |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=105–11 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=18992322 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2008.10.003 |url=}}","[1, 9]"
DNA sequencing,History,544074614,2013-03-14T11:53:14Z,HelenOnline,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pa00–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] and Smith announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{needs citation|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |year=1991 |month=June |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Pål Nyrén]] and his student [[Mostafa Ronaghi]] at the Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]ng technology and served as the first commercially-available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=thor3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |year=1998 |month=March |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] and Smith announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{needs citation|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |year=1991 |month=June |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Pål Nyrén]] and his student [[Mostafa Ronaghi]] at the Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release| author=M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren| journal=Analytical Biochemistry| volume=242| pages=84–9| year=1996| doi=10.1006/abio.1996.0432| pmid=8923969| issue=1}} A year later, Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli submitted patents to the World Intellectual Property Organization describing DNA colony sequencing.{{Cite
| last = Kawashima
| first = Eric H.
| coauthors = Laurent Farinelli, Pascal Mayer
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]"", or MPSS, in 2000. This method incorporated a parallelized, adapter/ligation-mediated, bead-based sequencing technology and served as the first commercially-available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=Genome Sequencing in Open Microfabricated High Density Picoliter Reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |year=2005 |month=September|pmid=16056220|pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 |url=|bibcode = 2005Natur.437..376M |author-separator=, |author2=Egholm M |author3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first6=Lisa A. |last7=Berka |first7=Jan |last8=Braverman |first8=Michael S. |last9=Chen|first9=Yi-Ju }}The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of the new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS.{{cite journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |year=1998 |month=March |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","[1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
K-d tree,Nearest neighbour search,547683674,2013-03-29T20:41:43Z,Dosttiey,"
[[File:KDTree-animation.gif|thumb|300px|Animation of NN searching with a ''k''-d tree in two dimensions]]
The [[nearest neighbour search]] (NN) algorithm aims to find the point in the tree that is nearest to a given input point. This search can be done efficiently by using the tree properties to quickly eliminate large portions of the search space.
Searching for a nearest neighbour in a ''k''-d tree proceeds as follows:
# Starting with the root node, the algorithm moves down the tree recursively, in the same way that it would if the search point were being inserted (i.e. it goes left or right depending on whether the point is less than or greater than the current node in the split dimension).
# Once the algorithm reaches a leaf node, it saves that node point as the ""current best""
# The algorithm unwinds the recursion of the tree, performing the following steps at each node:
## If the current node is closer than the current best, then it becomes the current best.
## The algorithm checks whether there could be any points on the other side of the splitting plane that are closer to the search point than the current best. In concept, this is done by intersecting the splitting [[hyperplane]] with a [[hypersphere]] around the search point that has a radius equal to the current nearest distance. Since the hyperplanes are all axis-aligned this is implemented as a simple comparison to see whether the difference between the splitting coordinate of the search point and current node is less than the distance (overall coordinates) from the search point to the current best.
### If the hypersphere crosses the plane, there could be nearer points on the other side of the plane, so the algorithm must move down the other branch of the tree from the current node looking for closer points, following the same recursive process as the entire search.
### If the hypersphere doesn't intersect the splitting plane, then the algorithm continues walking up the tree, and the entire branch on the other side of that node is eliminated.
# When the algorithm finishes this process for the root node, then the search is complete.
Generally the algorithm uses squared distances for comparison to avoid computing square roots. Additionally, it can save computation by holding the squared current best distance in a variable for comparison.
Finding the nearest point is an O(log N) operation in the case of randomly distributed points. Analyses of binary search trees has found that the worst case search time for a k-dimensional KD tree containing N nodes is given by the following equation.{{Cite journal
| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. T. | author1-link = Der-Tsai Lee
| last2 = Wong | first2 = C. K.
| year = 1977
| title = Worst-case analysis for region and partial region searches in multidimensional binary search trees and balanced quad trees
| journal = Acta Informatica
| volume = 9
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| doi = 10.1007/BF00263763
}}
:
In very high dimensional spaces, the [[curse of dimensionality]] causes the algorithm to need to visit many more branches than in lower dimensional spaces. In particular, when the number of points is only slightly higher than the number of dimensions, the algorithm is only slightly better than a linear search of all of the points.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications. It can provide the ''k''-Nearest Neighbours to a point by maintaining k current bests instead of just one. Branches are only eliminated when they can't have points closer than any of the k current bests.
It can also be converted to an approximation algorithm to run faster. For example, approximate nearest neighbour searching can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result, this has the downside of discarding points that are not unique, but are co-located with the original search point.
Approximate nearest neighbour is useful in real-time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increase gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively. One of its implementations is [[best-bin-first search]].","
[[File:KDTree-animation.gif|thumb|300px|Animation of NN searching with a ''k''-d tree in two dimensions]]
The [[nearest neighbour search]] (NN) algorithm aims to find the point in the tree that is nearest to a given input point. This search can be done efficiently by using the tree properties to quickly eliminate large portions of the search space.
Searching for a nearest neighbour in a ''k''-d tree proceeds as follows:
# Starting with the root node, the algorithm moves down the tree recursively, in the same way that it would if the search point were being inserted (i.e. it goes left or right depending on whether the point is less than or greater than the current node in the split dimension).
# Once the algorithm reaches a leaf node, it saves that node point as the ""current best""
# The algorithm unwinds the recursion of the tree, performing the following steps at each node:
## If the current node is closer than the current best, then it becomes the current best.
## The algorithm checks whether there could be any points on the other side of the splitting plane that are closer to the search point than the current best. In concept, this is done by intersecting the splitting [[hyperplane]] with a [[hypersphere]] around the search point that has a radius equal to the current nearest distance. Since the hyperplanes are all axis-aligned this is implemented as a simple comparison to see whether the difference between the splitting coordinate of the search point and current node is less than the distance (overall coordinates) from the search point to the current best.
### If the hypersphere crosses the plane, there could be nearer points on the other side of the plane, so the algorithm must move down the other branch of the tree from the current node looking for closer points, following the same recursive process as the entire search.
### If the hypersphere doesn't intersect the splitting plane, then the algorithm continues walking up the tree, and the entire branch on the other side of that node is eliminated.
# When the algorithm finishes this process for the root node, then the search is complete.
Generally the algorithm uses squared distances for comparison to avoid computing square roots. Additionally, it can save computation by holding the squared current best distance in a variable for comparison.
Finding the nearest point is an O(log N) operation in the case of randomly distributed points, although analysis in general is tricky. However an algorithm has been given that claims guaranteed O(log N) complexity.{{cite journal
| author=Friedman, Jerome H., Bentley, Jon Louis, Finkel, Raphael Ari
| title=An Algorithm for Finding Best Matches in Logarithmic Expected Time
| journal=ACM Trans. Math. Softw.
| year=1977| month=sep| volume=3| number=3| pages=209–226| publisher=ACM
| doi=10.1145/355744.355745| issn=0098-3500
| url=http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/355744.355745
| accessdate=29 March, 2013}}
In very high dimensional spaces, the [[curse of dimensionality]] causes the algorithm to need to visit many more branches than in lower dimensional spaces. In particular, when the number of points is only slightly higher than the number of dimensions, the algorithm is only slightly better than a linear search of all of the points.
The algorithm can be extended in several ways by simple modifications. It can provide the ''k''-Nearest Neighbours to a point by maintaining k current bests instead of just one. Branches are only eliminated when they can't have points closer than any of the k current bests.
It can also be converted to an approximation algorithm to run faster. For example, approximate nearest neighbour searching can be achieved by simply setting an upper bound on the number points to examine in the tree, or by interrupting the search process based upon a real time clock (which may be more appropriate in hardware implementations). Nearest neighbour for points that are in the tree already can be achieved by not updating the refinement for nodes that give zero distance as the result, this has the downside of discarding points that are not unique, but are co-located with the original search point.
Approximate nearest neighbour is useful in real-time applications such as robotics due to the significant speed increase gained by not searching for the best point exhaustively. One of its implementations is [[best-bin-first search]].","[1, 2, 3, 7, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,History,548113436,2013-04-01T08:03:22Z,59.90.170.212,"The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Androsthenes of Thasos|Androsthenes]], a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the ''Noon and Midnight Manual'' and the ''Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year''.{{cite book|author=Gwei-Djen Lu|title=Celestial Lancets|accessdate=28 September 2012|date=25 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1458-2|pages=137–140}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian clock|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","THis Circadian is also known as 'Biological clock'.
The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Androsthenes of Thasos|Androsthenes]], a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the ''Noon and Midnight Manual'' and the ''Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year''.{{cite book|author=Gwei-Djen Lu|title=Celestial Lancets|accessdate=28 September 2012|date=25 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1458-2|pages=137–140}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian clock|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[11]
Medical cannabis,Safety of cannabis,550765279,2013-04-17T06:33:28Z,Jballan623,"{{Main|Long-term effects of cannabis}}
From [[The Lancet]], ""There are no confirmed published cases worldwide of human deaths from cannabis poisoning, and the dose of THC required to produce 50% mortality in rodents is extremely high compared with other commonly used drugs"".{{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/AdverseEffectsOfCannabis.pdf |title=Adverse effects of cannabis |authors=W. Hall, N. Solowij |journal=Lancet |volume=352 |issue=9140 |pages=1611–16 |date=14 November 1998 |pmid=9843121 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1}}
There are medical reports of occasional [[infarction]], stroke and other cardiovascular side effects.{{cite journal
| last =Jones
| first =R T
| title = Cardiovascular system effects of marijuana
| journal =Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
| volume =42
| issue =11
| pages =58–63
| year =2002
| language =
| url = http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/42/11_suppl/58S.abstract
| accessdate =31 January 2013 }} Marijuana's cardiovascular effects are not associated with serious health problems for most young, healthy users. Researchers have reported in the [[International Journal of Cardiology]]:
:""Marijuana use by older people, particularly those with some degree of coronary artery or cerebrovascular disease, poses greater risks due to the resulting increase in catecholamines, cardiac workload, and carboxyhemoglobin levels, and concurrent episodes of profound postural hypotension. Indeed, marijuana may be a much more common cause of myocardial infarction than is generally recognized. In day-to-day practice, a history of marijuana use is often not sought by many practitioners, and even when sought, the patient's response is not always truthful. Thus, clinicians should be more vigilant in inquiring about use of marijuana in their patients, particularly among the younger adults who may present with cardiac events in the absence of cardiovascular disease or other obvious risk factors.""{{cite journal
| last =Aranya
| first =A
| coauthors = Williams, M
| title = Marijuana as a trigger of cardiovascular events: Speculation or scientific certainty?
| journal =International Journal of Cardiology
| volume =118
| issue =2
| pages =141–147
| year =2007
| language =
| url = http://www.internationaljournalofcardiology.com/article/S0167-5273(06)00778-9/abstract
| accessdate =31 January 2013 }}
According to Associate Professor Emeritus of [[Psychiatry]] at [[Harvard Medical School]] [[Lester Grinspoon]], ""When cannabis regains its place in the [[US Pharmacopeia]], a status it lost after the passage of the [[Marijuana Tax Act of 1937]], it will be seen as one of the safest drugs in that compendium"".{{citation |last=Grinspoon |first=Lester |url=http://www.metrowestdailynews.com/opinion/x422896402/Grinspoon-Marijuana-Is-Here-to-Stay |title=Grinspoon: Marijuana is here to stay |publisher=The MetroWest Daily News |date=23 September 2012 |accessdate=2013-01-07}}
Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This [[tar (tobacco residue)|tar]] is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke or cigars.{{Cite document |last=Gumbiner |first=Jann
|title=Does Marijuana Cause Cancer? |publisher=Psychology Today |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-teenage-mind/201102/does-marijuana-cause-cancer |date=17 February 2011 |accessdate=2013-01-09}} Over fifty known [[carcinogen]]s have been identified in cannabis smoke.{{Cite document |title=Does smoking cannabis cause cancer? |publisher=Cancer Research UK |date=20 September 2010 |url=http://cancerhelp.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-questions/does-smoking-cannabis-cause-cancer |accessdate=2013-01-09}} These include nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.{{Cite document |last=Tashkin |first=Donald |year=1997 |month=March |title=Effects of marijuana on the lung and its immune defenses |publisher=UCLA School of Medicine |url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/EffectsOfMarijuanaOnLungAndImmuneDefenses.php |accessdate=2012-06-23}} Marijuana smoke was listed as a cancer agent in California in 2009.{{cite web |url=http://oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/files/p65single072012.pdf |title=Chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity |publisher=ca.gov |date=20 July 2012 |accessdate=2013-01-08}} However, a large 2006 study found no causative link to oral, laryngeal, pharyngeal, esophageal or lung cancer when adjusting for several confounders including cigarette smoking and alcohol use.{{cite pmid|17035389}}
Regarding the relative safety of cannabis, former US [[DEA]] chief administrative law judge Judge Francis Young said:
:""There is no record in the extensive medical literature describing a proven, documented cannabis-induced fatality....Despite [a] long history of use and the extraordinarily high numbers of social smokers, there are simply no credible medical reports to suggest that consuming marijuana has caused a single death. In practical terms, marijuana cannot induce a lethal response as a result of drug-related toxicity....Marijuana's [[therapeutic ratio]] is impossible to quantify because it is so high....Marijuana, in its natural form, is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man.""http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/YOUNG/index.html{{reliable source|date=April 2013}}","{{Main|Long-term effects of cannabis}}
From [[The Lancet]], ""There are no confirmed published cases worldwide of human deaths from cannabis poisoning, and the dose of THC required to produce 50% mortality in rodents is extremely high compared with other commonly used drugs"".{{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/AdverseEffectsOfCannabis.pdf |title=Adverse effects of cannabis |authors=W. Hall, N. Solowij |journal=Lancet |volume=352 |issue=9140 |pages=1611–16 |date=14 November 1998 |pmid=9843121 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1}}{{cite journal|last=Kumar|first=N|coauthors=Chambers, W.A., & Pertwee, R.G.|title=Pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses of cannabis and acannabinoids|journal=Anaesthesia|year=2001|volume=56|issue=11|page=1059-1068|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2044.2001.02269}}
There are medical reports of occasional [[infarction]], stroke and other cardiovascular side effects.{{cite journal
| last =Jones
| first =R T
| title = Cardiovascular system effects of marijuana
| journal =Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
| volume =42
| issue =11
| pages =58–63
| year =2002
| language =
| url = http://jcp.sagepub.com/content/42/11_suppl/58S.abstract
| accessdate =31 January 2013 }} Marijuana's cardiovascular effects are not associated with serious health problems for most young, healthy users. Researchers have reported in the [[International Journal of Cardiology]]:
:""Marijuana use by older people, particularly those with some degree of coronary artery or cerebrovascular disease, poses greater risks due to the resulting increase in catecholamines, cardiac workload, and carboxyhemoglobin levels, and concurrent episodes of profound postural hypotension. Indeed, marijuana may be a much more common cause of myocardial infarction than is generally recognized. In day-to-day practice, a history of marijuana use is often not sought by many practitioners, and even when sought, the patient's response is not always truthful. Thus, clinicians should be more vigilant in inquiring about use of marijuana in their patients, particularly among the younger adults who may present with cardiac events in the absence of cardiovascular disease or other obvious risk factors.""{{cite journal
| last =Aranya
| first =A
| coauthors = Williams, M
| title = Marijuana as a trigger of cardiovascular events: Speculation or scientific certainty?
| journal =International Journal of Cardiology
| volume =118
| issue =2
| pages =141–147
| year =2007
| language =
| url = http://www.internationaljournalofcardiology.com/article/S0167-5273(06)00778-9/abstract
| accessdate =31 January 2013 }}
According to Associate Professor Emeritus of [[Psychiatry]] at [[Harvard Medical School]] [[Lester Grinspoon]], ""When cannabis regains its place in the [[US Pharmacopeia]], a status it lost after the passage of the [[Marijuana Tax Act of 1937]], it will be seen as one of the safest drugs in that compendium"".{{citation |last=Grinspoon |first=Lester |url=http://www.metrowestdailynews.com/opinion/x422896402/Grinspoon-Marijuana-Is-Here-to-Stay |title=Grinspoon: Marijuana is here to stay |publisher=The MetroWest Daily News |date=23 September 2012 |accessdate=2013-01-07}}
Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This [[tar (tobacco residue)|tar]] is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke or cigars.{{Cite document |last=Gumbiner |first=Jann
|title=Does Marijuana Cause Cancer? |publisher=Psychology Today |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-teenage-mind/201102/does-marijuana-cause-cancer |date=17 February 2011 |accessdate=2013-01-09}} Over fifty known [[carcinogen]]s have been identified in cannabis smoke.{{Cite document |title=Does smoking cannabis cause cancer? |publisher=Cancer Research UK |date=20 September 2010 |url=http://cancerhelp.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-questions/does-smoking-cannabis-cause-cancer |accessdate=2013-01-09}} These include nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.{{Cite document |last=Tashkin |first=Donald |year=1997 |month=March |title=Effects of marijuana on the lung and its immune defenses |publisher=UCLA School of Medicine |url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/EffectsOfMarijuanaOnLungAndImmuneDefenses.php |accessdate=2012-06-23}} Marijuana smoke was listed as a cancer agent in California in 2009.{{cite web |url=http://oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/files/p65single072012.pdf |title=Chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity |publisher=ca.gov |date=20 July 2012 |accessdate=2013-01-08}} However, a large 2006 study found no causative link to oral, laryngeal, pharyngeal, esophageal or lung cancer when adjusting for several confounders including cigarette smoking and alcohol use.{{cite pmid|17035389}}
Regarding the relative safety of cannabis, former US [[DEA]] chief administrative law judge Judge Francis Young said:
:""There is no record in the extensive medical literature describing a proven, documented cannabis-induced fatality....Despite [a] long history of use and the extraordinarily high numbers of social smokers, there are simply no credible medical reports to suggest that consuming marijuana has caused a single death. In practical terms, marijuana cannot induce a lethal response as a result of drug-related toxicity....Marijuana's [[therapeutic ratio]] is impossible to quantify because it is so high....Marijuana, in its natural form, is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man.""http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/YOUNG/index.html{{reliable source|date=April 2013}}",[7]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,551710515,2013-04-22T23:20:14Z,128.252.102.187,"Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs.{{cite journal|last=Michel|first=Stephan|coauthors=et al.|title=Circadian Rhythm in Membrane Conductance Expressed in Isolated Neurons|journal=Science|year=1993|volume=259|pages=239–241}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Origin,551755968,2013-04-23T06:37:04Z,AnomieBOT,"Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs{{clarify}}.{{cite journal|last=Michel|first=Stephan|coauthors=et al.|title=Circadian Rhythm in Membrane Conductance Expressed in Isolated Neurons|journal=Science|year=1993|volume=259|pages=239–241}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs{{clarify|date=April 2013}}.{{cite journal|last=Michel|first=Stephan|coauthors=et al.|title=Circadian Rhythm in Membrane Conductance Expressed in Isolated Neurons|journal=Science|year=1993|volume=259|pages=239–241}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
DNA sequencing,History,551988885,2013-04-24T17:21:34Z,Sideways713,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Nurse Shrey-Shrey Chaudhari]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] and Smith announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |year=1991 |month=June |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Nurse Shrey-Shrey Chaudhari]] and his student [[Mostafa Chaudhari]] at the Royal Call Center in [[India] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release| author=M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren| journal=Analytical Biochemistry| volume=242| pages=84–9| year=1996| doi=10.1006/abio.1996.0432| pmid=8923969| issue=1}} A year later, Nurse Shrey-Shrey Chaudhari and Laurent Farinelli submitted patents to the World Intellectual Property Organization describing DNA colony sequencing.{{Citation
| last = Kawashima
| first = Eric H.
| coauthors = Laurent Farinelli, Pascal Mayer
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]"", or MPSS, in 2000. This method incorporated a parallelized, adapter/ligation-mediated, bead-based sequencing technology and served as the first commercially available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=Genome Sequencing in Open Microfabricated High Density Picoliter Reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |year=2005 |month=September|pmid=16056220|pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 |url=|bibcode = 2005Natur.437..376M |author-separator=, |author2=Egholm M |author3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first6=Lisa A. |last7=Berka |first7=Jan |last8=Braverman |first8=Michael S. |last9=Chen|first9=Yi-Ju }} The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of the new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS.{{cite journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Nurse Shrey-Shrey Chaudhari and Brent Ewing of the University of Unicorns described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |year=1998 |month=March |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] and Smith announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |year=1991 |month=June |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Pål Nyrén]] and his student [[Mostafa Ronaghi]] at the Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release| author=M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren| journal=Analytical Biochemistry| volume=242| pages=84–9| year=1996| doi=10.1006/abio.1996.0432| pmid=8923969| issue=1}} A year later, Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli submitted patents to the World Intellectual Property Organization describing DNA colony sequencing.{{Citation
| last = Kawashima
| first = Eric H.
| coauthors = Laurent Farinelli, Pascal Mayer
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]"", or MPSS, in 2000. This method incorporated a parallelized, adapter/ligation-mediated, bead-based sequencing technology and served as the first commercially available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=Genome Sequencing in Open Microfabricated High Density Picoliter Reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |year=2005 |month=September|pmid=16056220|pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 |url=|bibcode = 2005Natur.437..376M |author-separator=, |author2=Egholm M |author3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first6=Lisa A. |last7=Berka |first7=Jan |last8=Braverman |first8=Michael S. |last9=Chen|first9=Yi-Ju }} The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of the new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS.{{cite journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |year=1998 |month=March |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","[5, 9, 3]"
Circadian rhythm,In plants,552072313,2013-04-25T04:52:46Z,61dhc,"[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in ''Arabidopsis.'' LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal |last=Webb |first=Alex A.R. |date=June 2003 |title=The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants |journal=New Phytologist |issue=160 |pages=281–303 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1514280}} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self-sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal |last=McClung |first=C. Robertson |date=April 2006 |title=Plant Circadian Rhythms |journal=The Plant Cell |volume=18 |pages=792–803 |url=http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 |doi=10.1105/tpc.106.040980 |issue=4 |pmid=16595397 |pmc=1425852}} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and [[cryptochrome]]s. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark-grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light-grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is made of two genes: CCA1 (Circadian and Clock Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl) that encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in ''Arabidopsis''. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythimcal and mRNA signals reduce contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in early morning while [[TOC1 gene|TOC1]] oscillates and peaks in early evening. From past observations and studies, it is hypothesised that these three components model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY.","[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in ''Arabidopsis.'' LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal |last=Webb |first=Alex A.R. |date=June 2003 |title=The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants |journal=New Phytologist |issue=160 |pages=281–303 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1514280}} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self-sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal |last=McClung |first=C. Robertson |date=April 2006 |title=Plant Circadian Rhythms |journal=The Plant Cell |volume=18 |pages=792–803 |url=http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 |doi=10.1105/tpc.106.040980 |issue=4 |pmid=16595397 |pmc=1425852}} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and [[cryptochrome]]s. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark-grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light-grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is comprised of two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. Components of the morning loop are CCA1 (Circadian and Clock Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in ''Arabidopsis'', as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop is driven by GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes Kolmos, E., and S. J. Davis. 2007. ELF4 as a Central Gene in the Circadian Clock. Plant Signal Behavior 2(5):370-372 . When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in the early morning, while [[TOC1 gene|TOC1]] oscillates and peaks in early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY,, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of cca1, lhy, and prr7 and 9 in the morning loop, but also of gi and elf4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of [[toc1 gene]] functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component [[repressilator]] model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals. Pokhilko, A., A. P. Hernandez, K. D. Edwards, M. M. Southern, K. J. Halliday, and A. J. Millar. 2012. The Clock Gene Circuit in Arabidopsis includes a Repressilator with Additional Feedback Loops. Molecular Systems Biology 8: 574. doi:10.1038/msb.2012.6 ","[1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,In plants,552072535,2013-04-25T04:55:51Z,61dhc,"[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in ''Arabidopsis.'' LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal |last=Webb |first=Alex A.R. |date=June 2003 |title=The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants |journal=New Phytologist |issue=160 |pages=281–303 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1514280}} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self-sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal |last=McClung |first=C. Robertson |date=April 2006 |title=Plant Circadian Rhythms |journal=The Plant Cell |volume=18 |pages=792–803 |url=http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 |doi=10.1105/tpc.106.040980 |issue=4 |pmid=16595397 |pmc=1425852}} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and [[cryptochrome]]s. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark-grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light-grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in ''Arabidopsis'', as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes Kolmos, E., and S. J. Davis. 2007. ELF4 as a Central Gene in the Circadian Clock. Plant Signal Behavior 2(5):370-372 . When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. CCA1 and LHY expression oscillates and peaks in the early morning, while [[TOC1 gene|TOC1]] oscillates and peaks in early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY,, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of cca1, lhy, and prr7 and 9 in the morning loop, but also of gi and elf4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of [[toc1 gene]] functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component [[repressilator]] model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals. Pokhilko, A., A. P. Hernandez, K. D. Edwards, M. M. Southern, K. J. Halliday, and A. J. Millar. 2012. The Clock Gene Circuit in Arabidopsis includes a Repressilator with Additional Feedback Loops. Molecular Systems Biology 8: 574. doi:10.1038/msb.2012.6 ","[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in ''Arabidopsis.'' LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is in and when to flower for the best chance of attracting insects to pollinate them and can include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission.{{Cite journal |last=Webb |first=Alex A.R. |date=June 2003 |title=The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants |journal=New Phytologist |issue=160 |pages=281–303 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1514280}} Circadian rhythms occur as a biological rhythm with light, are endogenously generated and self-sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcriptional feedback loop, a presence of PAS proteins, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state that provides plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal |last=McClung |first=C. Robertson |date=April 2006 |title=Plant Circadian Rhythms |journal=The Plant Cell |volume=18 |pages=792–803 |url=http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 |doi=10.1105/tpc.106.040980 |issue=4 |pmid=16595397 |pmc=1425852}} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests thus extending crop availability, and to secure against massive losses due to weather.
Clocks are set through signals such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, so that the internal time matches the local time. Light is the signal and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and [[cryptochrome]]s. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in dark-grown seedlings, but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB the main phytochrome in light-grown seedlings. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in ''Arabidopsis'', as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes Kolmos, E., and S. J. Davis. 2007. ELF4 as a Central Gene in the Circadian Clock. Plant Signal Behavior 2(5):370-372 . When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. cca1 and lhy gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early morning, while [[TOC1 gene]] expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening.
While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY,, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of cca1, lhy, and prr7 and 9 in the morning loop, but also of gi and elf4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of [[toc1 gene]] functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component [[repressilator]] model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals. Pokhilko, A., A. P. Hernandez, K. D. Edwards, M. M. Southern, K. J. Halliday, and A. J. Millar. 2012. The Clock Gene Circuit in Arabidopsis includes a Repressilator with Additional Feedback Loops. Molecular Systems Biology 8: 574. doi:10.1038/msb.2012.6 ",[11]
Circadian rhythm,In plants,552073337,2013-04-25T05:05:07Z,61dhc,"[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in ''Arabidopsis.'' LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others.{{Cite journal |last=Webb |first=Alex A.R. |date=June 2003 |title=The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants |journal=New Phytologist |issue=160 |pages=281–303 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1514280}} Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment, are endogenously generated and self-sustaining, and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Circadian rhythms feature a transcription-translation feedback loop, proteins containing PAS domains for protein-protein interactions, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment changes the physiological state, providing plants with an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal |last=McClung |first=C. Robertson |date=April 2006 |title=Plant Circadian Rhythms |journal=The Plant Cell |volume=18 |pages=792–803 |url=http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 |doi=10.1105/tpc.106.040980 |issue=4 |pmid=16595397 |pmc=1425852}} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.
Light is the signal by which plants synchronize to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and [[cryptochrome]]s. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in ''Arabidopsis'', as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes Kolmos, E., and S. J. Davis. 2007. ELF4 as a Central Gene in the Circadian Clock. Plant Signal Behavior 2(5):370-372 . When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. cca1 and lhy gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early morning, while [[TOC1 gene]] expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening.
While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY,, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of cca1, lhy, and prr7 and 9 in the morning loop, but also of gi and elf4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of [[TOC1 gene]] functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component [[repressilator]] model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals. Pokhilko, A., A. P. Hernandez, K. D. Edwards, M. M. Southern, K. J. Halliday, and A. J. Millar. 2012. The Clock Gene Circuit in Arabidopsis includes a Repressilator with Additional Feedback Loops. Molecular Systems Biology 8: 574. doi:10.1038/msb.2012.6 ","[[File:PLANTCIRC.jpg|thumb|PLANTCIRC|Diagram showing a small portion of the transcriptional feedback loop in ''Arabidopsis.'' LHY and CCA1 are considered negative elements due to its repression against TOC1 in the morning while TOC1 is considered a positive element because it results in increased transcription of LHY and CCA1 during the evening because of its accumulation.]]
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others.{{Cite journal |last=Webb |first=Alex A.R. |date=June 2003 |title=The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants |journal=New Phytologist |issue=160 |pages=281–303 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1514280}} Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated and self-sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription-translation feedback loops, proteins containing PAS domains for protein-protein interactions, and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage.{{Cite journal |last=McClung |first=C. Robertson |date=April 2006 |title=Plant Circadian Rhythms |journal=The Plant Cell |volume=18 |pages=792–803 |url=http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/reprint/18/4/792 |doi=10.1105/tpc.106.040980 |issue=4 |pmid=16595397 |pmc=1425852}} A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.
Light is the signal by which plants synchronize to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and [[cryptochrome]]s. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in ''Arabidopsis'', as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes Kolmos, E., and S. J. Davis. 2007. ELF4 as a Central Gene in the Circadian Clock. Plant Signal Behavior 2(5):370-372 . When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions) plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. cca1 and lhy gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early morning, while [[TOC1 gene]] expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening.
While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY,, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of cca1, lhy, and prr7 and 9 in the morning loop, but also of gi and elf4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of [[TOC1 gene]] functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component [[repressilator]] model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals. Pokhilko, A., A. P. Hernandez, K. D. Edwards, M. M. Southern, K. J. Halliday, and A. J. Millar. 2012. The Clock Gene Circuit in Arabidopsis includes a Repressilator with Additional Feedback Loops. Molecular Systems Biology 8: 574. doi:10.1038/msb.2012.6 ",[3]
DNA sequencing,History,552359954,2013-04-27T02:01:06Z,Marek69,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |year=1972 |month=May |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |year=1976 |month=April |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |year=1973 |month=December |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |year=1977 |month=February |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] and Smith announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |year=1991 |month=June |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Pål Nyrén]] and his student [[Mostafa Ronaghi]] at the Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release| author=M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren| journal=Analytical Biochemistry| volume=242| pages=84–9| year=1996| doi=10.1006/abio.1996.0432| pmid=8923969| issue=1}} A year later, Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli submitted patents to the World Intellectual Property Organization describing DNA colony sequencing.{{Citation
| last = Kawashima
| first = Eric H.
| coauthors = Laurent Farinelli, Pascal Mayer
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]"", or MPSS, in 2000. This method incorporated a parallelized, adapter/ligation-mediated, bead-based sequencing technology and served as the first commercially available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=Genome Sequencing in Open Microfabricated High Density Picoliter Reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |year=2005 |month=September|pmid=16056220|pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 |url=|bibcode = 2005Natur.437..376M |author-separator=, |author2=Egholm M |author3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first6=Lisa A. |last7=Berka |first7=Jan |last8=Braverman |first8=Michael S. |last9=Chen|first9=Yi-Ju }} The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of the new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS.{{cite journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |year=1998 |month=March |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,553172698,2013-05-02T09:24:50Z,Bonkers The Clown,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{Cite journal |last=Regestein |first=Quentin R. |coauthor=Pavlova, Milena |date=September 1995 |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–345 |publisher=Elsevier Science Inc. |format=Abstract |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
{{web cite
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| access.date=2012-12-17
}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{Cite journal |last=Regestein |first=Quentin R. |coauthor=Pavlova, Milena |date=September 1995 |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–345 |publisher=Elsevier Science Inc. |format=Abstract |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{web cite
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,See also,553174990,2013-05-02T09:51:23Z,Bonkers The Clown,"{{multicol}}
* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circasemidian rhythm]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[Melatonin]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Photosensitive ganglion cell]]: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm.
* [[Polyphasic sleep]]
* [[Rev-ErbA alpha]]
* [[Segmented sleep]]
* [[Sleep architecture]]
{{multicol-end}}","{{multicol}}
* [[Actigraphy]] (also known as Actimetry)
* [[ARNTL]]
* [[ARNTL2]]
* [[Bacterial circadian rhythms]]
* [[Circadian oscillator]]
* [[Circadian rhythm sleep disorders]]
* [[Circasemidian rhythm]]
* [[Circaseptan]], 7-day biological cycle
* [[Cryptochrome]]
* [[CRY1]] and [[CRY2]]: the cryptochrome family genes
* [[Delayed sleep phase syndrome]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Diurnal cycle]]
* [[Light effects on circadian rhythm]]
* [[Light in school buildings]]
* [[Melatonin]]
* [[PER1]], [[PER2]], and [[PER3]]: the period family genes
* [[Photosensitive ganglion cell]]: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm.
* [[Polyphasic sleep]]
* [[Rev-ErbA alpha]]
* [[Segmented sleep]]
* [[Sleep architecture]]
* [[Stefania Follini]]
{{multicol-end}}",[11]
DNA sequencing,Chain-termination methods,557459019,2013-05-30T04:05:50Z,Qwerty0,"{{main|Sanger sequencing}}
The [[Sanger sequencing|chain-termination method]] developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |year=1977 |month=December |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 |bibcode = 1977PNAS...74.5463S }}{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Coulson AR |title=A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=441–8 |year=1975 |month=May |pmid=1100841 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2 }} The chain-terminator method uses fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of [[DNA sequencer]]s.","{{main|Sanger sequencing}}
The [[Sanger sequencing|chain-termination method]] developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |year=1977 |month=December |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 |bibcode = 1977PNAS...74.5463S }}{{cite journal |author=Sanger F, Coulson AR |title=A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase |journal=J. Mol. Biol. |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=441–8 |year=1975 |month=May |pmid=1100841 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2 }} When invented, the chain-terminator method used fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of [[DNA sequencer]]s.
Sanger sequencing is the method which prevailed from the 80's until the mid-2000's. Over that period, great advances were made in the technique, such as fluorescent labelling, capillary electrophoresis, and general automation. These developments allowed much more efficient sequencing, leading to lower costs. The Sanger method, in mass production form, is the technology which produced the [[Human Genome Project|first human genome]] in 2001, ushering in the age of [[genomics]]. However, later in the decade, radically different approaches reached the market, bringing the cost per genome down from $100 million in 2001 to $10,000 in 2011{{cite web |last=Wetterstrand |first=Kris |title=DNA Sequencing Costs: Data from the NHGRI Genome Sequencing Program (GSP) |publisher=[[National Human Genome Research Institute]] |accessdate=30 May 2013 |url=https://www.genome.gov/sequencingcosts }}.","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
AngularJS,Two-way data binding,557815360,2013-06-01T10:59:19Z,Pointillist,"AngularJS' two-way data binding is its most notable feature and reduces the amount of code written by relieving the server backend from templating responsibilities. Instead, templates are rendered in plain HTML according to data contained in a scope defined in the model. The $scope service in Angular detects changes to the model section and modifies HTML expressions in the view via a controller. Likewise, any alterations to the view are reflected in the model. This circumvents the need to actively manipulate the DOM and encourages bootstrapping and rapid prototyping of web applications.{{cite web |url=http://net.tutsplus.com/tutorials/javascript-ajax/5-awesome-angularjs-features/ |title=5 Awesome AngularJS Features |deadurl=no |accessdate=13 February 2013}}","AngularJS' two-way data binding is its most notable feature and reduces the amount of code written by relieving the server backend from templating responsibilities. Instead, templates are rendered in plain HTML according to data contained in a scope defined in the model. The $scope service in Angular detects changes to the model section and modifies HTML expressions in the view via a controller. Likewise, any alterations to the view are reflected in the model. This circumvents the need to actively manipulate the DOM and encourages bootstrapping and rapid prototyping of web applications.{{cite web |url=http://net.tutsplus.com/tutorials/javascript-ajax/5-awesome-angularjs-features/ |title=5 Awesome AngularJS Features |deadurl=no |accessdate=13 February 2013}} Some commentators say the AngularJS approach to data binding is much more straightforward than using either [[Ember.js |Ember.js]]{{cite web | author = Cédric Beust | url = http://beust.com/weblog/2012/12/29/migrating-from-ember-js-to-angularjs/ | title = Migrating from Ember.js to AngularJS | date = December 29, 2012 | accessdate = 2013-06-01 }} or Backbone.{{cite web | author = Joel Rosen | publisher = Localytics | url = http://www.localytics.com/blog/2013/angularjs-at-localytics/ | title = Using AngularJS at Localytics | date = April 9, 2013 | accessdate = 2013-06-01 }}","[1, 9]"
Parkinson's disease,Gene therapy,558303620,2013-06-04T15:41:12Z,NatGertler,"Gene therapy involves the use of a non-infectious [[virus]] to shuttle a gene into a part of the brain. The gene used leads to the production of an [[enzyme]] that helps to manage PD symptoms or protects the brain from further damage.{{cite journal |author=Feng, LR, Maguire-Zeiss KA |title=Gene Therapy in Parkinson's Disease: Rationale and Current Status |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=24 |issue=3|pages=177–92 |year=2010|pmid=20155994 |pmc=2886503|doi=10.2165/11533740-000000000-00000}} In 2010 there were four clinical trials using gene therapy in PD. There have not been important adverse effects in these trials although the clinical usefulness of gene therapy is still unknown. One of these reported positive results in 2011,{{cite journal |author=Lewitt PA, Rezai AR, Leehey MA, ''et al.''|title=AAV2-GAD gene therapy for advanced Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, sham-surgery controlled, randomised trial |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=309–19|year=2011 |month=April |pmid=21419704 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70039-4 }} but the company filed for bankruptcy in March 2012.{{cite web |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-16/neurologix-files-to-liquidate-under-chapter-7-bankruptcy-1-.html |title=Neurologix Files to Liquidate Under Chapter 7 Bankruptcy }}","Gene therapy involves the use of a non-infectious [[virus]] to shuttle a gene into a part of the brain. The gene used leads to the production of an [[enzyme]] that helps to manage PD symptoms or protects the brain from further damage.{{cite journal |author=Feng, LR, Maguire-Zeiss KA |title=Gene Therapy in Parkinson's Disease: Rationale and Current Status |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=24 |issue=3|pages=177–92 |year=2010|pmid=20155994 |pmc=2886503|doi=10.2165/11533740-000000000-00000}} In 2010 there were four clinical trials using gene therapy in PD. There have not been important adverse effects in these trials although the clinical usefulness of gene therapy is still unknown. One of these reported positive results in 2011.{{cite journal |author=Lewitt PA, Rezai AR, Leehey MA, ''et al.''|title=AAV2-GAD gene therapy for advanced Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, sham-surgery controlled, randomised trial |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=309–19|year=2011 |month=April |pmid=21419704 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70039-4 }}",[11]
Von Neumann architecture,History,559510743,2013-06-12T05:23:43Z,Gilliam,"Everything written here are all false facts. But you can still try it if you found it useful.
The earliest computing machines had fixed programs. Some very simple computers still use this design, either for simplicity or training purposes. For example, a desk [[calculator]] (in principle) is a fixed program computer. It can do basic [[mathematics]], but it cannot be used as a [[word processor]] or a gaming console. Changing the program of a fixed-program machine requires re-wiring, re-structuring, or re-designing the machine. The earliest computers were not so much ""programmed"" as they were ""designed"". ""Reprogramming"", when it was possible at all, was a laborious process, starting with [[flowchart]]s and paper notes, followed by detailed engineering designs, and then the often-arduous process of physically re-wiring and re-building the machine. It could take three weeks to set up a program on [[ENIAC]] and get it working. {{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=104}}
With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an [[instruction set]] and can store in memory a set of instructions (a [[computer program|program]]) that details the [[computation]].
A stored-program design also allows for [[self-modifying code]]. One early motivation for such a facility was the need for a program to increment or otherwise modify the address portion of instructions, which had to be done manually in early designs. This became less important when [[index register]]s and [[Addressing mode|indirect address]]ing became usual features of machine architecture. Another use was to embed frequently used data in the instruction stream using [[Addressing mode|immediate addressing]]. Self-modifying code has largely fallen out of favor, since it is usually hard to understand and [[debugging|debug]], as well as being inefficient under modern processor pipelining and caching schemes.
On a large scale, the ability to treat instructions as data is what makes [[Assembly language#Assembler|assemblers]], [[compiler]]s and other automated programming tools possible. One can ""write programs which write programs"".{{Citation | url=http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/M/MFTL.html | title=''MFTL'' (My Favorite Toy Language) entry Jargon File 4.4.7 | accessdate=2008-07-11 }} On a smaller scale, repetitive I/O-intensive operations such as the [[Bit blit|BITBLT]] image manipulation primitive or [[HLSL|pixel & vertex shaders]] in modern 3D graphics, were considered inefficient to run without custom hardware. These operations could be accelerated on general purpose processors with ""on the fly compilation"" (""[[just-in-time compilation]]"") technology, e.g., code-generating programs—one form of self-modifying code that has remained popular.
There are drawbacks to the Von Neumann design. Aside from the Von Neumann bottleneck described below, program modifications can be quite harmful, either by accident or design. In some simple stored-program computer designs, a malfunctioning program can damage itself, other programs, or the [[operating system]], possibly leading to a computer [[crash (computing)|crash]]. [[Memory protection]] and other forms of [[access control]] can usually protect against both accidental and malicious program modification.","The earliest computing machines had fixed programs. Some very simple computers still use this design, either for simplicity or training purposes. For example, a desk [[calculator]] (in principle) is a fixed program computer. It can do basic [[mathematics]], but it cannot be used as a [[word processor]] or a gaming console. Changing the program of a fixed-program machine requires re-wiring, re-structuring, or re-designing the machine. The earliest computers were not so much ""programmed"" as they were ""designed"". ""Reprogramming"", when it was possible at all, was a laborious process, starting with [[flowchart]]s and paper notes, followed by detailed engineering designs, and then the often-arduous process of physically re-wiring and re-building the machine. It could take three weeks to set up a program on [[ENIAC]] and get it working. {{Harvnb|Copeland|2006|p=104}}
With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an [[instruction set]] and can store in memory a set of instructions (a [[computer program|program]]) that details the [[computation]].
A stored-program design also allows for [[self-modifying code]]. One early motivation for such a facility was the need for a program to increment or otherwise modify the address portion of instructions, which had to be done manually in early designs. This became less important when [[index register]]s and [[Addressing mode|indirect address]]ing became usual features of machine architecture. Another use was to embed frequently used data in the instruction stream using [[Addressing mode|immediate addressing]]. Self-modifying code has largely fallen out of favor, since it is usually hard to understand and [[debugging|debug]], as well as being inefficient under modern processor pipelining and caching schemes.
On a large scale, the ability to treat instructions as data is what makes [[Assembly language#Assembler|assemblers]], [[compiler]]s and other automated programming tools possible. One can ""write programs which write programs"".{{Citation | url=http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/M/MFTL.html | title=''MFTL'' (My Favorite Toy Language) entry Jargon File 4.4.7 | accessdate=2008-07-11 }} On a smaller scale, repetitive I/O-intensive operations such as the [[Bit blit|BITBLT]] image manipulation primitive or [[HLSL|pixel & vertex shaders]] in modern 3D graphics, were considered inefficient to run without custom hardware. These operations could be accelerated on general purpose processors with ""on the fly compilation"" (""[[just-in-time compilation]]"") technology, e.g., code-generating programs—one form of self-modifying code that has remained popular.
There are drawbacks to the Von Neumann design. Aside from the Von Neumann bottleneck described below, program modifications can be quite harmful, either by accident or design. In some simple stored-program computer designs, a malfunctioning program can damage itself, other programs, or the [[operating system]], possibly leading to a computer [[crash (computing)|crash]]. [[Memory protection]] and other forms of [[access control]] can usually protect against both accidental and malicious program modification.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,559913710,2013-06-14T18:48:41Z,70.174.147.123,"Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs{{clarify|date=April 2013}}.{{cite journal|last=Michel|first=Stephan|coauthors=et al.|title=Circadian Rhythm in Membrane Conductance Expressed in Isolated Neurons|journal=Science|year=1993|volume=259|pages=239–241}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{Cite journal |author=Guyomarc'h, C.; Lumineau, S.; Richard, J.P. |title=Circadian rhythm of activity in Japanese quail in constant darkness: variability of clarity and possibility of selection |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages= 219–30 |date=May 1998 |pmid=9653576 |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{Cite journal |author=Zivkovic, B.D.; Underwood, H.; Steele, C.T.; Edmonds, K. |title=Formal properties of the circadian and photoperiodic systems of Japanese quail: phase response curve and effects of T-cycles |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511005 |volume=14 |issue= 5 |pages=378–90 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10511005 |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC)Hut, R., & Beersma, D. (2011). Evolution of time-keeping mechanisms: early emergence and adaptation to photoperiod. Philosophical Transactions Of The Royal Society Of London. Series B, Biological Sciences,366(1574), 2141-2154. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0409 of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{Cite journal |author=Nagoshi, E.; Saini, C.; Bauer, C.; Laroche, T.; Naef, F.; Schibler, U. |title=Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15550250 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs{{clarify|date=April 2013}}.{{cite journal|last=Michel|first=Stephan|coauthors=et al.|title=Circadian Rhythm in Membrane Conductance Expressed in Isolated Neurons|journal=Science|year=1993|volume=259|pages=239–241}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","[1, 4 7"
Context-free grammar,See also,561716404,2013-06-26T19:39:29Z,Jochen Burghardt,"* [[Parsing expression grammar]]
* [[Stochastic context-free grammar]]
* [[Context-free grammar generation algorithms|Algorithms for context-free grammar generation]]","* [[Parsing expression grammar]]
* [[Stochastic context-free grammar]]
* [[Context-free grammar generation algorithms|Algorithms for context-free grammar generation]]
* [[Pumping lemma for context-free languages]]","[4, 9]"
Medical cannabis,(Top),562841458,2013-07-04T14:52:35Z,71.212.124.194,"{{cleanup|reason=there are a number of issues with this article's structure. See talk page for more info.|date=June 2013}}
{{About|the medical uses of cannabis|general drug information|Cannabis (drug)|other uses|Cannabis (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Blackberry medical cannabis.jpg|thumb|American ''[[Cannabis indica]]'' purchased at a medical cannabis dispensary]]
[[File:Drug bottle containing cannbis.jpg|thumb|upright|''Cannabis indica'' fluid extract, American Druggists Syndicate, pre-1937.]]
'''Medical cannabis''' refers to the parts of the herb [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] used as a physician-recommended form of medicine or [[herbalism|herbal therapy]], or to synthetic forms of specific [[cannabinoids]] such as [[THC]] (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) as a physician-recommended form of medicine. The [[cannabis|''Cannabis'' plant]] has a long history of use as medicine, with legendary evidence dating back to the fictional [[Shennong|Shen Nung]] in 2737 [[BCE]].{{cite journal |author=Mohamed Ben Amar |title=Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=105 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–25 |year=2006 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.02.001 |pmid=16540272 |url=http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/CannabinoidsMedMetaAnalysis06.pdf |accessdate=8 April 2010}} Cannabis is one of the [[50 Fundamental Herbs|50 ""fundamental"" herbs]] of [[traditional Chinese medicine]],{{Cite book|last=Wong |first=Ming |year=1976 |title=La Médecine chinoise par les plantes |publisher=Tchou |location=Paris |oclc=2646789}}{{Page needed|date=August 2010}} and is prescribed for a broad range of indications.
Others, for example [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]], argue that there is no ""Medical marijuana"" because the plant parts in question fails to meet the standard requirements for approved medicines, that Marijuana has many serious, well documented, negative health effects.[http://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2012/07/30/state-level-proposals-to-legalize-marijuana American Society of Addiction Medicine: State-Level Proposals to Legalize Marijuana, July 25, 2012]
| Caption = Boy with Down syndrome assembling a bookcase
| OMIM = 190685
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000997
| eMedicineSubj = ped
| eMedicineTopic = 615
| DiseasesDB = 3898
| MeshID = D004314
}}
'''Down syndrome''' ('''DS''') or '''Down's syndrome''', also known as '''trisomy 21''', is a [[genetic disorder]] caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of [[chromosome 21 (human)|chromosome 21]].{{cite book|author1=Gordon Grant|author2=Peter Goward|author3=Paul Ramcharan|coauthors=Malcolm Richardson|title=Learning Disability: A Life Cycle Approach to Valuing People|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=1 May 2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill International|isbn=978-0-335-21439-6|pages=43–44}} Down syndrome is the most common [[chromosome abnormality]] in humans.{{cite web|url=http://www.americanpregnancy.org/prenataltesting/amniocentesis.html |title=Amniocentesis - American Pregnancy Association |publisher=Americanpregnancy.org |date= |accessdate=2013-02-23}} It is typically associated with a delay in [[cognition|cognitive]] ability ([[mental retardation]], or MR) and [[child development|physical growth]], and a particular set of facial characteristics. The average [[IQ]] of young adults with Down syndrome is around 50, whereas young adults without the condition typically have an IQ of 100.{{cite web | url = http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/sec23/ch266/ch266b.html | title = Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21; Trisomy G) | accessdate = 2010-12-04 | last = Liptak | first = Gregory S| date = December 2008 | work = Merck Manual | quote = Symptoms}} (MR has historically been defined as an IQ below 70.) A large proportion of individuals with Down syndrome have a severe degree of [[intellectual disability]].
Down syndrome is named after [[John Langdon Down]], the British [[physician]] who described the syndrome in 1866.{{cite book|author1=Janet Carr|author2=Janet H. Carr|title=Down's Syndrome: Children Growing Up|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dOnRCjfS7V4C|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=24 November 1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-46933-3|page=1}} The condition was clinically described earlier by [[Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol]] in 1838 and [[Edouard Seguin]] in 1844.{{cite web|last=Genes|first=Nicholas|title=Down Syndrome Through the Ages|url=http://medgadget.com/2005/11/down_syndrome_t.html|work=the good old days...|publisher=med Gadget|accessdate=11 February 2012}} Down syndrome was identified as a chromosome 21 [[trisomy]] by Dr. [[Jérôme Lejeune]] in 1959. Down syndrome can be identified in a newborn by direct observation or in a fetus by [[prenatal screening]].{{cite book|author=Lennard J. Davis|title=The Disability Studies Reader|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ed6BPwAACAAJ|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=26 February 2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-87374-1|page=125}} Pregnancies with this diagnosis are often [[abortion|terminated]].
The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] estimates that about one of every 691 babies born in the United States each year is born with Down syndrome.{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/DownSyndrome.html |title=CDC - Birth Defects, Down Syndrome - NCBDDD |publisher=Cdc.gov |date=2011-06-08 |accessdate=2013-02-23}}
Many children with Down syndrome are educated in regular school classes while others require specialised educational facilities. Some children graduate from high school,{{cite web |title=Facts About Down Syndrome |publisher = National Association for Down Syndrome |url=http://www.nads.org/pages_new/facts.html |accessdate=20 March 2012}} and, in the US, there are increasing opportunities for participating in [[post-secondary education]].{{cite news |url=http://www.usnews.com/education/articles/2009/02/13/college-is-possible-for-students-with-intellectual-disabilities |title=College Is Possible for Students With Intellectual Disabilities |newspaper = [[US News and World Report]] |date=13 February 2009 |last=Calefati |first = Jessica |accessdate=20 March 2012}} Education and proper care has been shown to improve [[quality of life]] significantly.{{cite journal |author=Roizen, NJ; Patterson, D |title=Down's syndrome |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9365 |pages=1281–89 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12699967 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12987-X |format=Review}} Many adults with Down syndrome are able to work at paid employment in the community, while others require a more sheltered work environment.","{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox disease
| Name = Down syndrome
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|758.0}}
| ICDO =
| Image = Drill.jpg
| Caption = Boy with Down syndrome assembling a bookcase
| OMIM = 190685
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000997
| eMedicineSubj = ped
| eMedicineTopic = 615
| DiseasesDB = 3898
| MeshID = D004314
}}
'''Down syndrome''' ('''DS''') or '''Down's syndrome''', also known as '''trisomy 21''', is a [[genetic disorder]] caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of [[chromosome 21 (human)|chromosome 21]].{{cite book|author1=Gordon Grant|author2=Peter Goward|author3=Paul Ramcharan|coauthors=Malcolm Richardson|title=Learning Disability: A Life Cycle Approach to Valuing People|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=1 May 2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill International|isbn=978-0-335-21439-6|pages=43–44}} Down syndrome is the most common [[chromosome abnormality]] in humans.{{cite web|url=http://www.americanpregnancy.org/prenataltesting/amniocentesis.html |title=Amniocentesis - American Pregnancy Association |publisher=Americanpregnancy.org |date= |accessdate=2013-02-23}} The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] estimates that about one of every 691 babies born in the United States each year is born with Down syndrome.{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/DownSyndrome.html |title=CDC - Birth Defects, Down Syndrome - NCBDDD |publisher=Cdc.gov |date=2011-06-08 |accessdate=2013-02-23}} It is typically associated with [[child development|physical growth]] delays, a particular set of facial characteristics and a severe degree of [[intellectual disability]]. A large proportion of individuals with Down syndrome have a severe degree of [[intellectual disability]]. The average full-scale [[IQ]] of young adults with Down syndrome is around 50 (70 and below is defined as the cut-off for intellectual disability), whereas healthy young adult controls have an average IQ of 100.{{cite web | url = http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/sec23/ch266/ch266b.html | title = Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21; Trisomy G) | accessdate = 2010-12-04 | last = Liptak | first = Gregory S| date = December 2008 | work = Merck Manual | quote = Symptoms}} Many children with Down syndrome are educated in regular school classes while others require specialised educational facilities. Some children graduate from high school,{{cite web |title=Facts About Down Syndrome |publisher = National Association for Down Syndrome |url=http://www.nads.org/pages_new/facts.html |accessdate=20 March 2012}} and, in the US, there are increasing opportunities for participating in [[post-secondary education]].{{cite news |url=http://www.usnews.com/education/articles/2009/02/13/college-is-possible-for-students-with-intellectual-disabilities |title=College Is Possible for Students With Intellectual Disabilities |newspaper = [[US News and World Report]] |date=13 February 2009 |last=Calefati |first = Jessica |accessdate=20 March 2012}} Education and proper care has been shown to improve [[quality of life]] significantly.{{cite journal |author=Roizen, NJ; Patterson, D |title=Down's syndrome |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9365 |pages=1281–89 |year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12699967 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12987-X |format=Review}} Many adults with Down syndrome are able to work at paid employment in the community, while others require a more sheltered work environment.
Down syndrome is named after [[John Langdon Down]], the British [[physician]] who described the syndrome in 1866.{{cite book|author1=Janet Carr|author2=Janet H. Carr|title=Down's Syndrome: Children Growing Up|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dOnRCjfS7V4C|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=24 November 1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-46933-3|page=1}} The condition was clinically described earlier by [[Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol]] in 1838 and [[Edouard Seguin]] in 1844.{{cite web|last=Genes|first=Nicholas|title=Down Syndrome Through the Ages|url=http://medgadget.com/2005/11/down_syndrome_t.html|work=the good old days...|publisher=med Gadget|accessdate=11 February 2012}} Down syndrome was identified as a chromosome 21 [[trisomy]] by Dr. [[Jérôme Lejeune]] in 1959. Down syndrome can be identified in a newborn by direct observation or in a fetus by [[prenatal screening]].{{cite book|author=Lennard J. Davis|title=The Disability Studies Reader|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ed6BPwAACAAJ|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=26 February 2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-87374-1|page=125}} Pregnancies with this diagnosis are often [[abortion|terminated]].","[3, 10]"
Human brain,Language,566792130,2013-08-02T00:47:43Z,Rjanag,"[[File:BrocasAreaSmall.png|thumb|right|250px|Location of two brain areas that play a critical role in language, [[Broca's area]] and [[Wernicke's area]]]]
The first language area within the left hemisphere that was located is [[Broca's area]], named after [[Paul Broca]], who discovered the area while studying patients with [[aphasia]], a language disorder. Broca's area doesn't just handle getting language out in a motor sense, though. It seems to be more generally involved in the ability to process grammar itself, at least the more complex aspects of grammar. For example, it handles distinguishing a sentence in passive form from a simpler subject-verb-object sentence — the difference between ""The girl was hit by the boy"" and ""The boy hit the girl.""{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}
The second language area that was located is [[Wernicke's area]] in the left posterior temporal cortex.Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner. ""Psychology"". Second Edition. New York.Worth Publications. 2009, 2011. p100. German neurologist [[Carl Wernicke]] discovered the area while studying patients who also had language disorders but damage to another part of their brain than Broca's area. [[Receptive aphasia]] (also known as Wernicke's aphasia) is the term for the disorder occurring upon damage to a patient's Wernicke's area.
Receptive aphasia does not only affect speech comprehension. People with receptive aphasia also have difficulty recalling the names of objects, often responding with words that sound similar, or the names of related things, as if they are having a hard time recalling word associations{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. Patients affected with Wernicke's aphasia produce meaningless sentences such as ""Feel very well. In other words, I used to be able to work cigarettes. I don't know how. Things I couldn't hear from are here"". Wernicke's area is always active in normal language processing as people use it to make judgments about word meanings.Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner. ""Psychology"". Second Edition. New York.Worth Publications. 2009, 2011.p 358.","{{expand-section|date=August 2013}}
[[File:BrocasAreaSmall.png|thumb|right|250px|Location of two brain areas that play a critical role in language, [[Broca's area]] and [[Wernicke's area]]]]
The study of how language is represented and processed by the brain is [[neurolinguistics]]. This field originated from the 19th-century discovery that damage to different parts of the brain appeared to cause different symptoms: physicians noticed that individuals with damage to a brain region now known as [[Broca's area]] had difficulty in producing language, whereas those with damage to a region now known as [[Wernicke's area]] had difficulty in understanding it.Damasio, H. (2001). Neural basis of language disorders. In R. Chapey (Ed.), Language intervention strategies in adult aphasia. 4th edition (pp. 18-36). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. Since then, there has been substantial debate over what processes these and other parts of the brain subserve,Regarding the function of Broca's region, see for example the following:
*Grodzinsky, Y. 2000. The neurology of syntax: language use without Broca's area. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23.1, pp. 1-71.
*Hagoort, P. 2013. MUC (Memory, Unification, Control) and beyond. Frontiers in Language Sciences. and over whether or not there even is a strong one-to-one relationship between brain regions and language functions.Caplan, Waters, Dede, Michaud, & Reddy (2007). A study of syntactic processing in aphasia I: Behavioral (psycholinguistic) aspects. Brain and Language 101(2), 103-150.
More recently, much research on language has also used more modern methods (particularly electrophysiology and functional neuroimaging, as described [[#Sources of information|above]] to examine how language processing occurs in people without brain damage or other impairments.","[1, 2, 4, 6, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the ""master clock""",568015100,2013-08-11T00:55:27Z,Bioquimico79,"More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{Cite journal |author=Zanello, S.B.; Jackson, D.M.; Holick, M.F. |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |date=October 2000 |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{Cite journal |author=Kawara, S. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12485420 |doi= 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |last2=Mydlarski |first2=R. |last3=Mamelak |first3=A.J. |display-authors=4 |last4=Freed |first4=Irwin |last5=Wang |first5=Binghe |last6=Watanabe |first6=Hideaki |last7=Shivji |first7=Gulnar |last8=Tavadia |first8=Sherine K |last9=Suzuki |first9=Hirotake}}{{Cite journal |author=Campbell, S.S.; Murphy, P.J. |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |date=January 1998 |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396|bibcode = 1998Sci...279..396C }} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.","More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal glandValenzuela FJ, Torres-Farfan C, Richter HG, Mendez N, Campino C, Torrealba F, Valenzuela GJ, Serón-Ferré M (2008). Clock gene expression in adult primate suprachiasmatic nuclei and adrenal: is the adrenal a peripheral clock responsive to melatonin?. Endocrinology;149(4):1454-61. doi: 10.1210/en.2007-1518. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18187542, [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{Cite journal |author=Zanello, S.B.; Jackson, D.M.; Holick, M.F. |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |date=October 2000 |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{Cite journal |author=Kawara, S. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12485420 |doi= 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |last2=Mydlarski |first2=R. |last3=Mamelak |first3=A.J. |display-authors=4 |last4=Freed |first4=Irwin |last5=Wang |first5=Binghe |last6=Watanabe |first6=Hideaki |last7=Shivji |first7=Gulnar |last8=Tavadia |first8=Sherine K |last9=Suzuki |first9=Hirotake}}{{Cite journal |author=Campbell, S.S.; Murphy, P.J. |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |date=January 1998 |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396|bibcode = 1998Sci...279..396C }} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.","[1, 7, 4]"
Asperger syndrome,History,568658149,2013-08-15T14:05:27Z,AspieNo1,"{{Main|History of Asperger syndrome}}
Named after the Austrian pediatrician [[Hans Asperger]] (1906–1980), Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of autism.{{cite journal |author= Baron-Cohen S, Klin A |title= What's so special about Asperger Syndrome? |journal= Brain Cogn|volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16563588 |doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2006.02.002|url=http://www.elsevier.com/authored_subject_sections/S05/S05_360/pdf/klin.pdf |format=PDF}}
As a child, Asperger appears to have exhibited some features of the very condition named after him, such as remoteness and talent in language.{{cite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |title=Did Hans Asperger (1906–1980) have Asperger Syndrome? |author=Lyons V, Fitzgerald M |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0382-4 |pmid=17917805 |volume=37 |pages=2020–1 |issue=10 }}{{cite book |author=Osborne L|title=American Normal: The Hidden World of Asperger Syndrome |publisher=Copernicus |year=2002 |isbn=0-387-95307-8 |page=19}} In 1944, Asperger described four children in his practice{{cite journal |author= Baskin JH, Sperber M, Price BH |title= Asperger syndrome revisited |journal= Rev Neurol Dis |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16596080}} who had difficulty in integrating themselves socially. The children lacked nonverbal communication skills, failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Asperger called the condition ""autistic psychopathy"" and described it as primarily marked by [[social isolation]]. Fifty years later, several standardizations of AS as a [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] were tentatively proposed, many of which diverge significantly from Asperger's original work.{{cite journal |author=Hippler K, Klicpera C |title=A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of 'autistic psychopaths' diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children's Hospital, Vienna |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=358 |issue=1430 |pages=291–301 |year=2003 |month=February |pmid=12639327 |pmc=1693115 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1197 }}
Unlike today's AS, autistic psychopathy could be found in people of all levels of intelligence, including those with mental retardation.{{cite book |author= Wing L |chapter= The relationship between Asperger's syndrome and Kanner's autism |editor= Frith U |title= Autism and Asperger syndrome |year=1991 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-38608-X |pages=93–121}} In the context of the [[Nazi eugenics]] policy of sterilizing and killing social deviants and the mentally handicapped, Asperger passionately defended the value of autistic individuals, writing ""We are convinced, then, that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community. They fulfill their role well, perhaps better than anyone else could, and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care-givers."" Asperger also called his young patients ""little professors"",{{cite book |author= Asperger H; tr. and annot. Frith U |origyear=1944 |chapter= 'Autistic psychopathy' in childhood |editor= Frith U |title= Autism and Asperger syndrome |year=1991 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-38608-X |pages=37–92}} and believed some would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life. His paper was published during wartime and in German, so it was not widely read elsewhere.
[[Lorna Wing]] popularized the term ''Asperger syndrome'' in the English-speaking medical community in her 1981 publication{{cite journal|author= Wing L |title= Asperger's syndrome: a clinical account |journal= Psychol Med |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=115–29 |year=1981|doi=10.1017/S0033291700053332 |pmid=7208735 |url=http://www.mugsy.org/wing2.htm |accessdate=2007-08-15| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070817231015/http://www.mugsy.org/wing2.htm| archivedate= 17 August 2007 | deadurl= no}} of a series of case studies of children showing similar symptoms, and [[Uta Frith]] translated Asperger's paper to English in 1991. Sets of diagnostic criteria were outlined by Gillberg and Gillberg in 1989 and by Szatmari ''et al.'' in the same year.{{cite journal |author= Mattila ML |title= An epidemiological and diagnostic study of Asperger syndrome according to four sets of diagnostic criteria |journal= J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=636–46 |year=2007 |pmid=17450055|doi=10.1097/chi.0b013e318033ff42 |author-separator= , |author2= Kielinen M |author3= Jussila K |display-authors= 3 |last4= Linna |first4= Sirkka-Liisa |last5= Bloigu |first5= Risto |last6= Ebeling |first6= Hanna |last7= Moilanen |first7= Irma}} AS became a standard diagnosis in 1992, when it was included in the tenth edition of the [[World Health Organization]]'s diagnostic manual, ''International Classification of Diseases'' ([[ICD-10]]); in 1994, it was added to the fourth edition of the [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s diagnostic reference,''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' ([[DSM-IV]]).
Hundreds of books, articles and websites now describe AS, and prevalence estimates have increased dramatically for ASD, with AS recognized as an important subgroup. Whether it should be seen as distinct from high-functioning autism is a fundamental issue requiring further study, and there are questions about the [[empirical validation]] of the DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria.","{{Main|History of Asperger syndrome}}
Named after the Austrian pediatrician [[Hans Asperger]] (1906–1980), Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of autism.{{cite journal |author= Baron-Cohen S, Klin A |title= What's so special about Asperger Syndrome? |journal= Brain Cogn|volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16563588 |doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2006.02.002|url=http://www.elsevier.com/authored_subject_sections/S05/S05_360/pdf/klin.pdf |format=PDF}}
As a child, Asperger appears to have exhibited some features of the very condition named after him, such as remoteness and talent in language.{{cite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |title=Did Hans Asperger (1906–1980) have Asperger Syndrome? |author=Lyons V, Fitzgerald M |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0382-4 |pmid=17917805 |volume=37 |pages=2020–1 |issue=10 }}{{cite book |author=Osborne L|title=American Normal: The Hidden World of Asperger Syndrome |publisher=Copernicus |year=2002 |isbn=0-387-95307-8 |page=19}} In 1944, Asperger described four children in his practice{{cite journal |author= Baskin JH, Sperber M, Price BH |title= Asperger syndrome revisited |journal= Rev Neurol Dis |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16596080}} who had difficulty in integrating themselves socially. The children lacked nonverbal communication skills, failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Asperger called the condition ""autistic psychopathy"" and described it as primarily marked by [[social isolation]]. Fifty years later, several standardizations of AS as a [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] were tentatively proposed, many of which diverge significantly from Asperger's original work.{{cite journal |author=Hippler K, Klicpera C |title=A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of 'autistic psychopaths' diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children's Hospital, Vienna |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=358 |issue=1430 |pages=291–301 |year=2003 |month=February |pmid=12639327 |pmc=1693115 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1197 }}
Unlike today's AS, autistic psychopathy could be found in people of all levels of intelligence, including those with mental retardation.{{cite book |author= Wing L |chapter= The relationship between Asperger's syndrome and Kanner's autism |editor= Frith U |title= Autism and Asperger syndrome |year=1991 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-38608-X |pages=93–121}} In the context of the [[Nazi eugenics]] policy of sterilizing and killing social deviants and the mentally handicapped, Asperger passionately defended the value of autistic individuals, writing ""We are convinced, then, that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community. They fulfill their role well, perhaps better than anyone else could, and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care-givers."" Asperger also called his young patients ""little professors"",{{cite book |author= Asperger H; tr. and annot. Frith U |origyear=1944 |chapter= 'Autistic psychopathy' in childhood |editor= Frith U |title= Autism and Asperger syndrome |year=1991 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-38608-X |pages=37–92}} and believed some would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life. His paper was published during wartime and in German, so it was not widely read elsewhere.
[[Lorna Wing]] popularized the term ''Asperger syndrome'' in the English-speaking medical community in her 1981 publication{{cite journal|author= Wing L |title= Asperger's syndrome: a clinical account |journal= Psychol Med |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=115–29 |year=1981|doi=10.1017/S0033291700053332 |pmid=7208735 |url=http://www.mugsy.org/wing2.htm |accessdate=2007-08-15| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070817231015/http://www.mugsy.org/wing2.htm| archivedate= 17 August 2007 | deadurl= no}} of a series of case studies of children showing similar symptoms, and [[Uta Frith]] translated Asperger's paper to English in 1991. Sets of diagnostic criteria were outlined by Gillberg and Gillberg in 1989 and by Szatmari ''et al.'' in the same year.{{cite journal |author= Mattila ML |title= An epidemiological and diagnostic study of Asperger syndrome according to four sets of diagnostic criteria |journal= J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=636–46 |year=2007 |pmid=17450055|doi=10.1097/chi.0b013e318033ff42 |author-separator= , |author2= Kielinen M |author3= Jussila K |display-authors= 3 |last4= Linna |first4= Sirkka-Liisa |last5= Bloigu |first5= Risto |last6= Ebeling |first6= Hanna |last7= Moilanen |first7= Irma}} AS became a standard diagnosis in 1992, when it was included in the tenth edition of the [[World Health Organization]]'s diagnostic manual, ''International Classification of Diseases'' ([[ICD-10]]); in 1994, it was added to the fourth edition of the [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s diagnostic reference,''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' 4th Revised edition ([[DSM-IVR]]) in February 1991, only to be removed and replaced with a broader, non-psychatric reference in Autistic Spectrum Disorders, as a multi-disciplinary, multiple disability type in DSM-V in 2013, which ackowledges a variety of co-morbidities and co-existant disorders which are not psychiatric or psychological in nature and thus most supports and therapies are no longer generally relevant to the American Psychiatric Association to be published in its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Many people in the autistic spectrum got worried by this change, but this is appropriate considering the neurological, genetic and physical proofs in F/MRI and AGP in the decades of the 1990's and 2000', when theory of mind became an established and confirmable fact of Asperger's and its related behaviours and disorders getting better understood.
Hundreds of books, articles and websites now describe AS, and prevalence estimates have increased dramatically for ASD, with AS recognized as an important subgroup. Whether it should be seen as distinct from high-functioning autism is a fundamental issue requiring further study, and there are questions about the [[empirical validation]] of the DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria.","[1, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,Further reading,568800460,2013-08-16T14:06:48Z,Looie496,"{{Refbegin}}
* Aschoff, J. (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Albrecht, U.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Nevo, E. |title=Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=24 |pages=13751–6 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11707566 |pmc=61113 |doi=10.1073/pnas.181484498|bibcode = 2001PNAS...9813751A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Albrecht, U.; Nevo, E. |title=Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=18 |pages=11718–23 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12193657 |pmc=129335 |doi=10.1073/pnas.182423299|bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911718A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Ditty, J.L.; Williams, S.B.; Golden, S.S. |title=A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=513–43 |year=2003 |pmid=14616072 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.142716}}
* Dunlap, J.C.; Loros, J.; DeCoursey, P.J. (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
* {{Cite journal |author=Dvornyk, V.; Vinogradova, O.; Nevo, E. |title=Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=2495–500 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12604787 |pmc=151369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0130099100|bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.2495D }}
* Koukkari, W.L.; Sothern, R.B. (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
* {{Cite journal |author=Martino, T. |date=April 2004 |title=Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart |journal=Journal of Molecular Medicine |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–64 |pmid=14985853 |doi=10.1007/s00109-003-0520-1 |last2=Arab |first2=S. |last3=Straume |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Belsham |first4=Denise D. |last5=Tata |first5=Nazneen |last6=Cai |first6=Fang |last7=Liu |first7=Peter |last8=Trivieri |first8=Maria |last9=Ralph |first9=Martin}}
* Refinetti, R. (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
* {{Cite journal |author=Takahashi, J.S.; Zatz, M. |title=Regulation of circadian rhythmicity |journal=Science |volume=217 |issue=4565 |pages=1104–11 |date=September 1982 |doi=10.1126/science.6287576 |pmid= 6287576|bibcode = 1982Sci...217.1104T }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Tomita, J.; Nakajima, M.; Kondo, T.; Iwasaki, H. |title=No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5707 |pages=251–4 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15550625 |doi=10.1126/science.1102540|bibcode = 2005Sci...307..251T }}
* {{Cite book |last=Moore-Ede |first=Martin C. |last2=Sulzman |first2=Frank M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Charles A. |year=1982 |title=The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System |publisher= Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-674-13581-4}}
* [http://www.keymelatonin.com/news/539-2012-02-07.html NIA Research on Melatonin and the Circadian Clock Aimed at Improving Sleep.] Public Health Reports (1974-), Vol. 107, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 1992), p. 740
{{Refend}}","{{Refbegin}}
* Aschoff, J. (ed.) (1965) ''Circadian Clocks''. North Holland Press, Amsterdam
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Albrecht, U.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Nevo, E. |title=Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=24 |pages=13751–6 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11707566 |pmc=61113 |doi=10.1073/pnas.181484498|bibcode = 2001PNAS...9813751A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Avivi, A.; Oster, H.; Joel, A.; Beiles, A.; Albrecht, U.; Nevo, E. |title=Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=18 |pages=11718–23 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12193657 |pmc=129335 |doi=10.1073/pnas.182423299|bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911718A }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Ditty, J.L.; Williams, S.B.; Golden, S.S. |title=A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=513–43 |year=2003 |pmid=14616072 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.142716}}
* Dunlap, J.C.; Loros, J.; DeCoursey, P.J. (2003) ''Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping''. Sinauer, Sunderland
* {{Cite journal |author=Dvornyk, V.; Vinogradova, O.; Nevo, E. |title=Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=2495–500 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12604787 |pmc=151369 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0130099100|bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.2495D }}
* Koukkari, W.L.; Sothern, R.B. (2006) ''Introducing Biological Rhythms''. Springer, New York
* {{Cite journal |author=Martino, T. |date=April 2004 |title=Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart |journal=Journal of Molecular Medicine |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=256–64 |pmid=14985853 |doi=10.1007/s00109-003-0520-1 |last2=Arab |first2=S. |last3=Straume |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Belsham |first4=Denise D. |last5=Tata |first5=Nazneen |last6=Cai |first6=Fang |last7=Liu |first7=Peter |last8=Trivieri |first8=Maria |last9=Ralph |first9=Martin}}
* Refinetti, R. (2006) ''Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed''. CRC Press, Boca Raton
* {{Cite journal |author=Takahashi, J.S.; Zatz, M. |title=Regulation of circadian rhythmicity |journal=Science |volume=217 |issue=4565 |pages=1104–11 |date=September 1982 |doi=10.1126/science.6287576 |pmid= 6287576|bibcode = 1982Sci...217.1104T }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Tomita, J.; Nakajima, M.; Kondo, T.; Iwasaki, H. |title=No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5707 |pages=251–4 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15550625 |doi=10.1126/science.1102540|bibcode = 2005Sci...307..251T }}
* {{Cite book |last=Moore-Ede |first=Martin C. |last2=Sulzman |first2=Frank M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Charles A. |year=1982 |title=The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System |publisher= Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-674-13581-4}}
{{Refend}}",[8]
Circadian rhythm,History,571606229,2013-09-05T05:39:57Z,71.198.84.207,"The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Androsthenes of Thasos|Androsthenes]], a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the ''Noon and Midnight Manual'' and the ''Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year''.{{cite book|author=Gwei-Djen Lu|title=Celestial Lancets|accessdate=28 September 2012|date=25 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1458-2|pages=137–140}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian clock|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} In the early 20th century circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by [[Auguste Forel]], [[Ingeborg Beling]], and [[Oskar Wahl]] to see if this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}","The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century BC, when [[Androsthenes of Thasos|Androsthenes]], a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl, H. |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the ''Noon and Midnight Manual'' and the ''Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year''.{{cite book|author=Gwei-Djen Lu|title=Celestial Lancets|accessdate=28 September 2012|date=25 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1458-2|pages=137–140}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian clock|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{Cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 |url=http://www.biochemj.org/bj/397/0015/bj3970015.htm |accessdate=2010-06-11}}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Dijk |first= Derk-Jan |coauthor=Malcolm von Schantz |date=August 2005 |title=Timing and Consolidation of Human Sleep, Wakefulness, and Performance by a Symphony of Oscillators |journal=J Biol Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–290 |publisher=SagePub |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 |url=http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/279.full.pdf+html |accessdate=2010-10-14 |pmid=16077148}} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |last=Danchin |first=Antoine |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url=http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} In the early 20th century circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by [[Auguste Forel]], [[Ingeborg Beling]], and [[Oskar Wahl]] to see if this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{Cite journal | author=Konopka R, Benzer S | title=Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–2116 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{Cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325 |doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 |author-separator=, |author2=King DP |author3=Chang AM |display-authors=3 |last4=Kornhauser |first4=J. |last5=Lowrey |first5=P. |last6=McDonald |first6=J. |last7=Dove |first7=W. |last8=Pinto |first8=L. |last9=Turek |first9=F.}}
The term ""circadian"" was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the late 1950s.{{Cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2008/05/circadian_quackery_1.php |title=Circadian Quackery |accessdate=2010-02-23 |last= Zivkovic |first=Bora |date=3 May 2008 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs]]}}",[3]
Gene therapy,Deaths,574719972,2013-09-27T10:17:08Z,InspectorTiger,,"Three patients' deaths have been reported in gene therapy trials, putting the field under close scrutiny. The first was that of [[Jesse Gelsinger]] in 1999,[http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml#status ORNL.gov]. ORNL.gov. Retrieved on 15 December 2012. which represented a major setback in the field. One X-SCID patient died of leukemia following gene therapy treatment in 2003. In 2007, a rheumatoid arthritis patient died from an infection in a gene therapy trial; a subsequent investigation concluded that the death was not related to her gene therapy treatment.{{cite doi|10.1056/NEJMoa0801066}}","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Instruction cycle,Circuits Used,574777638,2013-09-27T19:09:51Z,R. S. Shaw,"The circuits used in the CPU during the cycle are:
*'''[[Program counter]] (PC)''' - an incrementing counter that keeps track of the memory address of the instruction that is to be executed next.
*'''[[Memory address register]] (MAR)''' - holds the address of a memory block to be read from or written to.
*'''[[Memory data register]] (MDR)''' - a two-way register that holds data fetched from memory (and ready for the CPU to process) or data waiting to be stored in memory
*'''[[Instruction register]] (IR)''' - a temporary holding ground for the instruction that has just been fetched from memory
*'''[[Control unit]] (CU)''' - decodes the program instruction in the IR, selecting machine resources such as a data source register and a particular arithmetic operation, and coordinates activation of those resources
*'''[[Arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU)''' - performs mathematical and logical operations
Each computer's CPU can have different cycles based on different instruction sets, but will be similar to the following cycle:
1. Fetching the instruction
The next instruction is fetched from the memory address that is currently stored in the [[program counter]] (PC), and stored in the [[instruction register]] (IR).
At the end of the fetch operation, the PC points to the next instruction that will be read at the next cycle.
3.In case of a memory instruction (direct or indirect) the execution phase will be in the next clock pulse.
If the instruction has an [[indirect address]], the effective address is read from main memory, and any required data is fetched from main memory to be processed and then placed into data registers(Clock Pulse: T3). If the instruction is direct, nothing is done at this clock pulse.
If this is an I/O instruction or a Register instruction, the operation is performed (executed) at clock Pulse.
4. Execute the instruction
The control unit of the CPU passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the ALU to perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and writing the result back to a register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to the CU.
The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an output device. Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU, Program Counter may be updated to a different address from which the next instruction will be fetched.
The cycle is then repeated.","The circuits used in the CPU during the cycle are:
*'''[[Program counter]] (PC)''' - an incrementing counter that keeps track of the memory address of the instruction that is to be executed next.
*'''[[Memory address register]] (MAR)''' - holds the address of a memory block to be read from or written to.
*'''[[Memory data register]] (MDR)''' - a two-way register that holds data fetched from memory (and ready for the CPU to process) or data waiting to be stored in memory
*'''[[Instruction register]] (IR)''' - a temporary holding ground for the instruction that has just been fetched from memory
*'''[[Control unit]] (CU)''' - decodes the program instruction in the IR, selecting machine resources such as a data source register and a particular arithmetic operation, and coordinates activation of those resources
*'''[[Arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU)''' - performs mathematical and logical operations
Each computer's CPU can have different cycles based on different instruction sets, but will be similar to the following cycle:
1. Fetching the instruction
The next instruction is fetched from the memory address that is currently stored in the [[program counter]] (PC), and stored in the [[instruction register]] (IR).
At the end of the fetch operation, the PC points to the next instruction that will be read at the next cycle.
2. Decode the instruction
The decoder interprets the instruction.
During this cycle the instruction inside the IR (instruction register) gets decoded.
3.In case of a memory instruction (direct or indirect) the execution phase will be in the next clock pulse.
If the instruction has an [[indirect address]], the effective address is read from main memory, and any required data is fetched from main memory to be processed and then placed into data registers(Clock Pulse: T3). If the instruction is direct, nothing is done at this clock pulse.
If this is an I/O instruction or a Register instruction, the operation is performed (executed) at clock Pulse.
4. Execute the instruction
The control unit of the CPU passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the ALU to perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and writing the result back to a register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to the CU.
The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an output device. Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU, Program Counter may be updated to a different address from which the next instruction will be fetched.
The cycle is then repeated.","[1, 3]"
Human brain,Structure,575011095,2013-09-29T15:24:40Z,Permacultura,"[[File:NIA human brain drawing.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures]]
The adult human brain weighs on average about 3 lbs. (1.5 kg){{cite book| title=Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy| last=Parent| first=A| coauthors=Carpenter MB| publisher=Williams & Wilkins| year=1995| isbn = 978-0-683-06752-1 |chapter=Ch. 1}} with a volume of around 1130 cubic centimetres (cm3) in women and 1260 cm3 in men, although there is substantial individual variation.{{cite journal| last = Cosgrove| first = KP| coauthors = Mazure CM, Staley JK| title = Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry| year = 2007| journal = Biol Psychiat| volume = 62| pages = 847–55| pmid = 17544382| pmc = 2711771| doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001| issue = 8}} Men with the same body height and body surface area as women have on average 100 grams heavier brains,{{cite journal|title=Sex differences in relative brain size: The mismeasure of woman, too? |author=C. Davison Ankney |journal=Intelligence|volume=16|issue=3–4|pages=329–336|year=1992|doi=10.1016/0160-2896(92)90013-H}} although these differences do not correlate in any simple way with [[intelligence quotient|IQ]] or other measures of cognitive performance.{{cite journal |author=Gur RC, Turetsky BI, Matsui M, Yan M, Bilker W, Hughett P, Gur RE |title=Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: correlations with cognitive performance |journal=[[The Journal of Neuroscience]] |volume=19 |pages=4065–72 |year=1999 |pmid=10234034 |issue=10}}
The cerebral hemispheres (the [[cerebrum]]) form the largest part of the human brain and are situated above other brain structures. They are covered with a cortical layer (the [[cerebral cortex]]) which has a convoluted topography.{{cite book| last=Kandel| first=ER| coauthors=Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| title = Principles of Neural Science| year=2000| publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1| page=324}} Underneath the cerebrum lies the [[brainstem]], resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the [[cerebellum]], a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface, the cerebellar cortex, that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although they vary considerably in relative size. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost perfectly smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.
The living brain is very soft, having a consistency similar to soft [[Gelatin dessert|gelatin]] or soft [[tofu]]. Despite being referred to as [[grey matter]], the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and slightly off-white in the interior.","[[File:NIA human brain drawing.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures]]
The adult human brain weighs on average about 3 lbs. (1.5 kg){{cite book| title=Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy| last=Parent| first=A| coauthors=Carpenter MB| publisher=Williams & Wilkins| year=1995| isbn = 978-0-683-06752-1 |chapter=Ch. 1}} with a volume of around 1130 cubic centimetres (cm3) in women and 1260 cm3 in men, although there is substantial individual variation.{{cite journal| last = Cosgrove| first = KP| coauthors = Mazure CM, Staley JK| title = Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry| year = 2007| journal = Biol Psychiat| volume = 62| pages = 847–55| pmid = 17544382| pmc = 2711771| doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001| issue = 8}} Men with the same body height and body surface area as women have on average 100 grams heavier brains,{{cite journal|title=Sex differences in relative brain size: The mismeasure of woman, too? |author=C. Davison Ankney |journal=Intelligence|volume=16|issue=3–4|pages=329–336|year=1992|doi=10.1016/0160-2896(92)90013-H}} although these differences do not correlate in any simple way with [[intelligence quotient|IQ]] or other measures of cognitive performance.{{cite journal |author=Gur RC, Turetsky BI, Matsui M, Yan M, Bilker W, Hughett P, Gur RE |title=Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: correlations with cognitive performance |journal=[[The Journal of Neuroscience]] |volume=19 |pages=4065–72 |year=1999 |pmid=10234034 |issue=10}}
The human brain is composed of [[neuron]]s, [[glial cells]] and blood vessels. Estimates of the number of neurons range from as many as 100 billion (1011), interconnected by their 100 trillion (1014) [[synapses]]{{cite journal
| author = Williams RW, Herrup K
| title = The control of neuron number
| journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience
| volume = 11
| issue =
| pages = 423–53
| year = 1988
| pmid = 3284447
| doi = 10.1146/annurev.ne.11.030188.002231
}}, down to a 2012 estimate of 86 billion neurons, of which 16.3 billion are in the cerebral cortex, and 69 billion in the cerebellum.{{cite journal
| author = Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, ''et al.''
| title = Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain
| journal = The Journal of Comparative Neurology
| volume = 513
| issue = 5
| pages = 532–41
| year = 2009
| month = April
| pmid = 19226510
| doi = 10.1002/cne.21974
}}
The cerebral hemispheres (the [[cerebrum]]) form the largest part of the human brain and are situated above other brain structures. They are covered with a cortical layer (the [[cerebral cortex]]) which has a convoluted topography.{{cite book| last=Kandel| first=ER| coauthors=Schwartz JH, Jessel TM| title = Principles of Neural Science| year=2000| publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional| isbn = 978-0-8385-7701-1| page=324}} Underneath the cerebrum lies the [[brainstem]], resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the [[cerebellum]], a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface, the cerebellar cortex, that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although they vary considerably in relative size. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost perfectly smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.
The living brain is very soft, having a consistency similar to soft [[Gelatin dessert|gelatin]] or soft [[tofu]]. Despite being referred to as [[grey matter]], the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and slightly off-white in the interior.","[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Context-free grammar,Example 2,576031766,2013-10-06T19:13:42Z,David Eppstein,"Another example of a non-regular language is . It is context-free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar:
:S → bSbb | A
:A → aA | ε
s→AB
A→aAA/ɛ
B→bBB/ɛ","Another example of a non-regular language is . It is context-free as it can be generated by the following context-free grammar:
:S → bSbb | A
:A → aA | ε",[2]
Down syndrome,Signs and symptoms,576078243,2013-10-07T02:12:29Z,Trem~enwiki,"[[File:Down syndrome lg.jpg|thumb|A drawing of the facial features of Down syndrome]]
[[File:Feet of a boy with Down Syndrome.JPG|thumb|Feet of a boy with Down Syndrome]]
The [[Medical sign|signs]] and [[symptom]]s of Down syndrome are characterized by the [[neoteny|neotenization]] of the brain and body.{{cite journal | author = Opitz John M., Gilbert-Barness Enid F. | year = 1990 | title = Reflections on the Pathogenesis of Down Syndrome | url = | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 7 | issue = |doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320370707 | pmid=2149972 | pages = 38–51 [44]}} Down syndrome is characterized by decelerated maturation (neoteny), incomplete morphogenesis (vestigia) and [[atavism]]s.Optiz, J.M. (1990). Reflections on the pathogenesis of Down syndrome. In American Journal of Medical Genetics Supplement. 7:38.
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: [[microgenia]] (abnormally small chin),{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=a62J5GPHd3cC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=%22down%27s+syndrome%22+chin+face |title=Conditional love: parents' attitudes toward handicapped children |author=Meira Weiss |page=94 |accessdate = 2009-07-22 |isbn=978-0-89789-324-4 |date=1994-02}} oblique eye fissures on the inner corner of the eyes,{{cite web |publication-date = 1980|page =343|author=This discussion by Myron Belfer, MD, book by Gottfried Lemperie, MD, and Dorin Radu, MD|url=http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=info:Nt6asksVAiYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&output=viewport |title=Facial Plastic Surgery in Children with Down's Syndrome (preview page, with link to full content on plasreconsurg.com)|accessdate = 2009-07-22}}Richards, M.C. Toward wholeness: Rudolf Steiner education in America. 1980. University Press of New England, N.H. [[Hypotonia|muscle hypotonia]] (poor muscle tone), a flat [[nasal bridge]], a single palmar fold, a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils) or [[macroglossia]], ""face is flat and broad"", a short neck, white spots on the [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive joint laxity including [[atlanto-axial]] instability, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger, a higher number of [[ulnar loop]] [[Dermatoglyphics|dermatoglyphs]] and short fingers.
Growth parameters such as height, weight, and head circumference are smaller in children with DS than with typical individuals of the same age. Adults with DS tend to have [[short stature]] and bowed legs—the average height for men is 5 feet 1 inch (154 cm) and for women is 4 feet 9 inches (144 cm).{{cite journal | last1 = Cronk | first1 = C | last2 = Crocker | first2 = AC | last3 = Pueschel | first3 = SM | last4 = Shea | first4 = AM | last5 = Zackai | first5 = E | last6 = Pickens | first6 = G | last7 = Reed | first7 = RB | title = Growth charts for children with Down syndrome: 1 month to 18 years of age | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 102–10 | year = 1988 | pmid = 2962062 }} Individuals with DS are also at increased risk for obesity as they age.{{cite book|author=Richard Urbano|title=Health Issues Among Persons With Down Syndrome|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QbHL8qrgfCoC&pg=PA100|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=9 September 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-374477-7|pages=100–}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|-
!Characteristics
!Percentage'''Fuente''': Series de porcentajes obtenidas en un amplio estudio realizado por el CMD (Centro Médico Down) de la [http://www.fcsd.org/es/ Fundación Catalana del Síndrome de Down], sobre 796 personas con SD. Estudio completo en ''Josep M. Corretger et al (2005). Síndrome de Down: Aspectos médicos actuales. Ed. Masson, para la Fundación Catalana del Síndrome de Down. ISBN 84-458-1504-0. Pag. 24-32''.
!Characteristics
!Percentage
|-
|stunted growth
| style=""text-align:center;""|100%
|flattened nose
| style=""text-align:center;""|60%
|-
|mental retardation
| style=""text-align:center;""|99.8%
|small teeth
| style=""text-align:center;""|60%
|-
|atypical fingerprints
| style=""text-align:center;""|90%
|[[clinodactyly]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|52%
|-
|separation of the abdominal muscles
| style=""text-align:center;""|80%
|[[umbilical hernia]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|51%
|-
|flexible ligaments
| style=""text-align:center;""|80%
|short neck
| style=""text-align:center;""|50%
|-
|[[hypotonia]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|80%
|shortened hands
| style=""text-align:center;""|50%
|-
|[[brachycephaly]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|75%
|congenital [[heart disease]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|45%
|-
|smaller genitalia
| style=""text-align:center;""|75%
|[[single transverse palmar crease]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|45%
|-
|eyelid crease
| style=""text-align:center;""|75%
|[[macroglossia]] (larger tongue)
| style=""text-align:center;""|43%
|-
|shortened extremities
| style=""text-align:center;""|70%
|[[epicanthic fold]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|42%
|-
|oval [[palate]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|69%
|[[strabismus]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|40%
|-
|low-set and rounded ear
| style=""text-align:center;""|60%
|[[Brushfield spots]] ([[iris (anatomy)|iris]])
| style=""text-align:center;""|35%
|}
Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk for many conditions. The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable, may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process, and can contribute to a shorter life expectancy for people with Down syndrome. Following improvements to medical care, particularly with heart problems, the life expectancy among persons with Down syndrome has increased from 12 years in 1912, to 60 years.{{cite book|author=Richard Urbano|title=Health Issues Among Persons With Down Syndrome|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QbHL8qrgfCoC&pg=PA100|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=9 September 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-374477-7|page=108}}
In March 2012, the [[Guinness Book of Records]] website listed Joyce Greenman, now 87, of London, who was born on March 14, 1925, as the oldest living person with Down syndrome, (recorded correct and checked as of 29 April 2008). The causes of death have also changed, with chronic [[neurodegenerative diseases]] becoming more common as the population ages. Most people with Down syndrome who live into their 40s and 50s begin to suffer from dementia like [[Alzheimer's|Alzheimer's disease]].{{cite book |author=McPhee, J; Tierney, Lawrence M; Papadakis, Maxine A |title=Current medical diagnosis & treatment 1999|publisher=Appleton & Lange |location=Norwalk, CT |year=1999 |isbn=0-8385-1550-9 |page=1546}}
The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]], among other health organizations, has issued a series of recommendations for [[screening (medicine)|screening]] individuals with Down syndrome for particular diseases.{{cite journal | author = American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Genetics | year = 2001 | title = Health Supervision for Children With Down Syndrome. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2| pages = 442–49 | url= http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;107/2/442 | accessdate=13 August 2006 }}","[[File:Down syndrome lg.jpg|thumb|A drawing of the facial features of Down syndrome]]
[[File:Feet of a boy with Down Syndrome.JPG|thumb|Feet of a boy with Down Syndrome]]
The [[Medical sign|signs]] and [[symptom]]s of Down syndrome are characterized by the [[neoteny|neotenization]] of the brain and body.{{cite journal | author = Opitz John M., Gilbert-Barness Enid F. | year = 1990 | title = Reflections on the Pathogenesis of Down Syndrome | url = | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 7 | issue = |doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320370707 | pmid=2149972 | pages = 38–51 [44]}} Down syndrome is characterized by decelerated maturation (neoteny), incomplete morphogenesis (vestigia) and [[atavism]]s.Optiz, J.M. (1990). Reflections on the pathogenesis of Down syndrome. In American Journal of Medical Genetics Supplement. 7:38.
Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: [[microgenia]] (abnormally small chin),{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=a62J5GPHd3cC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=%22down%27s+syndrome%22+chin+face |title=Conditional love: parents' attitudes toward handicapped children |author=Meira Weiss |page=94 |accessdate = 2009-07-22 |isbn=978-0-89789-324-4 |date=1994-02}} oblique eye fissures on the inner corner of the eyes,{{cite web |publication-date = 1980|page =343|author=This discussion by Myron Belfer, MD, book by Gottfried Lemperie, MD, and Dorin Radu, MD|url=http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=info:Nt6asksVAiYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&output=viewport |title=Facial Plastic Surgery in Children with Down's Syndrome (preview page, with link to full content on plasreconsurg.com)|accessdate = 2009-07-22}}Richards, M.C. Toward wholeness: Rudolf Steiner education in America. 1980. University Press of New England, N.H. [[Hypotonia|muscle hypotonia]] (poor muscle tone), a flat [[nasal bridge]], a [[Single transverse palmar crease|single palmar fold]], a protruding tongue (due to small oral cavity, and an enlarged tongue near the tonsils) or [[macroglossia]], ""face is flat and broad"", a short neck, white spots on the [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] known as [[Brushfield spots]],{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6570 |title=Definition of Brushfield's Spots}} excessive joint laxity including [[atlanto-axial]] instability, excessive space between [[Hallux|large toe]] and second toe, a single [[flexion]] furrow of the fifth finger, a higher number of [[ulnar loop]] [[Dermatoglyphics|dermatoglyphs]] and short fingers.
Growth parameters such as height, weight, and head circumference are smaller in children with DS than with typical individuals of the same age. Adults with DS tend to have [[short stature]] and bowed legs—the average height for men is 5 feet 1 inch (154 cm) and for women is 4 feet 9 inches (144 cm).{{cite journal | last1 = Cronk | first1 = C | last2 = Crocker | first2 = AC | last3 = Pueschel | first3 = SM | last4 = Shea | first4 = AM | last5 = Zackai | first5 = E | last6 = Pickens | first6 = G | last7 = Reed | first7 = RB | title = Growth charts for children with Down syndrome: 1 month to 18 years of age | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 102–10 | year = 1988 | pmid = 2962062 }} Individuals with DS are also at increased risk for obesity as they age.{{cite book|author=Richard Urbano|title=Health Issues Among Persons With Down Syndrome|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QbHL8qrgfCoC&pg=PA100|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=9 September 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-374477-7|pages=100–}}
{| class=""wikitable""
|-
!Characteristics
!Percentage'''Fuente''': Series de porcentajes obtenidas en un amplio estudio realizado por el CMD (Centro Médico Down) de la [http://www.fcsd.org/es/ Fundación Catalana del Síndrome de Down], sobre 796 personas con SD. Estudio completo en ''Josep M. Corretger et al (2005). Síndrome de Down: Aspectos médicos actuales. Ed. Masson, para la Fundación Catalana del Síndrome de Down. ISBN 84-458-1504-0. Pag. 24-32''.
!Characteristics
!Percentage
|-
|stunted growth
| style=""text-align:center;""|100%
|flattened nose
| style=""text-align:center;""|60%
|-
|mental retardation
| style=""text-align:center;""|99.8%
|small teeth
| style=""text-align:center;""|60%
|-
|atypical fingerprints
| style=""text-align:center;""|90%
|[[clinodactyly]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|52%
|-
|separation of the abdominal muscles
| style=""text-align:center;""|80%
|[[umbilical hernia]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|51%
|-
|flexible ligaments
| style=""text-align:center;""|80%
|short neck
| style=""text-align:center;""|50%
|-
|[[hypotonia]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|80%
|shortened hands
| style=""text-align:center;""|50%
|-
|[[brachycephaly]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|75%
|congenital [[heart disease]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|45%
|-
|smaller genitalia
| style=""text-align:center;""|75%
|[[single transverse palmar crease]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|45%
|-
|eyelid crease
| style=""text-align:center;""|75%
|[[macroglossia]] (larger tongue)
| style=""text-align:center;""|43%
|-
|shortened extremities
| style=""text-align:center;""|70%
|[[epicanthic fold]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|42%
|-
|oval [[palate]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|69%
|[[strabismus]]
| style=""text-align:center;""|40%
|-
|low-set and rounded ear
| style=""text-align:center;""|60%
|[[Brushfield spots]] ([[iris (anatomy)|iris]])
| style=""text-align:center;""|35%
|}
Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk for many conditions. The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable, may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process, and can contribute to a shorter life expectancy for people with Down syndrome. Following improvements to medical care, particularly with heart problems, the life expectancy among persons with Down syndrome has increased from 12 years in 1912, to 60 years.{{cite book|author=Richard Urbano|title=Health Issues Among Persons With Down Syndrome|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QbHL8qrgfCoC&pg=PA100|accessdate=10 April 2012|date=9 September 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-374477-7|page=108}}
In March 2012, the [[Guinness Book of Records]] website listed Joyce Greenman, now 87, of London, who was born on March 14, 1925, as the oldest living person with Down syndrome, (recorded correct and checked as of 29 April 2008). The causes of death have also changed, with chronic [[neurodegenerative diseases]] becoming more common as the population ages. Most people with Down syndrome who live into their 40s and 50s begin to suffer from dementia like [[Alzheimer's|Alzheimer's disease]].{{cite book |author=McPhee, J; Tierney, Lawrence M; Papadakis, Maxine A |title=Current medical diagnosis & treatment 1999|publisher=Appleton & Lange |location=Norwalk, CT |year=1999 |isbn=0-8385-1550-9 |page=1546}}
The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]], among other health organizations, has issued a series of recommendations for [[screening (medicine)|screening]] individuals with Down syndrome for particular diseases.{{cite journal | author = American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Genetics | year = 2001 | title = Health Supervision for Children With Down Syndrome. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2| pages = 442–49 | url= http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;107/2/442 | accessdate=13 August 2006 }}",[9]
Context-free grammar,Linguistic applications,576352140,2013-10-08T21:59:53Z,166.82.169.34,"[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding [[transformational grammar|transformation rules]].
Such rules are another standard device in traditional linguistics; e.g. [[grammatical voice|passivization]] in English. Much of [[generative grammar]] has been devoted to finding ways of refining the descriptive mechanisms of phrase-structure grammar and transformation rules such that exactly the kinds of things can be expressed that natural language actually allows. Allowing arbitrary transformations doesn't meet that goal: they are much too powerful, being [[Turing complete]] unless significant restrictions are added (e.g. no transformations that introduce and then rewrite symbols in a context-free fashion).
Chomsky's general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then,{{citation | title=Evidence against the context-freeness of natural language | year=1985 | last=Shieber | first=Stuart | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=333–343 | url=http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~shieber/Biblio/Papers/shieber85.pdf | doi=10.1007/BF00630917 | issue=3}}. although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of context-free grammars (CFGs) in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproved.{{citation | title=Natural languages and context-free languages | year=1982 | last=Pullum | first=Geoffrey K. | coauthors=Gerald Gazdar | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=4 | pages=471–504 | doi=10.1007/BF00360802 | issue=4}}.
[[Gerald Gazdar]] and [[Geoffrey Pullum]] have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as [[cross-serial dependencies]] in [[Swiss German]] and [[reduplication]] in [[Bambara language|Bambara]]{{citation | title=The Complexity of the Vocabulary of Bambara | year=1985 | last=Culy | first=Christopher | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=345–351 | doi=10.1007/BF00630918 | issue=3}}.), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.","[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] never initially hoped to overcome the limitations of context-free grammars by adding [[transformational grammar|transformation rules]].
Such rules are another standard device in traditional linguistics; e.g. [[grammatical voice|passivization]] in English. Much of [[generative grammar]] has been devoted to finding ways of refining the descriptive mechanisms of phrase-structure grammar and transformation rules such that exactly the kinds of things can be expressed that natural language actually allows. Allowing arbitrary transformations doesn't meet that goal: they are much too powerful, being [[Turing complete]] unless significant restrictions are added (e.g. no transformations that introduce and then rewrite symbols in a context-free fashion).
Chomsky's general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then,{{citation | title=Evidence against the context-freeness of natural language | year=1985 | last=Shieber | first=Stuart | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=333–343 | url=http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~shieber/Biblio/Papers/shieber85.pdf | doi=10.1007/BF00630917 | issue=3}}. although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of context-free grammars (CFGs) in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproved.{{citation | title=Natural languages and context-free languages | year=1982 | last=Pullum | first=Geoffrey K. | coauthors=Gerald Gazdar | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=4 | pages=471–504 | doi=10.1007/BF00360802 | issue=4}}.
[[Gerald Gazdar]] and [[Geoffrey Pullum]] have argued that despite a few non-context-free constructions in natural language (such as [[cross-serial dependencies]] in [[Swiss German]] and [[reduplication]] in [[Bambara language|Bambara]]{{citation | title=The Complexity of the Vocabulary of Bambara | year=1985 | last=Culy | first=Christopher | journal=Linguistics and Philosophy | volume=8 | pages=345–351 | doi=10.1007/BF00630918 | issue=3}}.), the vast majority of forms in natural language are indeed context-free.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,579632823,2013-10-31T16:53:44Z,KWL93,"{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.{{Cite journal |author=Yin, L.; Wang, J.; Klein, P.S.; Lazar, M.A. |title=Nuclear receptor Rev-erbalpha is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5763 |pages=1002–5 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16484495 |doi= 10.1126/science.1121613 |laysummary=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/lithium-blocks-enzyme-to-help-cells-clocks-keep-on-tickin.shtml |laysource=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |laydate=February 17, 2006|bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1002Y }}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |author=Martino, T.A. |title=Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=294 |issue=5 |pages=R1675–83 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18272659 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00829.2007 |last2=Oudit |first2=G.Y. |last3=Herzenberg |first3=A.M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Tata |first4=N. |last5=Koletar |first5=M. M. |last6=Kabir |first6=G. M. |last7=Belsham |first7=D. D. |last8=Backx |first8=P. H. |last9=Ralph |first9=M. R.}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{Cite journal |author=Straif, K. |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |month=December |year=2007 |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=30 November 2007 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X |last2=Baan |first2=R. |last3=Grosse |first3=Y. |display-authors=4 |last4=Secretan |first4=Béatrice |last5=Ghissassi |first5=Fatiha El |last6=Bouvard |first6=Véronique |last7=Altieri |first7=Andrea |last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Lamia |last9=Cogliano |first9=Vincent}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cite web |url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2011/09/12/dangers.exposure.white.light |title=Dangers of exposure to 'white' light |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=University of Haifa |accessdate=24 July 2012}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [[bipolar disorder]] are positively influenced by [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]'s effect on clock genes.{{Cite journal |author=Yin, L.; Wang, J.; Klein, P.S.; Lazar, M.A. |title=Nuclear receptor Rev-erbalpha is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5763 |pages=1002–5 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16484495 |doi= 10.1126/science.1121613 |laysummary=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2006/lithium-blocks-enzyme-to-help-cells-clocks-keep-on-tickin.shtml |laysource=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] |laydate=February 17, 2006|bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1002Y }} Alterations of circadian rhythms associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder have recently come into the focus of research.Lange, K.W. et al.:[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00702-012-0805-z#page-1 ''Circadian rhythms in obsessive-compulsive disorder'']. In: ''Journal of Neural Transmission'', 2012 Oct;119(10):1077-83.
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |author=Martino, T.A. |title=Circadian rhythm disorganization produces profound cardiovascular and renal disease in hamsters |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=294 |issue=5 |pages=R1675–83 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18272659 |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00829.2007 |last2=Oudit |first2=G.Y. |last3=Herzenberg |first3=A.M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Tata |first4=N. |last5=Koletar |first5=M. M. |last6=Kabir |first6=G. M. |last7=Belsham |first7=D. D. |last8=Backx |first8=P. H. |last9=Ralph |first9=M. R.}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{Cite journal |author=Straif, K. |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |month=December |year=2007 |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=30 November 2007 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X |last2=Baan |first2=R. |last3=Grosse |first3=Y. |display-authors=4 |last4=Secretan |first4=Béatrice |last5=Ghissassi |first5=Fatiha El |last6=Bouvard |first6=Véronique |last7=Altieri |first7=Andrea |last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Lamia |last9=Cogliano |first9=Vincent}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cite web |url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2011/09/12/dangers.exposure.white.light |title=Dangers of exposure to 'white' light |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=University of Haifa |accessdate=24 July 2012}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","[1, 7]"
Stem cell,Key research events,579994718,2013-11-03T12:01:35Z,Almeidaxavier.miguel,"*1908: The term ""stem cell"" was proposed for scientific use by the [[Russia]]n histologist [[Alexander Maksimov]] (1874–1928) at congress of hematologic society in [[Berlin]]. It postulated existence of haematopoietic stem cells.
*1960s: [[Joseph Altman]] and Gopal Das present scientific evidence of adult [[neurogenesis]], ongoing stem cell activity in the brain; their reports contradict [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]]'s ""no new neurons"" dogma and are largely ignored.
*1963: [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] and [[James Till|Till]] illustrate the presence of self-renewing cells in mouse bone marrow.
*1968: [[Bone marrow]] [[Organ transplant|transplant]] between two siblings successfully treats [[Severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]].
*1978: [[Haematopoietic stem cell]]s are discovered in human [[cord blood]].
*1981: Mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s are derived from the [[inner cell mass]] by scientists [[Martin Evans]], [[Matthew Kaufman]], and [[Gail R. Martin]]. Gail Martin is attributed for coining the term ""Embryonic Stem Cell"".
*1992: [[Neural stem cell]]s are cultured ''[[in vitro]]'' as neurospheres.
*1995: [[B.G. Matapurkar|Dr. B.G. Matapurkar]] pioneers in adult stem-cell research with clinical utilization of research in the body and neo-regeneration of tissues and organs in the body. Received International Patent from US Patent Office (USA) in 2001 (effective from 1995). Clinical utilization in human body also demonstrated and patented in 60 patients (World Journal of Surgery-1999{{cite pmid|10085391}} and 1991{{cite pmid|1767543}}).
*1997: Dr. B.G. Matapurkar's surgical technique on regeneration of tissues and organs is published.{{cite book|last=Maingot|first=Rodney|title=Abdominal Operations|year=1997|isbn=0838561063}} Regeneration of faellopian tube and uterus is published.{{cite book|title=Textbook of Gynaecology|year=2010|publisher=JP Publications|isbn=9350253690|pages=620–625}}
*1997: Leukemia is shown to originate from a haematopoietic stem cell, the first direct evidence for [[cancer stem cell]]s.
*1998: [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] and coworkers derive the first human embryonic [[stem cell line]] at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]].
{{cite journal
| author = Thomson JA, Itskovitz-Eldor J, Shapiro SS, Waknitz MA, Swiergiel JJ, Marshall VS, Jones JM
| title = Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts
| journal = Science
| location=New York
| volume = 282
| issue = 5391
| pages = 1145–7
| year = 1998
| pmid = 9804556
| doi = 10.1126/science.282.5391.1145
}}
*1998: John Gearhart (Johns Hopkins University) extracted germ cells from fetal gonadal tissue (primordial germ cells) before developing pluripotent stem cell lines from the original extract.
*2000s: Several reports of [[adult stem cell]] plasticity are published.
*2001: Scientists at [[Advanced Cell Technology]] clone first early (four- to six-cell stage) human embryos for the purpose of generating embryonic stem cells.
{{cite journal
|author=Cibelli JB, Lanza RP, West MD, Ezzell C
|title=The first human cloned embryo
|journal=Scientific American
|month=November
|year=2001
|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-first-human-cloned-em
}}
*2003: Dr. Songtao Shi of NIH discovers new source of adult stem cells in children's primary teeth.{{cite journal
| author=Shostak S
| title=(Re)defining stem cells
| journal=BioEssays
| year=2006
| pages=301–8
| volume=28
| issue=3
| pmid = 16479584
| doi=10.1002/bies.20376
}}
*2004–2005: Korean researcher [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] claims to have created several human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines from unfertilised human [[oocyte]]s. The lines were later shown to be fabricated.
*2005: Researchers at [[Kingston University]] in [[England]] claim to have discovered a third category of stem cell, dubbed cord-blood-derived embryonic-like stem cells (CBEs), derived from umbilical [[cord blood]]. The group claims these cells are able to differentiate into more types of tissue than adult stem cells.
*2005: Researchers at [[UC Irvine]]'s Reeve-Irvine Research Center are able to partially restore the ability of rats with paralyzed spines to walk through the injection of human [[neural stem cell]]s.{{cite journal|last=Keirstead|first=HS|coauthors=Nistor G, Bernal G, Totoiu M, Cloutier F, Sharp K, Steward O.|title=Human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cell transplants remyelinate and restore locomotion after spinal cord injury|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|year=2005|volume=25|issue=19|pages=4694–4705|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0311-05.2005|pmid=15888645}}
[[File:Yong Zhao smiling Portrait.png|thumb|Yong Zhao, University of Illinois at Chicago]]
*April 2006 Scientists at the University of Illinois at Chicago identified [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)|novel stem cells]] from the [[cord blood|umbilical cord blood]] with [[Embryonic stem cells|embryonic]] and [[hematopoietic]] characteristics.
*August 2006: Mouse [[Induced pluripotent stem cell]]s: the journal ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'' publishes Kazutoshi Takahashi and [[Shinya Yamanaka]].
*November 2006: Yong Zhao et al. revealed the [[Immunomics|immune regulation]] of [[T lymphocyte]]s by [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)]].
*October 2006: Scientists at [[Newcastle University]] in England create the first ever artificial liver cells using umbilical cord blood stem cells.
{{cite web
|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2007/mar/good-news-for-alcoholics
|title=Good news for alcoholics
|publisher=Discover Magazine
|year=2007
|month=March
|accessdate=2010-02-28
}}
{{cite news
|url=http://news.scotsman.com/health.cfm?id=1608072006
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070203010452/http://news.scotsman.com/health.cfm?id=1608072006
|archivedate=2007-02-03
|publisher=The Scotsman
|location=Edinburgh
|first=ShãN
|last=Ross
|title=First liver grown from stem cells offers hope for transplant patients
|date=2006-10-31
}}
*January 2007: Scientists at [[Wake Forest University]] led by Dr. [[Anthony Atala]] and [[Harvard University]] report discovery of a new type of stem cell in [[amniotic fluid]].
{{cite journal
|author=De Coppi P
|title=Isolation of amniotic stem cell lines with potential for therapy
|journal=Nat Biotechnol
|volume=25
|issue=1
|pages=100–6
|year=2007
|pmid=17206138
|doi=10.1038/nbt1274
|author2=Bartsch G
|author3=Siddiqui MM
|last4=Xu
|first4=Tao
|last5=Santos
|first5=Cesar C
|last6=Perin
|first6=Laura
|last7=Mostoslavsky
|first7=Gustavo
|last8=Serre
|first8=Angéline C
|last9=Snyder
|first9=Evan Y
}} This may potentially provide an alternative to embryonic stem cells for use in research and therapy.{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/01/08/easy_stem_cell_source_sparks_interest/
|title=Easy stem-cell source sparks interest: Researchers find amniotic fluid offers advantages
|publisher=Boston Globe
|author=Kaplan, Karen
|date=8 January 2007
}}
*June 2007: Research reported by three different groups shows that normal skin cells can be reprogrammed to an embryonic state in mice.
{{cite journal
| author=Cyranoski D
| title=Simple switch turns cells embryonic
| journal=Nature
| year=2007
| pages=618–9
| volume=447
| issue=7145
| pmid = 17554270
| doi = 10.1038/447618a
}} In the same month, scientist [[Shoukhrat Mitalipov]] reports the first successful creation of a primate stem cell line through [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]
{{cite journal
| author=Mitalipov SM, Zhou Q, Byrne JA, Ji WZ, Norgren RB, Wolf DP
| title=Reprogramming following somatic cell nuclear transfer in primates is dependent upon nuclear remodeling
| journal=Hum Reprod
| year=2007
| pages=2232–42
| volume=22
| issue=8
| pmid = 17562675
| doi = 10.1093/humrep/dem136
}} [[File:Martin Evans Nobel Prize.jpg|thumb|upright|Martin Evans, a co-winner of the Nobel Prize in recognition of his gene targeting work.]]
*October 2007: [[Mario Capecchi]], [[Martin Evans]], and [[Oliver Smithies]] win the 2007 [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] for their work on embryonic stem cells from mice using gene targeting strategies producing genetically engineered mice (known as [[knockout mice]]) for gene research.{{cite web
|url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2007/index.html
|title = The Nobel prize in physiology or medicine 2007
|accessdate = 8 October 2007
|publisher = Nobelprize.org}}
*November 2007: Human induced pluripotent stem cells: Two similar papers released by their respective journals prior to formal publication: in ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'' by [[Kazutoshi Takahashi]] and [[Shinya Yamanaka]], ""Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors"",{{cite journal
|author=Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M, Narita M, Ichisaka T, Tomoda K, Yamanaka S
|title=Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors
|journal=Cell
|volume=131
|issue=5
|pages=861–72
|year=2007
|pmid=18035408
|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2007.11.019
|url=http://images.cell.com/images/Edimages/Cell/IEPs/3661.pdf
|format=PDF
}} and in ''Science'' by [[Junying Yu]], et al., from the research group of [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]], ""Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells"":
{{cite journal
|author=Yu J, Vodyanik MA, Smuga-Otto K, Antosiewicz-Bourget J, Frane JL, Tian S, Nie J, Jonsdottir GA, Ruotti V, Stewart R, Slukvin II, Thomson JA
|title=Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=318
|issue=5858
|pages=1917–20
|year=2007
|pmid=18029452
|doi=10.1126/science.1151526
}} pluripotent stem cells generated from mature human fibroblasts. It is possible now to produce a stem cell from almost any other human cell instead of using embryos as needed previously, albeit the risk of [[tumorigenesis]] due to [[c-myc]] and [[Gene therapy#Retroviruses|retroviral gene transfer]] remains to be determined.
*January 2008: Robert Lanza and colleagues at Advanced Cell Technology and UCSF create the first human embryonic stem cells without destruction of the embryo
{{cite doi|10.1016/j.stem.2007.12.013}}
*January 2008: Development of human cloned blastocysts following [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]] with adult fibroblasts
{{cite journal
|url=http://stemcells.alphamedpress.org/cgi/reprint/2007-0252v1.pdf
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080625032536/http://stemcells.alphamedpress.org/cgi/reprint/2007-0252v1.pdf
|archivedate=2008-06-25
|title=Development of human cloned blastocysts following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) with adult fibroblasts
|author=French AJ, Adams CA, Anderson LS, Kitchen JR, Hughes MR, Wood SH
|journal=Stem Cells Express
|date=2008
|doi=10.1634/stemcells.2007-0252
|volume=26
|pmid=18202077
|issue=2
|pages=485–93
}}
*February 2008: Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult mouse liver and stomach: these iPS cells seem to be more similar to embryonic stem cells than the previously developed iPS cells and not tumorigenic, moreover genes that are required for iPS cells do not need to be inserted into specific sites, which encourages the development of non-viral reprogramming techniques.
{{cite journal
|author=Aoi T
|title=Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult mouse liver and stomach cells
|journal=Science
|volume=321
|issue=5889
|pages=699–702
|year=2008
|pmid=18276851
|doi=10.1126/science.1154884
|author2=Yae K
|author3=Nakagawa M
|last4=Ichisaka
|first4=T.
|last5=Okita
|first5=K.
|last6=Takahashi
|first6=K.
|last7=Chiba
|first7=T.
|last8=Yamanaka
|first8=S.
}}
*March 2008-The first published study of successful cartilage regeneration in the human knee using autologous adult mesenchymal stem cells is published by clinicians from Regenerative Sciences
{{cite journal
|author=Centeno CJ, Busse D, Kisiday J, Keohan C, Freeman M, Karli D
|title=Increased knee cartilage volume in degenerative joint disease using percutaneously implanted, autologous mesenchymal stem cells
|journal=Pain Physician
|volume=11
|issue=3
|pages=343–53
|year=2008
|pmid=18523506
|url=http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/linkout_vw.php?issn=1533-3159&vol=11&page=343
|issn=1533-3159
}}
*October 2008: Sabine Conrad and colleagues at Tübingen, Germany generate [[pluripotent stem cells]] from spermatogonial cells of adult human testis by culturing the cells in vitro under [[leukemia inhibitory factor]] (LIF) supplementation.
{{cite journal
|author=Conrad S
|title=Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult human testis
|journal=Nature
|volume=456
|issue=7220
|pages=344–9
|year=2008
|pmid=18849962
|doi=10.1038/nature07404
|author2=Renninger M
|author3=Hennenlotter J
|last4=Wiesner
|first4=Tina
|last5=Just
|first5=Lothar
|last6=Bonin
|first6=Michael
|last7=Aicher
|first7=Wilhelm
|last8=Bühring
|first8=Hans-Jörg
|last9=Mattheus
|first9=Ulrich
}}
*30 October 2008: Embryonic-like stem cells from a single human hair.
{{cite journal
|author=Baker M
|title=Embryonic-like stem cells from a single human hair
|journal=Nature Reports Stem Cells
|year=2008
|doi=10.1038/stemcells.2008.142
}}
*January 2009: Yong Zhao and colleagues confirmed the reversal of autoimmune-caused type 1 diabetes by [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)]] in an animal experiment.
*1 March 2009: Andras Nagy, Keisuke Kaji, ''et al.'' discover a way to produce embryonic-like stem cells from normal adult cells by using a novel ""wrapping"" procedure to deliver specific genes to adult cells to reprogram them into stem cells without the risks of using a virus to make the change.
{{cite journal
|journal=Nature
|title=piggyBac transposition reprograms fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells
|author=Woltjen K, Michael IP, Mohseni P, Desai R, Mileikovsky M, Hämäläinen R, Cowling R, Wang W, Liu P, Gertsenstein M, Kaji K, Sung HK, Nagy A
|doi=10.1038/nature07863
|date=2009-03-01
|volume=458
|pmid=19252478
|issue=7239
|pages=766–70
}}
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20090227/stem_cells_090228/20090301?hub=TopStories
|title=Canadians make stem cell breakthrough
|accessdate=March 1, 2009
|date=March 1, 2009
}}
{{cite news
|agency=Canadian Press
|publisher=Amherst Daily News
|url=http://www.amherstdaily.com/index.cfm?sid=227086&sc=510
|title=Researchers find new method for turning adult cells into stem cells
|date=2009-01-03
|accessdate=2010-02-28
}} The use of [[electroporation]] is said to allow for the temporary insertion of genes into the cell.
{{cite news
|author=Sample, Ian
|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/mar/01/stem-cells-breakthrough
|title=Scientists' stem cell breakthrough ends ethical dilemma
|publisher=The Guardian
|date=2009-03-01
|accessdate=2009-03-03
| location=London
}}
{{cite journal
|journal=Nature
|date=2009
|title=Virus-free induction of pluripotency and subsequent excision of reprogramming factors
|author=Kaji K, Norrby K, Paca A, Mileikovsky M, Mohseni P, Woltjen K
|doi=10.1038/nature07864
|volume=458
|pmid=19252477
|issue=7239
|pmc=2667910
|pages=771–5
}}{{cite journal|journal=Stem Cells |year=2009 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1098–1108 |title=Methylguanine DNA methyltransferase-mediated drug resistance-based selective enrichment and engraftment of transplanted stem cells in skeletal muscle |author=Lee ASJ, Kahatapitiya P, Kramer B, Joya JE, Hook J, Liu R, Schevzov G, Alexander IE, McCowage G, Montarras D, Gunning PW, Hardeman EC|doi=10.1002/stem.28|pmid=19415780}}
*28 May 2009 Kim ''et al.'' announced that they had devised a way to manipulate skin cells to create patient specific ""induced pluripotent stem cells"" (iPS), claiming it to be the 'ultimate stem cell solution'.
{{cite journal
|title=Generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells by direct delivery of reprogramming proteins
|author=Kim D, Kim CH, Moon JI, Chung YG, Chang MY, Han BS, Ko S, Yang E, Cha KY, Lanza R, Kim KS
|pmid=19481515
|journal=Cell Stem Cell
|laysummary= http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN28256624
|date=27 May 2009
|volume=4
|issue=6
|pages=472–6
|doi=10.1016/j.stem.2009.05.005
|pmc=2705327
}} (cited in lay summary, not read)
*11 October 2010 First trial of embryonic stem cells in humans.{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11517680 | work=BBC News | title=First trial of embryonic stem cells in humans | date=2010-10-11}}
*25 October 2010: Ishikawa ''et al.'' write in the Journal of Experimental Medicine that research shows that transplanted cells that contain their new host's nuclear DNA could still be rejected by the invidual's immune system due to foreign [[mitochondrial DNA]]. Tissues made from a person's stem cells could therefore be rejected, because mitochondrial genomes tend to accumulate mutations.
{{cite journal
|title=The innate immune system in host mice targets cells with allogenic mitochondrial DNA
|author=Ishikawa K, Toyama-Sorimachi N, Nakada K, Morimoto M, Imanishi H, Yoshizaki M, Sasawatari S, Niikura M, Takenaga K, Yonekawa H, Hayashi J
|pmid=20937705
|journal=J Exp Med.
|year=2010
|volume=207
|issue=11
|pages=2297–305
|doi=10.1084/jem.20092296
|pmc=2964578
}}
*2011: [[Israel]]i scientist Inbar Friedrich Ben-Nun led a team which produced the first stem cells from endangered species, a breakthrough that could save animals in danger of extinction.Shtull-Trauring, Asaf (2011-09-06) [http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israeli-scientist-leads-breakthrough-stem-cell-research-on-endangered-species-1.382754 Israeli scientist leads breakthrough stem cell research on endangered species ]
*January 2012: The human clinical trial of treating [[type 1 diabetes]] with [[Stem Cell Educator Therapy|lymphocyte modification]] using [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)]] achieved an improvement of C-peptide levels, reduced the median glycated hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) values, and decreased the median daily dose of insulin in both human patient groups with and without residual beta cell function. Yong Zhao's [[Stem Cell Educator Therapy]] appears ""so simple and so safe""
{{cite news
| url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/story/health/story/2012-01-14/Novel-stem-cell-treatment-may-hold-promise-for-type-1-diabetes/52536006/1
| title=USA Today
| work=Novel stem cell treatment may hold promise for type 1 diabetes
| date=January 13, 2012
| accessdate=December 11, 2012
| author=Gordon, Serena}}
*October 2012: Positions of nucleosomes in mouse embryonic stem cells and the changes in their positions during differentiation to neural progenitor cells and embryonic fibroblasts are determined with single-nucleotide resolution.{{cite journal
|author=Teif VB, Vainshtein Y, Caudron-Herger M, Mallm JP, Marth C, Höfer T, Rippe K.
|title=Genome-wide nucleosome positioning during embryonic stem cell development.
|journal=Nat Struct Mol Biol.
|date=2012
|doi=10.1038/nsmb.2419
|volume=19
|issue=11
|pages=1185–92
|pmid=23085715
}}
*2012: Katsuhiko Hayashi used mouse skin cells to create stem cells and then used these stem cells to create mouse eggs. These eggs were then fertilized and produced healthy baby offspring. These latter mice were able to have their own babies.{{cite doi|10.1126/science.1226889}}
* 2013: First time lab grown meat made from muscle stem-cells has been cooked and tasted.http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/05/lab-grown-hamburger-synthetic-meat
*2013: First time mice adult cells were reprogrammed into stem cells in vivo. {{cite doi|10.1126/science.1226889}}doi:10.1038/nature.2013.13725","*1908: The term ""stem cell"" was proposed for scientific use by the [[Russia]]n histologist [[Alexander Maksimov]] (1874–1928) at congress of hematologic society in [[Berlin]]. It postulated existence of haematopoietic stem cells.
*1960s: [[Joseph Altman]] and Gopal Das present scientific evidence of adult [[neurogenesis]], ongoing stem cell activity in the brain; their reports contradict [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]]'s ""no new neurons"" dogma and are largely ignored.
*1963: [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] and [[James Till|Till]] illustrate the presence of self-renewing cells in mouse bone marrow.
*1968: [[Bone marrow]] [[Organ transplant|transplant]] between two siblings successfully treats [[Severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]].
*1978: [[Haematopoietic stem cell]]s are discovered in human [[cord blood]].
*1981: Mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s are derived from the [[inner cell mass]] by scientists [[Martin Evans]], [[Matthew Kaufman]], and [[Gail R. Martin]]. Gail Martin is attributed for coining the term ""Embryonic Stem Cell"".
*1992: [[Neural stem cell]]s are cultured ''[[in vitro]]'' as neurospheres.
*1995: [[B.G. Matapurkar|Dr. B.G. Matapurkar]] pioneers in adult stem-cell research with clinical utilization of research in the body and neo-regeneration of tissues and organs in the body. Received International Patent from US Patent Office (USA) in 2001 (effective from 1995). Clinical utilization in human body also demonstrated and patented in 60 patients (World Journal of Surgery-1999{{cite pmid|10085391}} and 1991{{cite pmid|1767543}}).
*1997: Dr. B.G. Matapurkar's surgical technique on regeneration of tissues and organs is published.{{cite book|last=Maingot|first=Rodney|title=Abdominal Operations|year=1997|isbn=0838561063}} Regeneration of faellopian tube and uterus is published.{{cite book|title=Textbook of Gynaecology|year=2010|publisher=JP Publications|isbn=9350253690|pages=620–625}}
*1997: Leukemia is shown to originate from a haematopoietic stem cell, the first direct evidence for [[cancer stem cell]]s.
*1998: [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]] and coworkers derive the first human embryonic [[stem cell line]] at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]].
{{cite journal
| author = Thomson JA, Itskovitz-Eldor J, Shapiro SS, Waknitz MA, Swiergiel JJ, Marshall VS, Jones JM
| title = Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts
| journal = Science
| location=New York
| volume = 282
| issue = 5391
| pages = 1145–7
| year = 1998
| pmid = 9804556
| doi = 10.1126/science.282.5391.1145
}}
*1998: John Gearhart (Johns Hopkins University) extracted germ cells from fetal gonadal tissue (primordial germ cells) before developing pluripotent stem cell lines from the original extract.
*2000s: Several reports of [[adult stem cell]] plasticity are published.
*2001: Scientists at [[Advanced Cell Technology]] clone first early (four- to six-cell stage) human embryos for the purpose of generating embryonic stem cells.
{{cite journal
|author=Cibelli JB, Lanza RP, West MD, Ezzell C
|title=The first human cloned embryo
|journal=Scientific American
|month=November
|year=2001
|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-first-human-cloned-em
}}
*2003: Dr. Songtao Shi of NIH discovers new source of adult stem cells in children's primary teeth.{{cite journal
| author=Shostak S
| title=(Re)defining stem cells
| journal=BioEssays
| year=2006
| pages=301–8
| volume=28
| issue=3
| pmid = 16479584
| doi=10.1002/bies.20376
}}
*2004–2005: Korean researcher [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] claims to have created several human [[embryonic stem cell]] lines from unfertilised human [[oocyte]]s. The lines were later shown to be fabricated.
*2005: Researchers at [[Kingston University]] in [[England]] claim to have discovered a third category of stem cell, dubbed cord-blood-derived embryonic-like stem cells (CBEs), derived from umbilical [[cord blood]]. The group claims these cells are able to differentiate into more types of tissue than adult stem cells.
*2005: Researchers at [[UC Irvine]]'s Reeve-Irvine Research Center are able to partially restore the ability of rats with paralyzed spines to walk through the injection of human [[neural stem cell]]s.{{cite journal|last=Keirstead|first=HS|coauthors=Nistor G, Bernal G, Totoiu M, Cloutier F, Sharp K, Steward O.|title=Human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cell transplants remyelinate and restore locomotion after spinal cord injury|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|year=2005|volume=25|issue=19|pages=4694–4705|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0311-05.2005|pmid=15888645}}
[[File:Yong Zhao smiling Portrait.png|thumb|Yong Zhao, University of Illinois at Chicago]]
*April 2006 Scientists at the University of Illinois at Chicago identified [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)|novel stem cells]] from the [[cord blood|umbilical cord blood]] with [[Embryonic stem cells|embryonic]] and [[hematopoietic]] characteristics.
*August 2006: Mouse [[Induced pluripotent stem cell]]s: the journal ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'' publishes Kazutoshi Takahashi and [[Shinya Yamanaka]].
*November 2006: Yong Zhao et al. revealed the [[Immunomics|immune regulation]] of [[T lymphocyte]]s by [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)]].
*October 2006: Scientists at [[Newcastle University]] in England create the first ever artificial liver cells using umbilical cord blood stem cells.
{{cite web
|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2007/mar/good-news-for-alcoholics
|title=Good news for alcoholics
|publisher=Discover Magazine
|year=2007
|month=March
|accessdate=2010-02-28
}}
{{cite news
|url=http://news.scotsman.com/health.cfm?id=1608072006
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070203010452/http://news.scotsman.com/health.cfm?id=1608072006
|archivedate=2007-02-03
|publisher=The Scotsman
|location=Edinburgh
|first=ShãN
|last=Ross
|title=First liver grown from stem cells offers hope for transplant patients
|date=2006-10-31
}}
*January 2007: Scientists at [[Wake Forest University]] led by Dr. [[Anthony Atala]] and [[Harvard University]] report discovery of a new type of stem cell in [[amniotic fluid]].
{{cite journal
|author=De Coppi P
|title=Isolation of amniotic stem cell lines with potential for therapy
|journal=Nat Biotechnol
|volume=25
|issue=1
|pages=100–6
|year=2007
|pmid=17206138
|doi=10.1038/nbt1274
|author2=Bartsch G
|author3=Siddiqui MM
|last4=Xu
|first4=Tao
|last5=Santos
|first5=Cesar C
|last6=Perin
|first6=Laura
|last7=Mostoslavsky
|first7=Gustavo
|last8=Serre
|first8=Angéline C
|last9=Snyder
|first9=Evan Y
}} This may potentially provide an alternative to embryonic stem cells for use in research and therapy.{{cite news
|url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/01/08/easy_stem_cell_source_sparks_interest/
|title=Easy stem-cell source sparks interest: Researchers find amniotic fluid offers advantages
|publisher=Boston Globe
|author=Kaplan, Karen
|date=8 January 2007
}}
*June 2007: Research reported by three different groups shows that normal skin cells can be reprogrammed to an embryonic state in mice.
{{cite journal
| author=Cyranoski D
| title=Simple switch turns cells embryonic
| journal=Nature
| year=2007
| pages=618–9
| volume=447
| issue=7145
| pmid = 17554270
| doi = 10.1038/447618a
}} In the same month, scientist [[Shoukhrat Mitalipov]] reports the first successful creation of a primate stem cell line through [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]
{{cite journal
| author=Mitalipov SM, Zhou Q, Byrne JA, Ji WZ, Norgren RB, Wolf DP
| title=Reprogramming following somatic cell nuclear transfer in primates is dependent upon nuclear remodeling
| journal=Hum Reprod
| year=2007
| pages=2232–42
| volume=22
| issue=8
| pmid = 17562675
| doi = 10.1093/humrep/dem136
}} [[File:Martin Evans Nobel Prize.jpg|thumb|upright|Martin Evans, a co-winner of the Nobel Prize in recognition of his gene targeting work.]]
*October 2007: [[Mario Capecchi]], [[Martin Evans]], and [[Oliver Smithies]] win the 2007 [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] for their work on embryonic stem cells from mice using gene targeting strategies producing genetically engineered mice (known as [[knockout mice]]) for gene research.{{cite web
|url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2007/index.html
|title = The Nobel prize in physiology or medicine 2007
|accessdate = 8 October 2007
|publisher = Nobelprize.org}}
*November 2007: Human induced pluripotent stem cells: Two similar papers released by their respective journals prior to formal publication: in ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'' by [[Kazutoshi Takahashi]] and [[Shinya Yamanaka]], ""Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors"",{{cite journal
|author=Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M, Narita M, Ichisaka T, Tomoda K, Yamanaka S
|title=Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors
|journal=Cell
|volume=131
|issue=5
|pages=861–72
|year=2007
|pmid=18035408
|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2007.11.019
|url=http://images.cell.com/images/Edimages/Cell/IEPs/3661.pdf
|format=PDF
}} and in ''Science'' by [[Junying Yu]], et al., from the research group of [[James Thomson (cell biologist)|James Thomson]], ""Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells"":
{{cite journal
|author=Yu J, Vodyanik MA, Smuga-Otto K, Antosiewicz-Bourget J, Frane JL, Tian S, Nie J, Jonsdottir GA, Ruotti V, Stewart R, Slukvin II, Thomson JA
|title=Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=318
|issue=5858
|pages=1917–20
|year=2007
|pmid=18029452
|doi=10.1126/science.1151526
}} pluripotent stem cells generated from mature human fibroblasts. It is possible now to produce a stem cell from almost any other human cell instead of using embryos as needed previously, albeit the risk of [[tumorigenesis]] due to [[c-myc]] and [[Gene therapy#Retroviruses|retroviral gene transfer]] remains to be determined.
*January 2008: Robert Lanza and colleagues at Advanced Cell Technology and UCSF create the first human embryonic stem cells without destruction of the embryo
{{cite doi|10.1016/j.stem.2007.12.013}}
*January 2008: Development of human cloned blastocysts following [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]] with adult fibroblasts
{{cite journal
|url=http://stemcells.alphamedpress.org/cgi/reprint/2007-0252v1.pdf
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080625032536/http://stemcells.alphamedpress.org/cgi/reprint/2007-0252v1.pdf
|archivedate=2008-06-25
|title=Development of human cloned blastocysts following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) with adult fibroblasts
|author=French AJ, Adams CA, Anderson LS, Kitchen JR, Hughes MR, Wood SH
|journal=Stem Cells Express
|date=2008
|doi=10.1634/stemcells.2007-0252
|volume=26
|pmid=18202077
|issue=2
|pages=485–93
}}
*February 2008: Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult mouse liver and stomach: these iPS cells seem to be more similar to embryonic stem cells than the previously developed iPS cells and not tumorigenic, moreover genes that are required for iPS cells do not need to be inserted into specific sites, which encourages the development of non-viral reprogramming techniques.
{{cite journal
|author=Aoi T
|title=Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult mouse liver and stomach cells
|journal=Science
|volume=321
|issue=5889
|pages=699–702
|year=2008
|pmid=18276851
|doi=10.1126/science.1154884
|author2=Yae K
|author3=Nakagawa M
|last4=Ichisaka
|first4=T.
|last5=Okita
|first5=K.
|last6=Takahashi
|first6=K.
|last7=Chiba
|first7=T.
|last8=Yamanaka
|first8=S.
}}
*March 2008-The first published study of successful cartilage regeneration in the human knee using autologous adult mesenchymal stem cells is published by clinicians from Regenerative Sciences
{{cite journal
|author=Centeno CJ, Busse D, Kisiday J, Keohan C, Freeman M, Karli D
|title=Increased knee cartilage volume in degenerative joint disease using percutaneously implanted, autologous mesenchymal stem cells
|journal=Pain Physician
|volume=11
|issue=3
|pages=343–53
|year=2008
|pmid=18523506
|url=http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/linkout_vw.php?issn=1533-3159&vol=11&page=343
|issn=1533-3159
}}
*October 2008: Sabine Conrad and colleagues at Tübingen, Germany generate [[pluripotent stem cells]] from spermatogonial cells of adult human testis by culturing the cells in vitro under [[leukemia inhibitory factor]] (LIF) supplementation.
{{cite journal
|author=Conrad S
|title=Generation of pluripotent stem cells from adult human testis
|journal=Nature
|volume=456
|issue=7220
|pages=344–9
|year=2008
|pmid=18849962
|doi=10.1038/nature07404
|author2=Renninger M
|author3=Hennenlotter J
|last4=Wiesner
|first4=Tina
|last5=Just
|first5=Lothar
|last6=Bonin
|first6=Michael
|last7=Aicher
|first7=Wilhelm
|last8=Bühring
|first8=Hans-Jörg
|last9=Mattheus
|first9=Ulrich
}}
*30 October 2008: Embryonic-like stem cells from a single human hair.
{{cite journal
|author=Baker M
|title=Embryonic-like stem cells from a single human hair
|journal=Nature Reports Stem Cells
|year=2008
|doi=10.1038/stemcells.2008.142
}}
*January 2009: Yong Zhao and colleagues confirmed the reversal of autoimmune-caused type 1 diabetes by [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)]] in an animal experiment.
*1 March 2009: Andras Nagy, Keisuke Kaji, ''et al.'' discover a way to produce embryonic-like stem cells from normal adult cells by using a novel ""wrapping"" procedure to deliver specific genes to adult cells to reprogram them into stem cells without the risks of using a virus to make the change.
{{cite journal
|journal=Nature
|title=piggyBac transposition reprograms fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells
|author=Woltjen K, Michael IP, Mohseni P, Desai R, Mileikovsky M, Hämäläinen R, Cowling R, Wang W, Liu P, Gertsenstein M, Kaji K, Sung HK, Nagy A
|doi=10.1038/nature07863
|date=2009-03-01
|volume=458
|pmid=19252478
|issue=7239
|pages=766–70
}}
{{cite web
|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20090227/stem_cells_090228/20090301?hub=TopStories
|title=Canadians make stem cell breakthrough
|accessdate=March 1, 2009
|date=March 1, 2009
}}
{{cite news
|agency=Canadian Press
|publisher=Amherst Daily News
|url=http://www.amherstdaily.com/index.cfm?sid=227086&sc=510
|title=Researchers find new method for turning adult cells into stem cells
|date=2009-01-03
|accessdate=2010-02-28
}} The use of [[electroporation]] is said to allow for the temporary insertion of genes into the cell.
{{cite news
|author=Sample, Ian
|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/mar/01/stem-cells-breakthrough
|title=Scientists' stem cell breakthrough ends ethical dilemma
|publisher=The Guardian
|date=2009-03-01
|accessdate=2009-03-03
| location=London
}}
{{cite journal
|journal=Nature
|date=2009
|title=Virus-free induction of pluripotency and subsequent excision of reprogramming factors
|author=Kaji K, Norrby K, Paca A, Mileikovsky M, Mohseni P, Woltjen K
|doi=10.1038/nature07864
|volume=458
|pmid=19252477
|issue=7239
|pmc=2667910
|pages=771–5
}}{{cite journal|journal=Stem Cells |year=2009 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1098–1108 |title=Methylguanine DNA methyltransferase-mediated drug resistance-based selective enrichment and engraftment of transplanted stem cells in skeletal muscle |author=Lee ASJ, Kahatapitiya P, Kramer B, Joya JE, Hook J, Liu R, Schevzov G, Alexander IE, McCowage G, Montarras D, Gunning PW, Hardeman EC|doi=10.1002/stem.28|pmid=19415780}}
*28 May 2009 Kim ''et al.'' announced that they had devised a way to manipulate skin cells to create patient specific ""induced pluripotent stem cells"" (iPS), claiming it to be the 'ultimate stem cell solution'.
{{cite journal
|title=Generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells by direct delivery of reprogramming proteins
|author=Kim D, Kim CH, Moon JI, Chung YG, Chang MY, Han BS, Ko S, Yang E, Cha KY, Lanza R, Kim KS
|pmid=19481515
|journal=Cell Stem Cell
|laysummary= http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN28256624
|date=27 May 2009
|volume=4
|issue=6
|pages=472–6
|doi=10.1016/j.stem.2009.05.005
|pmc=2705327
}} (cited in lay summary, not read)
*11 October 2010 First trial of embryonic stem cells in humans.{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11517680 | work=BBC News | title=First trial of embryonic stem cells in humans | date=2010-10-11}}
*25 October 2010: Ishikawa ''et al.'' write in the Journal of Experimental Medicine that research shows that transplanted cells that contain their new host's nuclear DNA could still be rejected by the invidual's immune system due to foreign [[mitochondrial DNA]]. Tissues made from a person's stem cells could therefore be rejected, because mitochondrial genomes tend to accumulate mutations.
{{cite journal
|title=The innate immune system in host mice targets cells with allogenic mitochondrial DNA
|author=Ishikawa K, Toyama-Sorimachi N, Nakada K, Morimoto M, Imanishi H, Yoshizaki M, Sasawatari S, Niikura M, Takenaga K, Yonekawa H, Hayashi J
|pmid=20937705
|journal=J Exp Med.
|year=2010
|volume=207
|issue=11
|pages=2297–305
|doi=10.1084/jem.20092296
|pmc=2964578
}}
*2011: [[Israel]]i scientist Inbar Friedrich Ben-Nun led a team which produced the first stem cells from endangered species, a breakthrough that could save animals in danger of extinction.Shtull-Trauring, Asaf (2011-09-06) [http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israeli-scientist-leads-breakthrough-stem-cell-research-on-endangered-species-1.382754 Israeli scientist leads breakthrough stem cell research on endangered species ]
*January 2012: The human clinical trial of treating [[type 1 diabetes]] with [[Stem Cell Educator Therapy|lymphocyte modification]] using [[Cord Blood-Derived Multipotent Stem Cells (CB-SCs)]] achieved an improvement of C-peptide levels, reduced the median glycated hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) values, and decreased the median daily dose of insulin in both human patient groups with and without residual beta cell function. Yong Zhao's [[Stem Cell Educator Therapy]] appears ""so simple and so safe""
{{cite news
| url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/story/health/story/2012-01-14/Novel-stem-cell-treatment-may-hold-promise-for-type-1-diabetes/52536006/1
| title=USA Today
| work=Novel stem cell treatment may hold promise for type 1 diabetes
| date=January 13, 2012
| accessdate=December 11, 2012
| author=Gordon, Serena}}
*October 2012: Positions of nucleosomes in mouse embryonic stem cells and the changes in their positions during differentiation to neural progenitor cells and embryonic fibroblasts are determined with single-nucleotide resolution.{{cite journal
|author=Teif VB, Vainshtein Y, Caudron-Herger M, Mallm JP, Marth C, Höfer T, Rippe K.
|title=Genome-wide nucleosome positioning during embryonic stem cell development.
|journal=Nat Struct Mol Biol.
|date=2012
|doi=10.1038/nsmb.2419
|volume=19
|issue=11
|pages=1185–92
|pmid=23085715
}}
*2012: Katsuhiko Hayashi used mouse skin cells to create stem cells and then used these stem cells to create mouse eggs. These eggs were then fertilized and produced healthy baby offspring. These latter mice were able to have their own babies.{{cite doi|10.1126/science.1226889}}
* 2013: First time lab grown meat made from muscle stem-cells has been cooked and tasted.http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/05/lab-grown-hamburger-synthetic-meat
*2013: First time mice adult cells were reprogrammed into stem cells in vivo. {{cite doi:10.1038/nature.2013.13725}}",[11]
DNA sequencing,Use of sequencing,580063781,2013-11-03T21:52:47Z,Beland,"DNA sequencing may be used to determine the sequence of individual [[gene]]s, larger genetic regions (i.e. clusters of genes or [[operons]]), full chromosomes or entire genomes. Depending on the methods used, sequencing may provide the order of nucleotides in DNA or [[RNA]] isolated from cells of animals, plants, bacteria, [[archaea]], or virtually any other source of genetic information. The resulting sequences may be used by researchers in [[molecular biology]] or [[genetics]] to further scientific progress or may be used by medical personnel to make treatment decisions or aid in [[genetic counseling]].","DNA sequencing may be used to determine the sequence of individual [[gene]]s, larger genetic regions (i.e. clusters of genes or [[operons]]), full chromosomes or [[Whole genome sequencing|entire genomes]]. Sequencing provides the order of individual nucleotides in DNA or [[RNA]] (commonly represented as A, C, G, T, and U) isolated from cells of animals, plants, bacteria, [[archaea]], or virtually any other source of genetic information. This is useful for:
* [[Molecular biology]] - studying the genome itself, how proteins are made, what proteins are made, identifying new genes and associations with diseases and phenotypes, and identifying potential drug targets
* [[Evolutionary biology]] - studying how different organisms are related and how they evolved
Less-precise information is produced by non-sequencing techniques like [[DNA fingerprinting]]. This information may be easier to obtain and is useful for:
* Detect the presence of known genes for medical purposes (see [[genetic testing]])
* [[Forensic identification]]
* [[Parental testing]]
* [[Ecology]] - Identifying species present in a body of water or sample of air or dirt
* [[Microbiome]] research, a combination of ecology and medicine","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,580547600,2013-11-07T03:34:28Z,71.203.192.64,"To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Carl|title=Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping|year=2004|publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc.|location=Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA|pages=67-105}}
# '''The rhythms repeat once a day (they have a 24-hour period).''' In order to keep track of the time of day, a clock must be at the same point at the same time each day, i.e. repeat every 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms persist in the absence of external cues (endogenous).''' The rhythm persists in constant conditions with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input.
# '''The rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time (entrainable).''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues, and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures; they exhibit temperature compensation.''' Some organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation.","To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Carl|title=Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping|year=2004|publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc.|location=Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA|pages=67-105}}
# '''The rhythm has an [[endogenous]] free running period that lasts approximately 24 hours.'''The rhythm persists in constant conditions, (i.e. constant darkness) with a period of about 24 hours. The period of the rhythm in constant conditions is called the free-running period and is denoted by the Greek letter Τ. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested and persists in conditions without external periodic input. In diurnal animals (active during daylight hours) Τ is generally slightly greater than 24 hours, while in nocturnal animals (active at night) Τ is generally shorter than 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms are entrainable.''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The external stimulus used to entrain a rhythm is called the [[Zeitgeber]], or ""Time giver"". The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues, and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms exhibit temperature compensation.''' In other words, they maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures. Many organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation. The [[Q10]] Temperature Coefficient is a measure of this compensating effect.","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Criteria,580547646,2013-11-07T03:35:06Z,71.203.192.64,"To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Carl|title=Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping|year=2004|publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc.|location=Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA|pages=67-105}}
# '''The rhythm has an [[endogenous]] free running period that lasts approximately 24 hours.'''The rhythm persists in constant conditions, (i.e. constant darkness) with a period of about 24 hours. The period of the rhythm in constant conditions is called the free-running period and is denoted by the Greek letter Τ. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested and persists in conditions without external periodic input. In diurnal animals (active during daylight hours) Τ is generally slightly greater than 24 hours, while in nocturnal animals (active at night) Τ is generally shorter than 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms are entrainable.''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The external stimulus used to entrain a rhythm is called the [[Zeitgeber]], or ""Time giver"". The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues, and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms exhibit temperature compensation.''' In other words, they maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures. Many organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation. The [[Q10]] Temperature Coefficient is a measure of this compensating effect.","To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these four general criteria:{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Carl|title=Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping|year=2004|publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc.|location=Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA|pages=67-105}}
# '''The rhythm has an endogenous free running period that lasts approximately 24 hours.'''The rhythm persists in constant conditions, (i.e. constant darkness) with a period of about 24 hours. The period of the rhythm in constant conditions is called the free-running period and is denoted by the Greek letter Τ. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be [[endogenous]] unless it has been tested and persists in conditions without external periodic input. In diurnal animals (active during daylight hours) Τ is generally slightly greater than 24 hours, while in nocturnal animals (active at night) Τ is generally shorter than 24 hours.
# '''The rhythms are entrainable.''' The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called [[Entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainment]]. The external stimulus used to entrain a rhythm is called the [[Zeitgeber]], or ""Time giver"". The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues, and hence do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [[time zone]]s illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience [[jet lag]] before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time.
# '''The rhythms exhibit temperature compensation.''' In other words, they maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures. Many organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the [[Chemical kinetics|kinetics]] of all molecular processes in their cell(s). In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain a roughly 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation. The [[Q10]] Temperature Coefficient is a measure of this compensating effect.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,References,581666614,2013-11-14T19:34:11Z,ClueBot NG,"
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
Kurtis Rules!!!!","
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),581725585,2013-11-15T04:39:20Z,Hordaland,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. 90% of humans are more productive in the afternoon. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].",[2]
Medical cannabis,Dispensing machines,581921680,2013-11-16T15:42:36Z,Scalhotrod,,"A marijuana vending machine is a [[vending machine]] for selling or dispensing [[Cannabis (drug)|marijuana]]. They are currently in use in the [[United States]]. In the United States, they are normally located in secure rooms in [[Medical cannabis|medical marijuana]] dispensaries. They are operated by employees after a [[Fingerprint recognition|fingerprint scan]] is obtained from the patient. In Canada, marijuana vending machines are planned to be used in centres that cultivate the drug.{{cite web|last=Laskow |first=Sarah |url=http://grist.org/list/marijuana-vending-machines-are-the-future-of-recreational-drug-use/ |title=Marijuana vending machines are the future of recreational drug use |publisher=Grist |date=2013-06-10 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://news.msn.com/us/marijuana-vending-machines |title=Marijuana vending machines |publisher=News.msn.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/10/16/pot-vending-machines-to-start-rolling-into-canada-after-firm-partners-with-u-s-company/ |title=The pot vending machine’s first foreign market? Canada, of course, ‘a seed for the rest of the world’ | National Post |publisher=News.nationalpost.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2013/03/20/marijuana-vending-machines-popping-up-at-california-pot-clubs/ |title=Marijuana Vending Machines Popping Up At California Pot Clubs « CBS San Francisco |publisher=Sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com |date=2013-03-20 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|last=Vrankulj |first=Adam |url=http://www.biometricupdate.com/201310/medbox-partners-with-canadian-medical-marijuana-rd-lab |title=Medbox partners with Canadian medical marijuana R&D lab |publisher=BiometricUpdate.com |date=2012-11-13 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2338726/Marijuana-vending-machines-coming-store-near-you.html |title=Marijuana vending machines coming to a store near you? | Mail Online |publisher=Dailymail.co.uk |date=2013-06-10 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|last=Epstein |first=Mike |url=http://www.geekosystem.com/medical-marijuana-vending-machine/ |title=Marijuana Vending Machine Maker’s Stock Skyrockets and Everybody Freaks Out |publisher=Geekosystem |date=2012-11-16 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/09/marijuana-vending-machines_n_3405314.html |title=Marijuana Vending Machines, Stoner Fantasy, May Become Industry Norm |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://www.tokeofthetown.com/2013/03/marijuana_vending_machines_helfpul_or_just_hype_medbox.php |title=Marijuana vending machines: helfpul or just hype? | Marijuana and Cannabis News |publisher=Toke of the Town |date=2013-03-29 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}{{cite web|url=http://www.wealthdaily.com/articles/marijuana-vending-machine-investing/4281 |title=Marijuana Vending Machine Investing |publisher=Wealthdaily.com |date=2013-05-13 |accessdate=2013-10-19}}
At least three companies are developing the vending machines. Endexx Corp. (ticker symbol: EDXC) has recently acquired two smaller companies to merge their respective technologies into a marijuana vending machine. The first acquisition, called Cann-Can LLC, was announced by Endexx on April 9, 2013.{{cite web|title=Endexx Acquires Cann-Can LLC.|url=http://ih.advfn.com/p.php?pid=nmona&article=57093309|publisher=PR Newswire (US)}} Cann-Can's founder and developer, David Levine, was brought onto the Endexx board as a specialty consultant. David Levine has extensive vending machine expertise and holds a patent for a vending machine messaging system.{{cite web|title=MB Media Brokers To License Vending Messaging System|url=http://www.vendingmarketwatch.com/news/11129783/mb-media-brokers-to-license-vending-messaging-system|publisher=Vending Market Watch}} The second acquisition, known as Dispense Labs LLC, was finalized and announced by Endexx on October 7, 2013.{{cite web|title=Endexx closes Acquisition of Dispense Labs LLC.|url=http://ih.advfn.com/p.php?pid=nmona&article=58718702|publisher=PR Newswire (US)}} Dispense Labs has developed an advanced vending machine, known as Autospense, through it's partnership with the leader in industrial vending inventory solutions, Autocrib, Inc. The Autospense machines have many built-in benefits and features to improve security, inventory management, profitability, efficiency, accountability and to mitigate risk.{{cite web|title=www.Autospense.com|url=http://www.autospense.com/}} Endexx, through its wholly owned subsidiary, Dispense Labs, has secured exclusive worldwide rights for medical marijuana dispensing technology with Autocrib.{{cite web|title=Endexx Secures Exclusive World Wide Rights for Medical Marijuana Dispensing Technology|url=http://ih.advfn.com/p.php?pid=nmona&article=58777180|publisher=PR Newswire (US)}} Together, with M3Hub{{cite web|title=www.m3hub.com|url=http://www.m3hub.com/}} and the recent acquistion of THCFinder.com,{{cite web|title=www.thcfinder.com/|url=http://www.thcfinder.com/}} these vending machine acquisitions will enable Endexx to provide a complete seed-to-sale solution to assist dispensaries, and other cannabis-related businesses, to work within the confines of the law.{{cite web|title=Endexx's M3Hub(TM) Platform Supports State Legalized Marijuana Laws|url=http://ih.advfn.com/p.php?pid=nmona&article=59014857|publisher=PR Newswire (US)}}{{cite web|title=Endexx's M3Hub Platform Is the Robust ""Seed to Sale"" Tracking Solution|url=http://ih.advfn.com/p.php?pid=nmona&article=59166832|publisher=PR Newswire (US)}} Additionally, it is expected that the THC Finder website will enable marijuana patients to locate the nearest dispensary with an Autospense marijuana vending machine.{{cite web|title=THCFinder.com Joins the M3Hub(TM)|url=http://ih.advfn.com/p.php?pid=nmona&article=59437491|publisher=PR Newswire (US)}}
Medbox Inc. is the industry leader in medical marijuana dispensing machines. They sell two machines for $50,000, one for [[Cannabis foods|edible marijuana products]] like brownies, and the other for portions of marijuana itself. As of October 2013, Medbox has sold approximately 160 marijuana vending machines to US medical marijuana dispensaries.
Tranzbyte Corp. plans to commence distribution of vending machines that use [[radio-frequency identification]] tags.","[1, 9, 10]"
AngularJS,(Top),581934140,2013-11-16T17:11:49Z,Dchestnykh,"{{advert|date=October 2013}}
{{Refimprove|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS-large.png|200px|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.2.0
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2013|11|08}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[JavaScript framework]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| size = 78.4KB production 479KB development
| website = {{url|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
{{Portal|Free software}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[open source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] framework, maintained by [[Google]], that assists with running [[single-page application]]s. Its goal is to augment browser-based applications with [[model–view–controller]] (MVC) capability, in an effort to make both development and testing easier.
The library reads in [[HTML]] that contains additional custom [[HTML_attribute|tag attributes]]; it then obeys the directives in those custom attributes, and binds input or output parts of the page to a model represented by standard JavaScript variables. The values of those JavaScript variables can be manually set, or retrieved from static or dynamic [[JSON]] resources.","{{advert|date=October 2013}}
{{Refimprove|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS-large.png|200px|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.2.1
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2013|11|14}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[JavaScript framework]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| size = 97 KiB production 693 KiB development
| website = {{url|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
{{Portal|Free software}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[open source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] framework, maintained by [[Google]], that assists with running [[single-page application]]s. Its goal is to augment browser-based applications with [[model–view–controller]] (MVC) capability, in an effort to make both development and testing easier.
The library reads in [[HTML]] that contains additional custom [[HTML_attribute|tag attributes]]; it then obeys the directives in those custom attributes, and binds input or output parts of the page to a model represented by standard JavaScript variables. The values of those JavaScript variables can be manually set, or retrieved from static or dynamic [[JSON]] resources.",[10]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,582100923,2013-11-17T21:04:19Z,Chris Capoccia,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{Cite journal |last=Regestein |first=Quentin R. |coauthor=Pavlova, Milena |date=September 1995 |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T70-3Y6PCPVF/2/d71146c55942bb86e95e87fe45e95687 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–345 |publisher=Elsevier Science Inc. |format=Abstract |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{cite web
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{cite web
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the ""master clock""",582100923,2013-11-17T21:04:19Z,Chris Capoccia,"More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,Valenzuela FJ, Torres-Farfan C, Richter HG, Mendez N, Campino C, Torrealba F, Valenzuela GJ, Serón-Ferré M (2008). Clock gene expression in adult primate suprachiasmatic nuclei and adrenal: is the adrenal a peripheral clock responsive to melatonin?"" ''Endocrinology''149(4) 1454-61. doi: 10.1210/en.2007-1518. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18187542 [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{Cite journal |author=Zanello, S.B.; Jackson, D.M.; Holick, M.F. |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |date=October 2000 |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{Cite journal |author=Kawara, S. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12485420 |doi= 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |last2=Mydlarski |first2=R. |last3=Mamelak |first3=A.J. |display-authors=4 |last4=Freed |first4=Irwin |last5=Wang |first5=Binghe |last6=Watanabe |first6=Hideaki |last7=Shivji |first7=Gulnar |last8=Tavadia |first8=Sherine K |last9=Suzuki |first9=Hirotake}}{{Cite journal |author=Campbell, S.S.; Murphy, P.J. |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |date=January 1998 |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396|bibcode = 1998Sci...279..396C }} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.","More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,{{cite journal |doi=10.1210/en.2007-1518}} [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{Cite journal |author=Zanello, S.B.; Jackson, D.M.; Holick, M.F. |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |date=October 2000 |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{Cite journal |author=Kawara, S. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12485420 |doi= 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |last2=Mydlarski |first2=R. |last3=Mamelak |first3=A.J. |display-authors=4 |last4=Freed |first4=Irwin |last5=Wang |first5=Binghe |last6=Watanabe |first6=Hideaki |last7=Shivji |first7=Gulnar |last8=Tavadia |first8=Sherine K |last9=Suzuki |first9=Hirotake}}{{Cite journal |author=Campbell, S.S.; Murphy, P.J. |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |date=January 1998 |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396|bibcode = 1998Sci...279..396C }} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Humans,582101924,2013-11-17T21:12:50Z,Citation bot,"Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0748730405277983}} The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase; these results became well known.
More recent research has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages about 24 hours; indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms; and most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods. A study by [[Charles Czeisler|Czeisler]] et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow:{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.284.5423.2177}} 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}","Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights.{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0748730405277983 |title=Entrainment of the Human Circadian System by Light |year=2005 |last1=Duffy |first1=J. F. |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=326–38 |pmid=16077152 |last2=Wright Jr |first2=KP}} The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase; these results became well known.
More recent research has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages about 24 hours; indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms; and most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [[chronotype]]-determined sleep periods. A study by [[Charles Czeisler|Czeisler]] et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow:{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.284.5423.2177 |title=Stability, Precision, and Near-24-Hour Period of the Human Circadian Pacemaker |year=1999 |last1=Czeisler |first1=C. A. |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5423 |pages=2177–81 |pmid=10381883 |last2=Duffy |first2=JF |last3=Shanahan |first3=TL |last4=Brown |first4=EN |last5=Mitchell |first5=JF |last6=Rimmer |first6=DW |last7=Ronda |first7=JM |last8=Silva |first8=EJ |last9=Allan |first9=JS |last10=Emens |first10=JS |last11=Dijk |first11=DJ |last12=Kronauer |first12=RE}} 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The ""clock"" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.{{Cite web |author=Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |quote=The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range.}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Obesity and diabetes,582101924,2013-11-17T21:12:50Z,Citation bot,"[[Obesity]] and [[diabetes]] are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignement of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light-dark cycle) play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
[[Shift-work]] or chronic [[jet-lag]] have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in our body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.{{cite journal | author = Arble DM, Bass J, Laposky AD, Vitaterna MH, Turek FW | title = Circadian timing of food intake contributes to weight gain | journal = Obesity (Silver Spring) | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 2100–2 | year = 2009 | month = Nov | pmid = 19730426 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2009.264 }} In humans, shift-work which favors irregular eating times, is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06246.x}} It is thus further assumed that this is not only what we eat but when we eat that matters.
Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of our body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events. [[Clock]] mutant mice are hyperphagic, obese and have altered glucose metabolism.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1108750}} Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes.{{cite journal |doi=10.1096/fj.12-208751}} However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.117}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803778}}
","[[Obesity]] and [[diabetes]] are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignement of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light-dark cycle) play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
[[Shift-work]] or chronic [[jet-lag]] have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in our body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.{{cite journal | author = Arble DM, Bass J, Laposky AD, Vitaterna MH, Turek FW | title = Circadian timing of food intake contributes to weight gain | journal = Obesity (Silver Spring) | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 2100–2 | year = 2009 | month = Nov | pmid = 19730426 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2009.264 | pmc = 3499064 }} In humans, shift-work which favors irregular eating times, is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06246.x |title=Interactions between metabolism and circadian clocks: Reciprocal disturbances |year=2011 |last1=Delezie |first1=Julien |last2=Challet |first2=Etienne |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1243 |pages=30–46 |pmid=22211891}} It is thus further assumed that this is not only what we eat but when we eat that matters.
Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of our body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events. [[Clock]] mutant mice are hyperphagic, obese and have altered glucose metabolism.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1108750 |title=Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Circadian Clock Mutant Mice |year=2005 |last1=Turek |first1=F. W. |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5724 |pages=1043–5 |pmid=15845877 |last2=Joshu |first2=C |last3=Kohsaka |first3=A |last4=Lin |first4=E |last5=Ivanova |first5=G |last6=McDearmon |first6=E |last7=Laposky |first7=A |last8=Losee-Olson |first8=S |last9=Easton |first9=A |last10=Jensen |first10=DR |last11=Eckel |first11=RH |last12=Takahashi |first12=JS |last13=Bass |first13=J |pmc=3764501}} Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes.{{cite journal |doi=10.1096/fj.12-208751 |title=The nuclear receptor REV-ERB is required for the daily balance of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism |year=2012 |last1=Delezie |first1=J. |last2=Dumont |first2=S. |last3=Dardente |first3=H. |last4=Oudart |first4=H. |last5=Grechez-Cassiau |first5=A. |last6=Klosen |first6=P. |last7=Teboul |first7=M. |last8=Delaunay |first8=F. |last9=Pevet |first9=P. |last10=Challet |first10=E. |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=3321}} However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.117 |title=Impact of REV-ERB alpha gene polymorphisms on obesity phenotypes in adult and adolescent samples |year=2012 |last1=Goumidi |first1=L |last2=Grechez |first2=A |last3=Dumont |first3=J |last4=Cottel |first4=D |last5=Kafatos |first5=A |last6=Moreno |first6=L A |last7=Molnar |first7=D |last8=Moschonis |first8=G |last9=Gottrand |first9=F |last10=Huybrechts |first10=I |last11=Dallongeville |first11=J |last12=Amouyel |first12=P |last13=Delaunay |first13=F |last14=Meirhaeghe |first14=A |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=666–72 |pmid=22828941}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803778 |title=Association between polymorphisms in the Clock gene, obesity and the metabolic syndrome in man |year=2007 |last1=Scott |first1=E M |last2=Carter |first2=A M |last3=Grant |first3=P J |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=658–62 |pmid=18071340}}
",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Origin,582101924,2013-11-17T21:12:50Z,Citation bot,"Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{cite journal |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC){{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0409}} of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs{{clarify|date=April 2013}}.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.8421785}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.","Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [[ultraviolet]] radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus ''[[Neurospora]]'', which exists today, retains this [[circadian oscillator|clock-regulated mechanism]].
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.{{Cite journal |author=Sharma, V.K. |title=Adaptive significance of circadian clocks |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=901–19 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14680135 |doi=10.1081/CBI-120026099}} This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,{{Cite journal |author=Sheeba, V.; Sharma, V.K.; Chandrashekaran, M.K.; Joshi, A. |title=Persistence of eclosion rhythm in Drosophila melanogaster after 600 generations in an aperiodic environment |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=448–9 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10501695 |doi=10.1007/s001140050651|bibcode = 1999NW.....86..448S }} as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.{{cite journal |doi=10.3109/07420529808998685 |title=Circadian Rhythm of Activity in Japanese Quail in Constant Darkness: Variability of Clarity and Possibility of Selection |year=1998 |last1=Guyomarc'h |first1=Catherine |last2=Lumineau |first2=Sophie |last3=Richard |first3=Jean-Pierre |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=219–30 |pmid=9653576}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/074873099129000786 |title=Formal Properties of the Circadian and Photoperiodic Systems of Japanese Quail: Phase Response Curve and Effects of T-Cycles |year=1999 |last1=Zivkovic |first1=B. D. |last2=Underwood |first2=H. |last3=Steele |first3=C. T. |last4=Edmonds |first4=K. |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=378–90 |pmid=10511005}}
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [[cyanobacteria]]. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of ''Synechococcus elongatus'' can be reconstituted ''in vitro'' with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC){{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0409 |title=Evolution of time-keeping mechanisms: Early emergence and adaptation to photoperiod |year=2011 |last1=Hut |first1=R. A. |last2=Beersma |first2=D. G. M. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1574 |pages=2141}} of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Previous explanations of the [[prokaryotic]] circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the ''[[Drosophila]]'' ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS ([[Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome]]), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.015 |title=Circadian Gene Expression in Individual Fibroblasts |year=2004 |last1=Nagoshi |first1=Emi |last2=Saini |first2=Camille |last3=Bauer |first3=Christoph |last4=Laroche |first4=Thierry |last5=Naef |first5=Felix |last6=Schibler |first6=Ueli |journal=Cell |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=693–705 |pmid=15550250}} This was shown by [[Gene Block]] in isolated mollusk BRNs{{clarify|date=April 2013}}.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.8421785 |title=Circadian rhythm in membrane conductance expressed in isolated neurons |year=1993 |last1=Michel |first1=S |last2=Geusz |first2=M. |last3=Zaritsky |first3=J. |last4=Block |first4=G. |journal=Science |volume=259 |issue=5092 |pages=239–41 |pmid=8421785}} At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [[Human eye|eye]]s travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the ""master clock""",582101924,2013-11-17T21:12:50Z,Citation bot,"More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,{{cite journal |doi=10.1210/en.2007-1518}} [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{Cite journal |author=Zanello, S.B.; Jackson, D.M.; Holick, M.F. |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |date=October 2000 |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{Cite journal |author=Kawara, S. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12485420 |doi= 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |last2=Mydlarski |first2=R. |last3=Mamelak |first3=A.J. |display-authors=4 |last4=Freed |first4=Irwin |last5=Wang |first5=Binghe |last6=Watanabe |first6=Hideaki |last7=Shivji |first7=Gulnar |last8=Tavadia |first8=Sherine K |last9=Suzuki |first9=Hirotake}}{{Cite journal |author=Campbell, S.S.; Murphy, P.J. |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |date=January 1998 |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396|bibcode = 1998Sci...279..396C }} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.","More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,{{cite journal |doi=10.1210/en.2007-1518 |title=Clock Gene Expression in Adult Primate Suprachiasmatic Nuclei and Adrenal: Is the Adrenal a Peripheral Clock Responsive to Melatonin? |year=2008 |last1=Valenzuela |first1=F. J. |last2=Torres-Farfan |first2=C. |last3=Richter |first3=H. G. |last4=Mendez |first4=N. |last5=Campino |first5=C. |last6=Torrealba |first6=F. |last7=Valenzuela |first7=G. J. |last8=Serón-Ferré |first8=M. |journal=Endocrinology |volume=149 |issue=4 |pages=1454–61 |pmid=18187542}} [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{Cite journal |author=Zanello, S.B.; Jackson, D.M.; Holick, M.F. |title=Expression of the circadian clock genes clock and period1 in human skin |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=757–60 |date=October 2000 |pmid=10998156 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00121.x}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.{{Cite journal |author=Kawara, S. |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12485420 |doi= 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |last2=Mydlarski |first2=R. |last3=Mamelak |first3=A.J. |display-authors=4 |last4=Freed |first4=Irwin |last5=Wang |first5=Binghe |last6=Watanabe |first6=Hideaki |last7=Shivji |first7=Gulnar |last8=Tavadia |first8=Sherine K |last9=Suzuki |first9=Hirotake |first10=George A |first11=Richard C. K |first12=Daniel N}}{{Cite journal |author=Campbell, S.S.; Murphy, P.J. |title=Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5349 |pages=396–9 |date=January 1998 |pmid=9430592 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5349.396|bibcode = 1998Sci...279..396C }} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,582107555,2013-11-17T21:53:43Z,SandyGeorgia,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |year=1995 |last1=Regestein |first1=Quentin R. |last2=Pavlova |first2=Milena |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–45 |pmid=8522148}}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{cite web
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{MEDRS}} {{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.{{MEDRS}} ""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{cite journal |author=Regestein QR, Pavlova M |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=Gen Hosp Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–45 |year=1995 |month=September |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V }}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{cite web
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}",[11]
Port (computer networking),Common port numbers,582609960,2013-11-21T01:17:52Z,210.119.86.214,"{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''well-known ports'', the ''registered ports'', and the ''dynamic'' or ''private ports''.
The well-known ports are those from 0 through 1023. Examples include:
*''20 & 21'': [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP)
*''22'': [[Secure Shell]] (SSH)
*''23'': [[Telnet]] remote login service
*''25'': [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP)
*''53'': [[Domused in the [[World Wide Web]]
*''110'': [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3)
*''119'': [[Network News Transfer Protocol]] (NNTP)
*''143'': [[Internet Message Access Protocol]] (IMAP)
*''161'': [[Simple Network Management Protocol]] (SNMP)
*''194'': [[Internet Relay Chat]] (IRC)
*''443'': [[HTTP Secure]] (HTTPS)
* 465: SMTP Secure (SMTPS)
The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. IANA maintains the official list.{{cite web
|url= http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
|title=Port Numbers
|publisher= Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
}} The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152 through 65535. One common use is for [[ephemeral port]]s.","{{main|List of TCP and UDP port numbers}}
The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) is responsible for the global coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet services.
The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the ''well-known ports'', the ''registered ports'', and the ''dynamic'' or ''private ports''.
The well-known ports are those from 0 through 1023. Examples include:
The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. IANA maintains the official list.{{cite web
|url= http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
|title=Port Numbers
|publisher= Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
}} The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152 through 65535. One common use is for [[ephemeral port]]s.",[2]
AngularJS,Comparisons to [[Backbone.js]],583458727,2013-11-26T23:42:37Z,50.75.232.238,";Data-binding: The most prominent feature that separates the two libraries is in the way models and views are synchronized. Whereas AngularJS supports two way data-binding, Backbone.js relies heavily on [[boilerplate code]] to harmonize its models and views.{{cite web|title=Backbonejs vs Angularjs: Demystifying the myths|url=http://www.nebithi.com/2012/12/27/backbone-and-angular-demystifying-the-myths/|accessdate=13 February 2013}}
;REST: Backbone.js communicates well with [[RESTful]] backends. A very simple use of REST APIs is also available with AngularJS using the $resource service. AngularJS also provide a $http service which is more flexible, connecting to remote servers either through a browser's [[XMLHttpRequest]] object or via [[JSONP]].{{cite web|title=Javascript Frameworks And Data Binding|url=http://tunein.yap.tv/javascript/2012/06/11/javascript-frameworks-and-data-binding/|accessdate=13 February 2013}}
;Templating: AngularJS templating uses a combination of customizable HTML tags and expressions. Backbone.js uses different templating engines such as [[Underscore.js]].",";Data-binding: The most prominent feature that separates the two libraries is in the way models and views are synchronized. Whereas AngularJS supports two way data-binding, Backbone.js relies heavily on [[boilerplate code]] to harmonize its models and views.{{cite web|title=Backbonejs vs Angularjs: Demystifying the myths|url=http://www.nebithi.com/2012/12/27/backbone-and-angular-demystifying-the-myths/|accessdate=13 February 2013}}
;REST: Backbone.js communicates well with [[RESTful]] backends. A very simple use of REST APIs is also available with AngularJS using the $resource service. AngularJS also provide a $http service which is more flexible, connecting to remote servers either through a browser's [[XMLHttpRequest]] object or via [[JSONP]].{{cite web|title=Javascript Frameworks And Data Binding|url=http://tunein.yap.tv/javascript/2012/06/11/javascript-frameworks-and-data-binding/|accessdate=13 February 2013}}
;Templating: AngularJS templating uses a combination of customizable HTML tags and expressions. Backbone.js uses different templating engines such as [[Mustache|Mustache_(template_system)]].","[3, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,External links,583808857,2013-11-29T17:38:13Z,SandyGeorgia,"* [http://richannel.org/christmas-lectures-1998-nancy-rothwell--times-of-our-lives, Royal Institution Christmas Lectures 1998: Times of our Lives]
* [http://www.circadiansleepdisorders.org Circadian Sleep Disorders Organization]
* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Forger D, Gonze D, Virshup D, Welsh DK |title=Beyond intuitive modeling: combining biophysical models with innovative experiments to move the circadian clock field forward |journal=Journal of Biological Rhythms |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=200–10 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17517910 |doi=10.1177/0748730407301823}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A |title=Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks |journal=Central European Journal of Biology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 233–253 |year=2007 |doi=10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z}}
* [http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/lightHealth/index.asp Lighting Research Center, Light & Health Program]
{{Light Ethology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythm| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}","* {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Sleep_Disorders/Biological_Rhythms}}
{{Light Ethology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Circadian Rhythm}}
[[Category:Sleep]]
[[Category:Circadian rhythm| ]]
[[Category:Biology of bipolar disorder]]
{{Link GA|sv}}",[8]
Circadian rhythm,Impact of light–dark cycle,583810264,2013-11-29T17:51:15Z,SandyGeorgia,"The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} ""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{cite journal |author=Regestein QR, Pavlova M |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=Gen Hosp Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–45 |year=1995 |month=September |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V }}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{cite web
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}","The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [[free-running sleep|freerunning]] rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each ""day"", depending on whether their ""day"", their [[endogenous]] period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called ''[[zeitgeber]]s'' (from the German, ""time-givers"").{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite web |author=Shneerson, J.M.; Ohayon, M.M.; Carskadon, M.A. |title=Circadian rhythms |publisher=Armenian Medical Network |work=Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep |url=http://www.sleep.health.am/sleep/more/circadian-rhythms/ |year=2007 |accessdate=2007-09-19}} It is interesting to note that totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [[blind mole rat]] ''Spalax'' sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} ""The Rhythms of Life: The Biological Clocks That Control the Daily Lives of Every Living Thing"" Russell Foster & Leon Kreitzman, Publisher: Profile Books Ltd.
Freerunning organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [[ultradian]] rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.{{MEDRS}} {{cite journal |author=Regestein QR, Pavlova M |title=Treatment of delayed sleep phase syndrome |journal=Gen Hosp Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=335–45 |year=1995 |month=September |pmid=8522148 |doi=10.1016/0163-8343(95)00062-V }}
Recent research has influenced the design of [[human spaceflight|spacecraft]] environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.{{MEDRS}} {{cite web
| url=http://www.space.com/18917-astronauts-insomnia-light-bulbs.html
| author=Elizabeth Howell
| title=Space Station to Get New Insomnia-Fighting Light Bulbs
| date=14 December 2012
| accessdate=2012-12-17
}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),583810365,2013-11-29T17:52:04Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{MEDREF}}
{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Biological markers,583813394,2013-11-29T18:20:36Z,SandyGeorgia,"The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are:
* [[melatonin]] secretion by the [[pineal gland]]
* core body temperature{{cn}}
* plasma level of [[cortisol]].{{cn}}
For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. {{Citation needed span|text=The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time|date=June 2011}}, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [[metabolite]] can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.
A third marker of the human pacemaker is the timing of the maximum plasma cortisol level. Klerman ''et al.'' in 2002 compared cortisol and temperature data to eight different analysis methods of plasma melatonin data, and found that ""methods using plasma melatonin data may be considered more reliable than methods using CBT or cortisol data as an indicator of circadian phase in humans.""
Other physiological changes which occur according to a circadian rhythm include heart rate and production of red blood cells.{{cn}}","The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are:
* [[melatonin]] secretion by the [[pineal gland]]
* core body temperature{{cn}}
* plasma level of [[cortisol]].{{cn}}
For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. {{Citation needed span|text=The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time|date=June 2011}}, though variation is great among normal [[chronotype]]s.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, ''dim-light melatonin onset'' (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [[metabolite]] can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin ''offset'' may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.{{cn}}
Other physiological changes which occur according to a circadian rhythm include heart rate and production of red blood cells.{{cn}}",[2]
Circadian rhythm,Light and the biological clock,583814344,2013-11-29T18:31:02Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{further|Light effects on circadian rhythm}}
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]] rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect the circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [[Melanopsin]] is most efficiently excited by light from the blue part of the spectrum (420–440 nm{{Cite journal |author=Newman, L.A.; Walker, M.T.; Brown, R.L.; Cronin, T.W.; Robinson, P.R. |title=Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment |journal=Biochemistry |volume=42 |issue=44 |pages=12734–8 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14596587 |doi=10.1021/bi035418z}} according to some researchers while others have reported 470–485 nm). These blue wavelengths are present in virtually all light sources, therefore their elimination requires special lights or filters which appear amber.","{{further|Light effects on circadian rhythm}}
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [[phase response curve]] (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [[illuminance]] vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]] rodents than in humans.{{cn}}
Lighting levels that affect the circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [[lux]] striking the retina.","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,583814880,2013-11-29T18:36:40Z,SandyGeorgia,"Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]]{{Cite book |last=Kleitman |first=Nathaniel |title=Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2 |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962}} in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]]{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title=Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=63–8 |date=January 1994 |pmid=8190360 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9}}{{Cite journal |author=Dijk, D.J.; Czeisler, C.A. |title= Contribution of the circadian pacemaker and the sleep homeostat to sleep propensity, sleep structure, electroencephalographic slow waves, and sleep spindle activity in humans |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=15 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=3526–38 |date=May 1995 |pmid=7751928 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7751928}} in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day{{Cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html |title=Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour |accessdate=2008-02-19 |last=Cromie |first=William J. |date=1999-07-15 |publisher=The Harvard University Gazette}} in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}","Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]] in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]] in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,{{cn}} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}","[8, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Human health,583815790,2013-11-29T18:46:14Z,SandyGeorgia,"[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions.{{cite journal |author=Grote L, Mayer J, Penzel T, ''et al.'' |title=Nocturnal hypertension and cardiovascular risk: consequences for diagnosis and treatment |journal=J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. |volume=24 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S26–38 |year=1994 |pmid=7898092 }}
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{cn}}
Health problems can result from a disturbance to the circadian rhythm.{{cn}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |last=Sinert |first=Richard |coauthors=Peter R Peacock, Jr |date=10 May 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].
Studies have also shown that [[Light effects on circadian rhythm|light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms]].{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Bierman, A.; Plitnick, B.; Rea, M.S. |title=Preliminary evidence that both blue and red light can induce alertness at night |journal=BMC Neuroscience |volume=10 |page=105 |year=2009 |pmid=19712442 |pmc=2744917 |doi=10.1186/1471-2202-10-105}}{{Cite journal |author=Figueiro, M.G.; Rea, M.S.; Bullough, J.D. |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=Journal of Carcinogenesis |volume=5 |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid= 16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}{{cite journal |author=Sloane, P.D.; Figueiro, M.G.; Cohen, L |year=2008 |title=Light Therapy for Sleep Disorders and Depression in Older Adults |journal=Clinical Geriatrics |month=March |pages=2–8}}{{cite web |title=New Discovery: Prehistoric Body Clock in Humans Same as That in Algae |date=28 January 2011 |publisher=The Daily Galaxy |url=http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2011/01/new-discovery-prehistoric-body-clock-in-humans-same-as-that-in-algae.html}}","[[File:Day Sleepers crop.jpg|thumb|right|A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.]]
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions.{{cite journal |author=Grote L, Mayer J, Penzel T, ''et al.'' |title=Nocturnal hypertension and cardiovascular risk: consequences for diagnosis and treatment |journal=J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. |volume=24 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S26–38 |year=1994 |pmid=7898092 }}
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [[power-nap]], does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.{{cn}}
Health problems can result from a disturbance to the circadian rhythm.{{cn}} Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [[reticular activating system]], which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. A reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [[uremia]],{{Cite web |url=http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic500.htm |title=Renal Failure, Acute |accessdate=2008-08-03 |author= Sinert T, Peacock PR |date=10 May 2006 |publisher=eMedicine from WebMD}} [[azotemia]] or [[acute renal failure]].{{cn}}
Studies have also shown that [[Light effects on circadian rhythm|light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms]]. {{cite journal |author=Figueiro MG, Rea MS, Bullough JD |title=Does architectural lighting contribute to breast cancer? |journal=J Carcinog |volume=5 |issue= |pages=20 |year=2006 |pmid=16901343 |pmc=1557490 |doi=10.1186/1477-3163-5-20}}",[8]
Circadian rhythm,Obesity and diabetes,583816207,2013-11-29T18:50:25Z,SandyGeorgia,"[[Obesity]] and [[diabetes]] are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignement of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light-dark cycle) play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
[[Shift-work]] or chronic [[jet-lag]] have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in our body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.{{cn}} In humans, shift-work which favors irregular eating times, is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation. {{cite journal |author=Delezie J, Challet E |title=Interactions between metabolism and circadian clocks: reciprocal disturbances |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1243 |issue= |pages=30–46 |year=2011 |month=December |pmid=22211891 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06246.x}}
Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of our body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events. [[Clock]] mutant mice are hyperphagic, obese and have altered glucose metabolism.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1108750 |title=Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Circadian Clock Mutant Mice |year=2005 |last1=Turek |first1=F. W. |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5724 |pages=1043–5 |pmid=15845877 |last2=Joshu |first2=C |last3=Kohsaka |first3=A |last4=Lin |first4=E |last5=Ivanova |first5=G |last6=McDearmon |first6=E |last7=Laposky |first7=A |last8=Losee-Olson |first8=S |last9=Easton |first9=A |last10=Jensen |first10=DR |last11=Eckel |first11=RH |last12=Takahashi |first12=JS |last13=Bass |first13=J |pmc=3764501}} Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes.{{cite journal |doi=10.1096/fj.12-208751 |title=The nuclear receptor REV-ERB is required for the daily balance of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism |year=2012 |last1=Delezie |first1=J. |last2=Dumont |first2=S. |last3=Dardente |first3=H. |last4=Oudart |first4=H. |last5=Grechez-Cassiau |first5=A. |last6=Klosen |first6=P. |last7=Teboul |first7=M. |last8=Delaunay |first8=F. |last9=Pevet |first9=P. |last10=Challet |first10=E. |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=3321}} However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.117 |title=Impact of REV-ERB alpha gene polymorphisms on obesity phenotypes in adult and adolescent samples |year=2012 |last1=Goumidi |first1=L |last2=Grechez |first2=A |last3=Dumont |first3=J |last4=Cottel |first4=D |last5=Kafatos |first5=A |last6=Moreno |first6=L A |last7=Molnar |first7=D |last8=Moschonis |first8=G |last9=Gottrand |first9=F |last10=Huybrechts |first10=I |last11=Dallongeville |first11=J |last12=Amouyel |first12=P |last13=Delaunay |first13=F |last14=Meirhaeghe |first14=A |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=666–72 |pmid=22828941}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803778 |title=Association between polymorphisms in the Clock gene, obesity and the metabolic syndrome in man |year=2007 |last1=Scott |first1=E M |last2=Carter |first2=A M |last3=Grant |first3=P J |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=658–62 |pmid=18071340}}
","[[Obesity]] and [[diabetes]] are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignement of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light-dark cycle) play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
[[Shift-work]] or chronic [[jet-lag]] have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in our body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.{{cn}} In humans, shift-work which favors irregular eating times, is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation. {{cite journal |author=Delezie J, Challet E |title=Interactions between metabolism and circadian clocks: reciprocal disturbances |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1243 |issue= |pages=30–46 |year=2011 |month=December |pmid=22211891 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06246.x}}
Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes.{{cite journal |doi=10.1096/fj.12-208751 |title=The nuclear receptor REV-ERB is required for the daily balance of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism |year=2012 |last1=Delezie |first1=J. |last2=Dumont |first2=S. |last3=Dardente |first3=H. |last4=Oudart |first4=H. |last5=Grechez-Cassiau |first5=A. |last6=Klosen |first6=P. |last7=Teboul |first7=M. |last8=Delaunay |first8=F. |last9=Pevet |first9=P. |last10=Challet |first10=E. |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=3321}} However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.117 |title=Impact of REV-ERB alpha gene polymorphisms on obesity phenotypes in adult and adolescent samples |year=2012 |last1=Goumidi |first1=L |last2=Grechez |first2=A |last3=Dumont |first3=J |last4=Cottel |first4=D |last5=Kafatos |first5=A |last6=Moreno |first6=L A |last7=Molnar |first7=D |last8=Moschonis |first8=G |last9=Gottrand |first9=F |last10=Huybrechts |first10=I |last11=Dallongeville |first11=J |last12=Amouyel |first12=P |last13=Delaunay |first13=F |last14=Meirhaeghe |first14=A |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=666–72 |pmid=22828941}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803778 |title=Association between polymorphisms in the Clock gene, obesity and the metabolic syndrome in man |year=2007 |last1=Scott |first1=E M |last2=Carter |first2=A M |last3=Grant |first3=P J |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=658–62 |pmid=18071340}}
","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Airline pilots,583816669,2013-11-29T18:55:18Z,SandyGeorgia,,"Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often traverse multiple timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]]. The [[NTSB]] cites this situation as a contributing factor to many accidents{{MEDRS}} {{MEDRS}} http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_includes/articlePrint.jsp?storyID=news/FATIGex.xml&headLine=null Aviation Week Article{{full|date=November 2013}} and has conducted multiple research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.http://aeromedical.org/Articles/Pilot_Fatigue.html Pilot Fatigue Study{{full|date=November 2013}}http://www.cnn.com/2009/TRAVEL/05/15/pilot.fatigue.buffalo.crash/index.html CNN Article{{full|date=November 2013}}","[1, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,583817109,2013-11-29T18:59:35Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].{{cn}}
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.{{cn}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cn}} The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.{{Cite journal |author=Straif, K. |title=Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting |journal=The Lancet Oncology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1065–6 |month=December |year=2007 |pmid=19271347 |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20071130/night_shift-work-may-cause-cancer |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=30 November 2007 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(07)70373-X |last2=Baan |first2=R. |last3=Grosse |first3=Y. |display-authors=4 |last4=Secretan |first4=Béatrice |last5=Ghissassi |first5=Fatiha El |last6=Bouvard |first6=Véronique |last7=Altieri |first7=Andrea |last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Lamia |last9=Cogliano |first9=Vincent}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cite web |url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2011/09/12/dangers.exposure.white.light |title=Dangers of exposure to 'white' light |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=University of Haifa |accessdate=24 July 2012}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].{{cn}}
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.{{cn}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cn}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cite web |url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2011/09/12/dangers.exposure.white.light |title=Dangers of exposure to 'white' light |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=University of Haifa |accessdate=24 July 2012}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","[2, 8]"
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,583817191,2013-11-29T19:00:23Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].{{cn}}
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.{{cn}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cn}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cite web |url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2011/09/12/dangers.exposure.white.light |title=Dangers of exposure to 'white' light |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=University of Haifa |accessdate=24 July 2012}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].{{cn}}
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.{{cn}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cn}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cn}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Disruption,583817263,2013-11-29T19:00:56Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].{{cn}}
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.{{cn}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cn}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cn}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/landepress.htm |title=SOME HARMFUL EFFECTS OF LIGHT AT NIGHT CAN BE REVERSED, STUDY FINDS |author= |date=July 24, 2012 |work=Tracy Bedrosian and Randy Nelson |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=24 July 2012}}","{{Further|Circadian rhythm sleep disorder}}
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [[jet lag]], with its associated symptoms of [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], disorientation and [[insomnia]].{{cn}}
A number of other disorders, for example [[bipolar disorder]] and some [[sleep disorder]]s, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.{{cn}}
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease.{{cn}} LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than a [[Sodium-vapor lamp|high pressure sodium light]].{{cn}} Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.{{cn}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Effect of drugs,583817465,2013-11-29T19:02:25Z,SandyGeorgia,"Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{Cite journal |author=Uz, T.; Akhisaroglu, M.; Ahmed, R.; Manev, H. |title=The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=2117–23 |date=December 2003 |pmid=12865893 |doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1300254}}{{Cite journal |author=Kurtuncu, M.; Arslan, A.D.; Akhisaroglu, M.; Manev, H.; Uz, T. |title=Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice |journal=European Journal of Pharmacology |volume=489 |issue=3 |pages=203–5 |month=April |year=2004 |pmid=15087244 |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{Cite journal |author=McClung, C.A. |title=Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=26 |pages=9377–81 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15967985 |pmc=1166621 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0503584102 |last2=Sidiropoulou |first2=K. |last3=Vitaterna |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Takahashi |first4=JS |last5=White |first5=FJ |last6=Cooper |first6=DC |last7=Nestler |first7=EJ|bibcode = 2005PNAS..102.9377M }}","Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{cn}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{Cite journal |author=McClung, C.A. |title=Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=26 |pages=9377–81 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15967985 |pmc=1166621 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0503584102 |last2=Sidiropoulou |first2=K. |last3=Vitaterna |first3=M. |display-authors=4 |last4=Takahashi |first4=JS |last5=White |first5=FJ |last6=Cooper |first6=DC |last7=Nestler |first7=EJ|bibcode = 2005PNAS..102.9377M }}",[8]
Circadian rhythm,Effect of drugs,583819629,2013-11-29T19:24:04Z,AnomieBOT,"Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{cn}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{cn}}","Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{cn|date=November 2013}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{cn|date=November 2013}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Enforced longer cycles,583819629,2013-11-29T19:24:04Z,AnomieBOT,"Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]] in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]] in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,{{cn}} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{pn}}{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}","Studies by [[Nathaniel Kleitman]] in 1938 and by [[Derk-Jan Dijk]] and [[Charles Czeisler]] in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,{{cn|date=November 2013}} this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [[sleep latency]] and other functions.{{pn|date=November 2013}}{{Cite book |last=Aldrich |first=Michael S. |title=Sleep medicine |url=http://books.google.com/?id=1jScwMrsmAMC&pg=RA1-PA65&lpg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-512957-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,"Outside the ""master clock""",583819629,2013-11-29T19:24:04Z,AnomieBOT,"More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,{{cn}} [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{cn}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven.{{cite journal |author=Kawara S, Mydlarski R, Mamelak AJ, ''et al.'' |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=J. Invest. Dermatol. |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12485420 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |url= http://www.nature.com/jid/journal/v119/n6/full/5603326a.html}} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.{{cn}}
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.{{cn}}","More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the ""master clock"". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the adrenal gland,{{cn|date=November 2013}} [[oesophagus]], [[lungs]], [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and the skin.{{cn|date=November 2013}} Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven.{{cite journal |author=Kawara S, Mydlarski R, Mamelak AJ, ''et al.'' |title=Low-dose ultraviolet B rays alter the mRNA expression of the circadian clock genes in cultured human keratinocytes |journal=J. Invest. Dermatol. |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=1220–3 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12485420 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.19619.x |url= http://www.nature.com/jid/journal/v119/n6/full/5603326a.html}} There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that these structures may also be weak oscillators.{{cn|date=November 2013}}
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms.{{cn|date=November 2013}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Butterfly migration,583822897,2013-11-29T19:58:39Z,SandyGeorgia,"The navigation of the fall migration of the [[monarch (butterfly)|Eastern North American monarch butterfly]] (''Danaus plexippus'') to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{cite journal |author=Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM |title=Antennal circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1700–4 |year=2009 |month=September |pmid=19779201 |pmc=2754321 |doi=10.1126/science.1176221|bibcode = 2009Sci...325.1700M }}{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite journal |author=Kyriacou CP |title= Physiology. Unraveling traveling |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1629–30 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19779177 |doi=10.1126/science.1178935}}","The navigation of the fall migration of the [[monarch (butterfly)|Eastern North American monarch butterfly]] (''Danaus plexippus'') to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{cite journal |author=Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM |title=Antennal circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1700–4 |year=2009 |month=September |pmid=19779201 |pmc=2754321 |doi=10.1126/science.1176221|bibcode = 2009Sci...325.1700M }}{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{Cite journal |author=Kyriacou CP |title= Physiology. Unraveling traveling |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1629–30 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19779177 |doi=10.1126/science.1178935}}",[11]
Medical cannabis,Multiple sclerosis,583878963,2013-11-30T06:38:06Z,Bon courage,"[[File:Medical cannabis.jpg|thumb|right|Medical cannabis]]
A review of six [[randomized controlled trials]] of a combination of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] and [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] extracts for the treatment of [[multiple sclerosis]] (MS) related muscle spasticity reported, ""Although there was variation in the outcome measures reported in these studies, a trend of reduced spasticity in treated patients was noted."" The authors postulated that ""cannabinoids may provide neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory benefits in MS.""{{cite journal |author = Lakhan SE, Rowland M |year = 2009 |title = Whole plant cannabis extracts in the treatment of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review |journal = BMC Neurology |volume = 9 |page = 59 |pmid = 19961570 |pmc = 2793241 |doi=10.1186/1471-2377-9-59}} A small study done on whether or not cannabis could be used to control tremors of MS patients was conducted. The study found that there was no noticeable difference of the tremors in the patients. Although there was no difference in the tremors, the patients felt as if their symptoms had lessened and their quality of life had improved. The researchers concluded that the mood enhancing or cognitive effects that cannabis has on the brain could have given the patients the effect that their tremors were getting better.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2010.03274.x |title=Cannabis use in palliative care - an examination of the evidence and the implications for nurses |year=2010 |last1=Green |first1=Anita J |last2=De-Vries |first2=Kay |journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing |volume=19 |issue=17–18 |pages=2454–62 |pmid=20920073}}","[[File:Medical cannabis.jpg|thumb|right|Medical cannabis]]
For years anecdotal reports have supported the use of cannabis as playing a part in the treatment of [[multiple scelerosis]] symptoms; the evidence however has been unclear, in large part because of fundamental challenges in designing trials that can accurately specify the symptoms to be assessed, and because it is difficult to ensure comparable dosing between trials.{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.imbio.2010.03.009|title=Cannabis-based medicines in multiple sclerosis – A review of clinical studies|year=2010|last1=Rog|first1=David J.|journal=Immunobiology|volume=215|issue=8|pages=658–72|pmid=20541836}}","[1, 2, 7, 8]"
Medical cannabis,Opioid dependence,583906257,2013-11-30T13:23:33Z,Anna Frodesiak,"In humans, drug treatment subjects who use cannabis intermittently are found to be more likely to adhere to treatment for opioid dependence.{{Cite journal|title=Intermittent Marijuana Use Is Associated with Improved Retention in Naltrexone Treatment for Opiate-Dependence |journal=The American Journal on Addictions |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=301–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19444734 |doi=10.1080/10550490902927785 |pmc=2753886|last1=Raby|first1=Wilfrid Noel|last2=Carpenter|first2=Kenneth M.|last3=Rothenberg|first3=Jami|last4=Brooks|first4=Adam C.|last5=Jiang|first5=Huiping|last6=Sullivan|first6=Maria|last7=Bisaga|first7=Adam|last8=Comer|first8=Sandra|last9=Nunes|first9=Edward V.}} Historically, similar findings were reported by Edward Birch, who, in 1889, reported success in treating opiate and chloral addiction with cannabis.{{Cite journal|author=Mikuriya TH |title=Marijuana in medicine: past, present and future |journal=California Medicine |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=34–40 |year=1969 |pmid=4883504 |pmc=1503422}}","Injections of THC eliminate dependence on opiates in stressed rats, according to a research team at the Laboratory for Physiopathology of Diseases of the Central Nervous System (France) in the journal ''Neuropsychopharmacology''.{{Cite journal |author=Morel LJ, Giros B, Daugé V |title=Adolescent Exposure to Chronic Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Blocks Opiate Dependence in Maternally Deprived Rats |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume= 34|issue= 11|pages= 2469–76|year=2009 |pmid=19553915 |doi=10.1038/npp.2009.70 |laysummary=http://www.physorg.com/news166196260.html |laysource=[[PhysOrg.com]] |laydate=7 July 2009}} Deprived of their mothers at birth, rats become hypersensitive to the rewarding effect of morphine and heroin (substances belonging to the opiate family), and rapidly become dependent. When these rats were administered THC, they no longer developed typical morphine-dependent behavior. In the [[striatum]], a region of the brain involved in drug dependence, the production of endogenous [[enkephalins]] was restored under THC, whereas it diminished in rats stressed from birth which had not received THC. Researchers believe the findings could lead to therapeutic alternatives to existing substitution treatments.
In humans, drug treatment subjects who use cannabis intermittently are found to be more likely to adhere to treatment for opioid dependence.{{Cite journal|title=Intermittent Marijuana Use Is Associated with Improved Retention in Naltrexone Treatment for Opiate-Dependence |journal=The American Journal on Addictions |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=301–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19444734 |doi=10.1080/10550490902927785 |pmc=2753886|last1=Raby|first1=Wilfrid Noel|last2=Carpenter|first2=Kenneth M.|last3=Rothenberg|first3=Jami|last4=Brooks|first4=Adam C.|last5=Jiang|first5=Huiping|last6=Sullivan|first6=Maria|last7=Bisaga|first7=Adam|last8=Comer|first8=Sandra|last9=Nunes|first9=Edward V.}} Historically, similar findings were reported by Edward Birch, who, in 1889, reported success in treating opiate and chloral addiction with cannabis.{{Cite journal|author=Mikuriya TH |title=Marijuana in medicine: past, present and future |journal=California Medicine |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=34–40 |year=1969 |pmid=4883504 |pmc=1503422}}","[1, 4, 7, 9]"
Medical cannabis,Further reading,584597895,2013-12-04T22:59:37Z,SandyGeorgia,"{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book|title=The Science of Marijuana|last=Iversen|first=Leslie L.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-19-513123-1}}
*[http://www.cannabis-med.org/meeting/Cologne2009/reader.pdf 2009 Conference on Cannabinoids in Medicine, International Association for Cannabis as Medicine]
* {{cite web|work=Schaffer Library of Drug Policy |url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/ms_mj_ref.htm |title=References on Multiple Sclerosis and Marijuana}}
* {{cite web|first=Dominik |last=Wujastyk |date=12 September 2001 |title=Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/papers/cannabis.pdf |accessdate=23 September 2009}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006000200015 |title=History of cannabis as a medicine: A review |year=2006 |last1=Zuardi |first1=Antonio Waldo |journal=Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=153–7 |pmid=16810401}}
* {{cite web|first=Martin |last=Martinez |date=4 August 2008 |title=History of Medical Cannabis |url=http://www.cannabismd.net/history-of-medical-cannabis/ |accessdate=23 September 2009}}
{{Refend}}","{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book|title=The Science of Marijuana|last=Iversen|first=Leslie L.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-19-513123-1}}
*[http://www.cannabis-med.org/meeting/Cologne2009/reader.pdf 2009 Conference on Cannabinoids in Medicine, International Association for Cannabis as Medicine]
* {{cite web|work=Schaffer Library of Drug Policy |url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/ms_mj_ref.htm |title=References on Multiple Sclerosis and Marijuana}}
* {{cite web|first=Dominik |last=Wujastyk |date=12 September 2001 |title=Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/papers/cannabis.pdf |accessdate=23 September 2009}}
{{Refend}}",[8]
Genetically modified food,Milled corn products,584659565,2013-12-05T08:09:36Z,BG19bot,"About 90% of the planted area of soybeans in the US are genetically modified varieties.[http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/adoption-of-genetically-engineered-crops-in-the-us.aspx Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the U.S.] – [[Economic Research Service]], of the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] The modifications create resistance to herbicides and production of healthier oils.<[http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/67.soybean.html GMO Compass - GM Soy]
[[Soybean]] seeds contain about 20% oil. To extract soybean oil from the seeds, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial [[hexane]]. The remaining soybean meal has a 50% [[soy protein]] content. The meal is 'toasted' (a [[misnomer]] because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a [[hammer mill]]. Ninety-eight percent of the U.S. soybean crop is used for livestock feed. Part of the remaining 2% of soybean meal is processed further into high protein soy products that are used in a variety of foods, such as [[salad dressing]]s, [[soup]]s, [[meat analogue]]s, beverage powders, [[cheese]]s, [[nondairy creamer]], frozen desserts, [[whipped topping]], [[infant formula]]s, [[bread]]s, [[breakfast cereal]]s, [[pasta]]s, and pet foods.Edmund W. Lusas and Mian N Riaz. (1995) [http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/3_Suppl/573S.full.pdf Soy Protein Products: Processing and Use] Journal of Nutrition 125 (3_Suppl):573S-580SE.S. Sipos. [http://www.asaim-europe.org/Backup/pdf/edibleuses.pdf Edible Uses of Soybean Protein] Processed soy protein appears in foods mainly in three forms: soy flour, soy protein isolates, and soy protein concentrates.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2007.00025.x |title=Functional and Edible Uses of Soy Protein Products |year=2008 |last1=Singh |first1=Preeti |last2=Kumar |first2=R. |last3=Sabapathy |first3=S. N. |last4=Bawa |first4=A. S. |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |volume=7 |pages=14–28}}","[[Genetically modified maize|Corn]] used for food has been genetically modified to be resistant to various herbicides and to express a protein from [[Bacillus thuringiensis]] that kills certain insects.For a list of all traits, see table [http://www.ncga.com/know-before-you-grow/ at at National Corn Growers Association website] As of September 2012 that site listed 13 traits in nearly 30 different products. About 90% of the corn grown in the US has been genetically modified.[http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/Acre/2010s/2010/Acre-06-30-2010.pdf Acreage NASS] National Agricultural Statistics Board annual report, 30 June 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
Human-grade corn can be processed into grits, meal, and flour.
Grits are the coarsest product from the corn dry milling process. Grits vary in texture and are generally used in corn flakes, breakfast cereals, and snack foods. Brewers’ grits are used in the beer manufacturing process.
Corn meal is an ingredient in several products including cornbread, muffins, fritters, cereals, bakery mixes, pancake mixes, and snacks. The finest grade corn meal is often used to coat English muffins and pizzas. Cornmeal is also sold as a packaged good.
Corn flour is one of the finest textured corn products generated in the dry milling process. Some of the products containing corn flour include mixes for pancakes, muffins, doughnuts, breadings, and batters, as well as baby foods, meat products, cereals, and some fermented products. Masa flour is another finely textured corn product. It is produced using the alkaline-cooked process. A related product, masa dough, can be made using corn flour and water. Masa flour and masa dough are used in the production of taco shells, corn chips, and tortillas.Staff. South Dakota State University, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, Agricultural Experiment Station. June 2004. [http://www.agrisk.umn.edu/cache/ARL03021.pdf Corn-Based Food Production in South Dakota: A Preliminary Feasibility Study]","[1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 10]"
Genetically modified food,Fruits and vegetables,584840477,2013-12-06T13:13:04Z,Jytdog,"[[File:Papaya sunset.jpg|thumb|right|260px|3 views of the Sunset papaya cultivar, which was genetically modified to create the SunUp cultivar, resistant to PRSV.]]
[[Carica papaya|Papaya]] has been genetically modified to resist the [[Papaya ringspot virus|ringspot virus]]. 'SunUp' is a transgenic red-fleshed Sunset cultivar that is homozygous for the coat protein gene of PRSV; 'Rainbow' is a yellow-fleshed F1 hybrid developed by crossing 'SunUp' and nontransgenic yellow-fleshed 'Kapoho'.Gonsalves, D. (2004). [http://www.agbioforum.org/v7n12/v7n12a07-gonsalves.htm Transgenic papaya in Hawaii and beyond]. AgBioForum, 7(1&2), 36-40 The New York Times stated that ""in the early 1990s, Hawaii’s papaya industry was facing disaster because of the deadly papaya ringspot virus. Its single-handed savior was a breed engineered to be resistant to the virus. Without it, the state’s papaya industry would have collapsed. Today, 80% of Hawaiian papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no conventional or organic method to control ringspot virus.""Ronald, Pamela and McWilliams, James [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/15/opinion/15ronald.html?_r=2&ref=opinion Genetically Engineered Distortions] The New York Times, May 14, 2010, Retrieved July 26, 2010.
The New Leaf potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast food market, but was withdrawn from the market in 2001http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/new-leaf-potato.aspx after fast food retailers did not pick it up and food processors ran into export problems.{{cite web|url=http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm |title=The History and Future of GM Potatoes |publisher=Potatopro.com |date=2010-03-10 |accessdate=2012-12-29}} There are currently no transgenic potatoes marketed for human consumption. In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA for its Fortuna potato, which was made resistant to [[Phytophthora infestans|late blight]] by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum.Research in Germany, November 17, 2011. [http://www.research-in-germany.de/84190/2011-11-17-business-basf-applies-for-approval-for-another-biotech-potato.html Business BASF applies for approval for another biotech potato]Burger, Ludwig (31 October 2011) [http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/31/us-basf-idUSTRE79U41Q20111031 BASF applies for EU approval for Fortuna GM potato] Reuters, Frankfurt. Retrieved 29 December 2011 However in February 2013 BASF withdrew its application.Andrew Turley for Royal Society of Chemistry News. February 7, 2013 [http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2013/02/basf-gm-potato-amflora BASF drops GM potato projects]
As of 2005, about 13% of the zucchini grown in the US was genetically modified to resist three viruses; the zucchini is also grown in Canada.Johnson, Stanley R. et al [http://www.ncfap.org./documents/2007biotech_report/Quantification_of_the_Impacts_on_US_Agriculture_of_Biotechnology_Executive_Summary.pdf Quantification of the Impacts on US Agriculture of Biotechnology-Derived Crops Planted in 2006] National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington DC, February 2008. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
As of 2012, an apple that has been genetically modified to resist browning, known as the [[Nonbrowning Arctic Apples|Nonbrowning Arctic apple]] produced by Okanagan Specialty Fruits, was awaiting regulatory approval in the US and Canada. A gene in the fruit has been modified such that the apple produces less [[polyphenol oxidase]], a chemical that manifests the browning.{{cite journal | doi =10.3733/ca.v066n02p62 | url=http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/repositoryfiles/ca6602p62-93331.pdf | title = Research and adoption of biotechnology strategies could improve California fruit and nut crops | year= 2012 | last1 = Haroldsen | first1 = Victor M. | last2=Paulino | first2=Gabriel | last3=Chi-ham | first3=Cecilia | last4=Bennett | first4=Alan B. | journal = California Agriculture | volume = 66 | issue = 2 | pages = 62–69}}","[[File:Papaya sunset.jpg|thumb|right|260px|3 views of the Sunset papaya cultivar, which was genetically modified to create the SunUp cultivar, resistant to PRSV.]]
[[Carica papaya|Papaya]] has been genetically modified to resist the [[Papaya ringspot virus|ringspot virus]]. 'SunUp' is a transgenic red-fleshed Sunset cultivar that is homozygous for the coat protein gene of PRSV; 'Rainbow' is a yellow-fleshed F1 hybrid developed by crossing 'SunUp' and nontransgenic yellow-fleshed 'Kapoho'.Gonsalves, D. (2004). [http://www.agbioforum.org/v7n12/v7n12a07-gonsalves.htm Transgenic papaya in Hawaii and beyond]. AgBioForum, 7(1&2), 36-40 The New York Times stated that ""in the early 1990s, Hawaii’s papaya industry was facing disaster because of the deadly papaya ringspot virus. Its single-handed savior was a breed engineered to be resistant to the virus. Without it, the state’s papaya industry would have collapsed. Today, 80% of Hawaiian papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no conventional or organic method to control ringspot virus.""Ronald, Pamela and McWilliams, James [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/15/opinion/15ronald.html?_r=2&ref=opinion Genetically Engineered Distortions] The New York Times, May 14, 2010, Retrieved July 26, 2010.
The New Leaf potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast food market, but was withdrawn from the market in 2001http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/new-leaf-potato.aspx after fast food retailers did not pick it up and food processors ran into export problems.{{cite web|url=http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm |title=The History and Future of GM Potatoes |publisher=Potatopro.com |date=2010-03-10 |accessdate=2012-12-29}} There are currently no transgenic potatoes marketed for human consumption. In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA for its Fortuna potato, which was made resistant to [[Phytophthora infestans|late blight]] by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum.Research in Germany, November 17, 2011. [http://www.research-in-germany.de/84190/2011-11-17-business-basf-applies-for-approval-for-another-biotech-potato.html Business BASF applies for approval for another biotech potato]Burger, Ludwig (31 October 2011) [http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/31/us-basf-idUSTRE79U41Q20111031 BASF applies for EU approval for Fortuna GM potato] Reuters, Frankfurt. Retrieved 29 December 2011 However in February 2013 BASF withdrew its application.Andrew Turley for Royal Society of Chemistry News. February 7, 2013 [http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2013/02/basf-gm-potato-amflora BASF drops GM potato projects] In May 2013, the [[J.R. Simplot Company]] sought USDA approval for their ""Innate"" potatoes, which contain 10 genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less [[acrylamide]] when fried than conventional potatoes; the inserted genetic material comes from cultivated or wild potatoes, and leads to [[RNA interference]], which prevents certain proteins from being formed.[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/14/jr-simplot-co-potatoes-idaho_n_3270735.html J.R. Simplot Company Bets On Biotech Potatoes In Idaho], Associated Press, 14-May-2013Potato Pro. May 8, 2013. [http://www.potatopro.com/Lists/News/DispForm.aspx?List=813b91f5-f5b5-46ec-95e2-463829ed0100&ID=8069 Simplot asks USDA for deregulation of their GM Innate potatoes]Federal Register. May 3, 2013. [https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2013/05/03/2013-10504/jr-simplot-co-availability-of-petition-for-determination-of-nonregulated-status-of-potato#h-7 J.R. Simplot Co.; Availability of Petition for Determination of Nonregulated Status of Potato Genetically Engineered for Low Acrylamide Potential and Reduced Black Spot Bruise]
As of 2005, about 13% of the zucchini grown in the US was genetically modified to resist three viruses; the zucchini is also grown in Canada.Johnson, Stanley R. et al [http://www.ncfap.org./documents/2007biotech_report/Quantification_of_the_Impacts_on_US_Agriculture_of_Biotechnology_Executive_Summary.pdf Quantification of the Impacts on US Agriculture of Biotechnology-Derived Crops Planted in 2006] National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington DC, February 2008. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
As of 2012, an apple that has been genetically modified to resist browning, known as the [[Nonbrowning Arctic Apples|Nonbrowning Arctic apple]] produced by Okanagan Specialty Fruits, was awaiting regulatory approval in the US and Canada. A gene in the fruit has been modified such that the apple produces less [[polyphenol oxidase]], a chemical that manifests the browning.{{cite journal | doi =10.3733/ca.v066n02p62 | url=http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/repositoryfiles/ca6602p62-93331.pdf | title = Research and adoption of biotechnology strategies could improve California fruit and nut crops | year= 2012 | last1 = Haroldsen | first1 = Victor M. | last2=Paulino | first2=Gabriel | last3=Chi-ham | first3=Cecilia | last4=Bennett | first4=Alan B. | journal = California Agriculture | volume = 66 | issue = 2 | pages = 62–69}}","[1, 4, 9, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Impact of circadian disruption,585112128,2013-12-08T11:21:58Z,131.152.227.74,,"Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of our body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events. [[Clock]] mutant mice are hyperphagic, obese and have altered glucose metabolism.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1108750 |title=Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome in Circadian Clock Mutant Mice |year=2005 |last1=Turek |first1=F. W. |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5724 |pages=1043–5 |pmid=15845877 |last2=Joshu |first2=C |last3=Kohsaka |first3=A |last4=Lin |first4=E |last5=Ivanova |first5=G |last6=McDearmon |first6=E |last7=Laposky |first7=A |last8=Losee-Olson |first8=S |last9=Easton |first9=A |last10=Jensen |first10=DR |last11=Eckel |first11=RH |last12=Takahashi |first12=JS |last13=Bass |first13=J |pmc=3764501}} Deletion of the [[Rev-ErbA alpha]] clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes.{{cite journal |doi=10.1096/fj.12-208751 |title=The nuclear receptor REV-ERB is required for the daily balance of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism |year=2012 |last1=Delezie |first1=J. |last2=Dumont |first2=S. |last3=Dardente |first3=H. |last4=Oudart |first4=H. |last5=Grechez-Cassiau |first5=A. |last6=Klosen |first6=P. |last7=Teboul |first7=M. |last8=Delaunay |first8=F. |last9=Pevet |first9=P. |last10=Challet |first10=E. |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=3321}} However, it is not yet clear if there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.117 |title=Impact of REV-ERB alpha gene polymorphisms on obesity phenotypes in adult and adolescent samples |year=2012 |last1=Goumidi |first1=L |last2=Grechez |first2=A |last3=Dumont |first3=J |last4=Cottel |first4=D |last5=Kafatos |first5=A |last6=Moreno |first6=L A |last7=Molnar |first7=D |last8=Moschonis |first8=G |last9=Gottrand |first9=F |last10=Huybrechts |first10=I |last11=Dallongeville |first11=J |last12=Amouyel |first12=P |last13=Delaunay |first13=F |last14=Meirhaeghe |first14=A |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=666–72 |pmid=22828941}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803778 |title=Association between polymorphisms in the Clock gene, obesity and the metabolic syndrome in man |year=2007 |last1=Scott |first1=E M |last2=Carter |first2=A M |last3=Grant |first3=P J |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=658–62 |pmid=18071340}}","[1, 4, 7, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Importance in animals,585364777,2013-12-10T00:57:01Z,Ὁ οἶστρος,"Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [[Neural oscillation|brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
{{cquote|Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite web |title= Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs}}}}","Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [[Neural oscillation|brain wave]] activity, [[hormone]] production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [[photoperiodism]], the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
{{cquote|Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite web |title= Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism – Models and Experimental Approaches |url=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/07/clock_tutorial_16_photoperiodi_1.php |accessdate=2007-12-09 |last=Zivkovic |first=Bora ""Coturnix"" |date=2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007 |work=A Blog Around the Clock |publisher=ScienceBlogs}}}}",[11]
Prion,General,585608173,2013-12-11T16:16:26Z,Yobol,"* [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/prions/ CDC] – USA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – information on prion diseases
* [http://www.who.int/zoonoses/diseases/prion_diseases/en/ World Health Organisation] – WHO information on prion diseases
* [http://www.1lec.com/Microbiology/Prion/index.html Prion Animation] (Flash required)
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xws0_I-xyOI Prion disease animation]","* [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/prions/ CDC] – USA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – information on prion diseases
* [http://www.who.int/zoonoses/diseases/prion_diseases/en/ World Health Organisation] – WHO information on prion diseases",[11]
Code injection,Dynamic evaluation vulnerabilities,586848010,2013-12-19T21:40:25Z,Blaufish,"An eval injection vulnerability occurs when an attacker can control all or part of an input string that is fed into an [[eval]]() function
call.{{Cite web
| last = Christey
| first = Steven M.
| authorlink = Steven M. Christey
| coauthors =
| title = Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities in PHP applications
| work =
| publisher = [[Insecure.org]]
| date = 3 May 2006
| url = http://seclists.org/lists/fulldisclosure/2006/May/0035.html
| doi =
| accessdate = 2008-11-17
}}
$myvar = 'somevalue';
$x = $_GET['arg'];
eval('$myvar = ' . $x . ';');
The argument of ""eval"" will be processed as PHP, so additional commands can be appended. For example, if ""arg"" is set to ""10; system('/bin/echo uh-oh')"", additional code is run which executes a program on the server, in this case ""/bin/echo"".","Steven M. Christey of [[Mitre Corporation]] suggests this name for a class of code injection vulnerabilities.
An eval injection vulnerability occurs when an attacker can control all or part of an input string that is fed into an [[eval]]() function
call.{{Cite web
| last = Christey
| first = Steven M.
| authorlink = Steven M. Christey
| coauthors =
| title = Dynamic Evaluation Vulnerabilities in PHP applications
| work =
| publisher = [[Insecure.org]]
| date = 3 May 2006
| url = http://seclists.org/lists/fulldisclosure/2006/May/0035.html
| doi =
| accessdate = 2008-11-17
}}
$myvar = 'somevalue';
$x = $_GET['arg'];
eval('$myvar = ' . $x . ';');
The argument of ""eval"" will be processed as PHP, so additional commands can be appended. For example, if ""arg"" is set to ""10; system('/bin/echo uh-oh')"", additional code is run which executes a program on the server, in this case ""/bin/echo"".","[1, 5, 9]"
Code injection,Remote file injection,586848010,2013-12-19T21:40:25Z,Blaufish,,"{{Main|Remote File Inclusion}}
Consider this PHP program (which includes a file specified by request):
The developer thought this would ensure that only blue.php and red.php could be loaded.","[1, 4]"
Circadian rhythm,(Top),586929455,2013-12-20T10:04:52Z,Bender235,"{{MEDREF|date=November 2013}}
{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
{{MEDREF|date=November 2013}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].",[11]
K-d tree,See also,587410023,2013-12-23T18:59:30Z,David Eppstein,"* [[implicit kd-tree|implicit ''k''-d tree]]
* [[min/max kd-tree|min/max ''k''-d tree]]
* [[Quadtree]]
* [[Octree]]
* [[R-tree]]
* [[Bounding Interval Hierarchy]]
* [[Nearest neighbour search]]
* [[Klee's measure problem]]","* [[implicit kd-tree|implicit ''k''-d tree]], a ''k''-d tree defined by an implicit splitting function rather than an explicitly-stored set of splits
* [[min/max kd-tree|min/max ''k''-d tree]], a ''k''-d tree that associates a minimum and maximum value with each of its nodes
* [[Quadtree]], a space-partitioning structure that splits at the geometric midpoint rather than the median coordinate
* [[Octree]], a higher-dimensional generalization of a quadtree
* [[R-tree]] and [[bounding interval hierarchy]], structure for partitioning objects rather than points, with overlapping regions
* [[Klee's measure problem]], a problem of computing the area of a union of rectangles, solvable using ''k''-d trees
* [[Guillotine problem]], a problem of finding a ''k''-d tree whose cells are large enough to contain a given set of rectangles","[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]"
AngularJS,(Top),589487991,2014-01-06T20:12:44Z,85.196.88.98,"{{Refimprove|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS-large.png|200px|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.2.6
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2013|12|19}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[JavaScript framework]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| size = 97 KiB production 693 KiB development
| website = {{url|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
{{Portal|Free software}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[open source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] framework, maintained by [[Google]], that assists with running [[single-page application]]s. Its goal is to augment browser-based applications with [[model–view–controller]] (MVC) capability, in an effort to make both development and testing easier.
The library reads in [[HTML]] that contains additional custom [[HTML_attribute|tag attributes]]; it then obeys the directives in those custom attributes, and binds input or output parts of the page to a model represented by standard JavaScript variables. The values of those JavaScript variables can be manually set, or retrieved from static or dynamic [[JSON]] resources.","{{Refimprove|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS-large.png|200px|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.2.7
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2014|01|03}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[JavaScript framework]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| size = 97 KiB production 693 KiB development
| website = {{url|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
{{Portal|Free software}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[open source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] framework, maintained by [[Google]], that assists with running [[single-page application]]s. Its goal is to augment browser-based applications with [[model–view–controller]] (MVC) capability, in an effort to make both development and testing easier.
The library reads in [[HTML]] that contains additional custom [[HTML_attribute|tag attributes]]; it then obeys the directives in those custom attributes, and binds input or output parts of the page to a model represented by standard JavaScript variables. The values of those JavaScript variables can be manually set, or retrieved from static or dynamic [[JSON]] resources.",[10]
DNA sequencing,External links,592807511,2014-01-28T15:48:13Z,86.75.143.120,"{{Library resources box
|onlinebooks=no
|by=no}}
{{wikibooks
|1= Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)
}}
* A [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Sequencing_%28NGS%29 wikibook on next generation sequencing]
* A [http://www.selectscience.net/next_generation_sequencing_buying_guide.aspx guide on next generation sequencing technologies]
* A [http://arrayexplorer.com/#!4-ngs-platforms free web-server for next-generation sequencing platform comparison]
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dna Sequencing}}
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:DNA sequencing| ]]
[[Category:Molecular biology techniques]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[et:Sekveneerimine]]","{{Library resources box
|onlinebooks=no
|by=no}}
{{wikibooks
|1= Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)
}}
* A [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Sequencing_%28NGS%29 wikibook on next generation sequencing]
* A [http://www.selectscience.net/next_generation_sequencing_buying_guide.aspx guide on next generation sequencing technologies]
* A [http://omictools.com/ free didactic directory for DNA sequencing analysis.]
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dna Sequencing}}
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:DNA sequencing| ]]
[[Category:Molecular biology techniques]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[et:Sekveneerimine]]",[11]
Down syndrome,Neurological,593301358,2014-01-31T17:01:13Z,Doc James,"Most individuals with Down syndrome have moderate [[intellectual disability]] (IQ: 35–50) with some cases having mild (IQ: 50–70) or severe (IQ: 20–35) difficulties.{{cite journal|last=Reilly|first=C|title=Behavioural phenotypes and special educational needs: is aetiology important in the classroom?|journal=Journal of intellectual disability research : JIDR|date=2012 Oct|volume=56|issue=10|pages=929-46|pmid=22471356}}{{cite journal|last=American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on|first=Genetics|title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Health supervision for children with Down syndrome.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2001 Feb|volume=107|issue=2|pages=442-9|pmid=11158488}} As they age they typically perform less well compared to their same aged peers.{{cite journal|last=Patterson|first=T|coauthors=Rapsey, CM; Glue, P|title=Systematic review of cognitive development across childhood in Down syndrome: implications for treatment interventions.|journal=Journal of intellectual disability research : JIDR|date=2013 Apr|volume=57|issue=4|pages=306-18|pmid=23506141}} Understanding is often better than ability to speak. This syndrome causes about a third of cases of intellectual_disability.
Those with [[Mosaic (genetics)|mosaic]] Down syndrome typically have scores 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} IQ testing has been criticised for not taking into account physical disabilities, such as hearing and vision impairment, that would slow performance.Borthwick, C. (1996). Racism, IQ and Down's Syndrome. In Disability & Society, Vol 11, No. 3, 1996, pp. 403–410 10 to 45% have either [[stutter]]ing or [cluttering|rapid and irregular speech]] making them difficult to understand.{{cite journal|last=Kent|first=RD|coauthors=Vorperian, HK|title=Speech impairment in Down syndrome: a review.|journal=Journal of speech, language, and hearing research : JSLHR|date=2013 Feb|volume=56|issue=1|pages=178-210|pmid=23275397}}
Commonly individuals with Down syndrome have a [[speech delay]].{{cite journal| author =Bird, G; Thomas, S| year =2002| title = Providing effective speech and language therapy for children with Down syndrome in mainstream settings: A case example |journal =Down Syndrome News and Update |volume =2 |issue =1 |pages =30–31}} Also, {{cite book |last =Kumin |first=Libby |editor=Hassold, TJ; Patterson, D| title =Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together |year =1998 |publisher =Wiley-Liss |location =New York |chapter = Comprehensive speech and language treatment for infants, toddlers, and children with Down syndrome}}
[[Fine motor skill]]s{{cite web |title=Development of Fine Motor Skills in Down Syndrome |url=http://www.about-down-syndrome.com/fine-motor-skills-in-down-syndrome.html |accessdate = 2006-07-03}} and [[gross motor skill|large scale motor skill]]s are often delayed which can interfere with cognitive development. Effects of the condition gross motor skills is variable. Some children will begin walking at around 2 years of age, while others will not walk until age four. Physical therapy, and/or participation in a program of adapted physical education (APE), may promote enhanced development of gross motor skills in Down syndrome children.{{cite web |author = Bruni M|url=http://www.ds-health.com/occther.htm |title=Occupational Therapy and the Child with Down Syndrome |accessdate = 2006-06-02}}
Children and adults with DS are at increased risk of [[epilepsy]].{{cite journal | last1 = Menéndez | first1 = M | title = Down syndrome, Alzheimer's disease and seizures | journal = Brain & development | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 246–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15862185 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2004.07.008 }} Their intelligence may worsen after 30, with a loss of the ability to speak. Many (15%) who live past 40s develop dementia of the [[Alzheimer's|Alzheimer's disease]] type.{{cite book|title=The 5-minute pediatric consult|date=2012|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9781451116564|page=289|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=v7pbSFfMHCoC&pg=PA289|edition=6th ed.|editor=M. William Schwartz}} The causes of death have also changed, with chronic [[neurodegenerative diseases|neurological diseases]] becoming more common as the population ages.
Children with Down syndrome may not age emotionally/socially and intellectually at the same rates, so over time the intellectual and emotional gap between children with and without Down syndrome may widen. Complex thinking as required in sciences but also in history, the arts, and other subjects can often be beyond the abilities of some, or achieved much later than in other children.
Behavior issues are not generally as great as in other syndromes associated with intellectual disability. In children with Down syndrome [[mental illness]] occurs in nearly 30% with [[autism]] occurring in 5-10%.","Most individuals with Down syndrome have moderate [[intellectual disability]] (IQ: 35–50) with some cases having mild (IQ: 50–70) or severe (IQ: 20–35) difficulties.{{cite journal|last=Reilly|first=C|title=Behavioural phenotypes and special educational needs: is aetiology important in the classroom?|journal=Journal of intellectual disability research : JIDR|date=2012 Oct|volume=56|issue=10|pages=929-46|pmid=22471356}}{{cite journal|last=American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on|first=Genetics|title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Health supervision for children with Down syndrome.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2001 Feb|volume=107|issue=2|pages=442-9|pmid=11158488}} As they age they typically perform less well compared to their same aged peers.{{cite journal|last=Patterson|first=T|coauthors=Rapsey, CM; Glue, P|title=Systematic review of cognitive development across childhood in Down syndrome: implications for treatment interventions.|journal=Journal of intellectual disability research : JIDR|date=2013 Apr|volume=57|issue=4|pages=306-18|pmid=23506141}} Understanding is often better than ability to speak. This syndrome causes about a third of cases of intellectual_disability.
Those with [[Mosaic (genetics)|mosaic]] Down syndrome typically have scores 10–30 points higher.{{cite web |author=Strom, C |url=http://www.mosaicdownsyndrome.com/faqs.htm |title=FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society |accessdate = 2006-06-03}} IQ testing has been criticised for not taking into account physical disabilities, such as hearing and vision impairment, that would slow performance.Borthwick, C. (1996). Racism, IQ and Down's Syndrome. In Disability & Society, Vol 11, No. 3, 1996, pp. 403–410 10 to 45% have either [[stutter]]ing or [[cluttering|rapid and irregular speech]] making them difficult to understand.{{cite journal|last=Kent|first=RD|coauthors=Vorperian, HK|title=Speech impairment in Down syndrome: a review.|journal=Journal of speech, language, and hearing research : JSLHR|date=2013 Feb|volume=56|issue=1|pages=178-210|pmid=23275397}}
Commonly individuals with Down syndrome have a [[speech delay]]. They typically do fairly well with social skills.
[[Fine motor skill]]s{{cite web |title=Development of Fine Motor Skills in Down Syndrome |url=http://www.about-down-syndrome.com/fine-motor-skills-in-down-syndrome.html |accessdate = 2006-07-03}} and [[gross motor skill|large scale motor skill]]s are often delayed which can interfere with cognitive development. Effects of the condition gross motor skills is variable. Some children will begin walking at around 2 years of age, while others will not walk until age four. Physical therapy, and/or participation in a program of adapted physical education (APE), may promote enhanced development of gross motor skills in Down syndrome children.{{cite web |author = Bruni M|url=http://www.ds-health.com/occther.htm |title=Occupational Therapy and the Child with Down Syndrome |accessdate = 2006-06-02}}
Children and adults with DS are at increased risk of [[epilepsy]].{{cite journal | last1 = Menéndez | first1 = M | title = Down syndrome, Alzheimer's disease and seizures | journal = Brain & development | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 246–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15862185 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2004.07.008 }} Their intelligence may worsen after 30, with a loss of the ability to speak. Many (15%) who live past 40s develop dementia of the [[Alzheimer's|Alzheimer's disease]] type.{{cite book|title=The 5-minute pediatric consult|date=2012|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9781451116564|page=289|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=v7pbSFfMHCoC&pg=PA289|edition=6th ed.|editor=M. William Schwartz}} The causes of death have also changed, with chronic [[neurodegenerative diseases|neurological diseases]] becoming more common as the population ages.
Behavior issues are not generally as great as in other syndromes associated with intellectual disability. In children with Down syndrome [[mental illness]] occurs in nearly 30% with [[autism]] occurring in 5-10%.","[1, 8, 2]"
Prion,PrPC<,593742783,2014-02-03T16:04:45Z,Brainiacal,"The infectious [[isoform]] of PrP, known as PrPSc, is able to convert normal PrPC proteins into the infectious isoform by changing their [[Protein structure|conformation]], or shape; this, in turn, alters the way the proteins interconnect. PrPSc always causes prion disease. Although the exact 3D structure of PrPSc is not known, it has a higher proportion of [[beta sheet|β-sheet]] structure in place of the normal [[alpha helix|α-helix]] structure.{{cite journal |author=Pan KM, Baldwin M, Nguyen J, ''et al.'' |title=Conversion of alpha-helices into beta-sheets features in the formation of the scrapie prion proteins |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=90 |issue=23 |pages=10962–6 |date=December 1993 |pmid=7902575 |pmc=47901 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.90.23.10962|bibcode = 1993PNAS...9010962P }} Aggregations of these abnormal isoforms form highly structured [[amyloid]] fibers, which accumulate to form plaques. It is unclear if these aggregates are the cause of cell damage or are simply a side effect of the underlying disease process.Baker, Harry F., and Rosalind M. Ridley, eds. Prion diseases. Totowa, N.J: Humana, 1996 The end of each fiber acts as a template onto which free protein molecules may attach, allowing the fiber to grow. Under most circumstances, only PrP molecules with an identical amino acid sequence to the infectious PrPSc are incorporated into the growing fiber. However, rare cross-species transmission is also possible.","PrPC is a normal protein found on the [[cell membrane|membranes]] of [[cell (biology)|cells]]. It has 209 [[amino acid]]s (in humans), one [[disulfide bond]], a molecular mass of 35–36 [[Atomic mass unit|kDa]] and a mainly [[alpha helix|alpha-helical]] structure. Several [[Membrane topology|topological]] forms exist; one cell surface form anchored via [[glycolipid]] and two [[transmembrane]] forms.{{cite journal |author=Hegde RS, Mastrianni JA, Scott MR, ''et al.'' |title=A transmembrane form of the prion protein in neurodegenerative disease |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue=5352 |pages=827–34 |year=1998|pmid=9452375 |doi=10.1126/science.279.5352.827 |bibcode = 1998Sci...279..827H }} The normal protein is not sedimentable; meaning that it cannot be separated by centrifuging techniques.{{cite book |author=Krull, Ira S.; Brian K. Nunnally |title=Prions and mad cow disease |publisher=Marcel Dekker |location=New York, N.Y |year=2004 |page=6 |isbn=0-8247-4083-1 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=WjeuaHopV5UC&pg=PA6}} Its function is a complex issue that continues to be investigated. PrPC binds [[copper]] (II) [[ion]]s with high affinity.{{cite journal |author=Brown DR, Qin K, Herms JW, ''et al.'' |title=The cellular prion protein binds copper in vivo |journal=Nature |volume=390 |issue=6661 |pages=684–7 |year=1997 |pmid=9414160 |doi=10.1038/37783|bibcode = 1997Natur.390..684B }} The significance of this finding is not clear, but it is presumed to relate to PrP structure or function. PrPC is readily digested by [[proteinase K]] and can be liberated from the cell surface in vitro by the enzyme [[phospholipase C|phosphoinositide phospholipase C]] (PI-PLC), which cleaves the [[glycophosphatidylinositol]] (GPI) glycolipid anchor.{{cite journal |author=Weissmann C |title=The state of the prion |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=861–71 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15494743 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1025}} PrP has been reported to play important roles in cell-cell adhesion and intracellular signaling ''in vivo'', and may therefore be involved in cell-cell communication in the brain.{{cite journal |author=Málaga-Trillo E, Solis GP, Schrock Y, ''et al.'' |title=Regulation of embryonic cell adhesion by the prion protein |journal=PLoS Biology |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=e55 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19278297 |pmc=2653553 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000055 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000055 |accessdate=2010-02-28 |editor1-last=Weissmann |editor1-first=Charles}}","[1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10]"
Down syndrome,After birth,593769936,2014-02-03T19:15:52Z,Canada Hky,The diagnosis can typically be made based on the appearance of the child at birth. An analysis of the child's chromosomes is needed to confirm the diagnosis and determine if a translocation is present as this may help determine the risk of the child's parents having further children with DS. Parents generally wish to know the possible diagnosis once it is suspected and do not wish pity.,The diagnosis can often be suspected based on the child's physical appearance at birth. An analysis of the child's chromosomes is needed to confirm the diagnosis and determine if a translocation is present as this may help determine the risk of the child's parents having further children with DS. Parents generally wish to know the possible diagnosis once it is suspected and do not wish pity.,[11]
Down syndrome,Heart,594088102,2014-02-05T19:26:56Z,Doc James,"The rate of [[congenital heart disease]] in newborns with Down syndrome is around 40%. An [[atrioventricular septal defect]] also known as [[endocardial cushion]] defect is the most common form, with up to 40% affected. This is closely followed by [[ventricular septal defect]], which affects approximately 35%.{{cite book|author=Richard Urbano|title=Health Issues Among Persons With Down Syndrome|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=QbHL8qrgfCoC&pg=PA169|date=9 September 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-374477-7|page=169}} [[Mitral valve]] problems become common as people age, even in those without heart problems at birth. Other problems that may occur include: [[tetralogy of Fallot]] and [[patent ductus arteriosus]].{{cite book |author=Tintinalli, Judith E. |title=Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)) |publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies |location=New York |year=2010 |pages=Chapter 138|chapter=The Child with Special Health Care Needs|isbn=0-07-148480-9}} People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of [[atherosclerosis|hardening of the arteries]].","The rate of [[congenital heart disease]] in newborns with Down syndrome is around 40%. Of those with heart heart disease about 80% have an [[atrioventricular septal defect]] or [[ventricular septal defect]]. [[Mitral valve]] problems become common as people age, even in those without heart problems at birth. Other problems that may occur include: [[tetralogy of Fallot]] and [[patent ductus arteriosus]].{{cite book |author=Tintinalli, Judith E. |title=Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)) |publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies |location=New York |year=2010 |pages=Chapter 138|chapter=The Child with Special Health Care Needs|isbn=0-07-148480-9}} People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of [[atherosclerosis|hardening of the arteries]].","[3, 10]"
Gene therapy,2010,595135247,2014-02-12T13:05:54Z,SylviaStanley,"A paper by Komáromy ''et'' al. published in April 2010, deals with gene therapy for a form of [[achromatopsia]] in dogs. Achromatopsia, or complete color blindness, is presented as an ideal model to develop gene therapy directed to cone photoreceptors. Cone function and day vision have been restored for at least 33 months in two young dogs with achromatopsia. However, the therapy was less efficient for older dogs.{{cite doi|10.1093/hmg/ddq136}}
In September 2010, it was announced that a patient in France had been cured of [[beta-thalassemia]]. Headed by Dr. Phillipe Leboulche, the study used a lentiviral vector to transduce the human β-globin gene into purified blood and marrow cells obtained from the patient.Beals, Jacquelyn K. (16 September 2010). [http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/728656 Gene Therapy Frees Beta-Thalassemia Patient From Transfusions for 2+ Years]. Medscape.com (16 September 2010). Retrieved on 2012-12-15. Between 21 and 33 months after the transplant, the percentage of vector-bearing cells in his blood gradually increased, and today, the 18-year-old patient is transfusion independent (ever since June 2008). His hemoglobin levels are presently stable at 9 to 10 g/dL and about a third of the hemoglobin contains the form introduced by the viral vector. The clinical trial is, therefore, being heralded as a success around the world.","A paper by Komáromy ''et'' al. published in April 2010, deals with gene therapy for a form of [[achromatopsia]] in dogs. Achromatopsia, or complete color blindness, is presented as an ideal model to develop gene therapy directed to cone photoreceptors. Cone function and day vision have been restored for at least 33 months in two young dogs with achromatopsia. However, the therapy was less efficient for older dogs.{{cite doi|10.1093/hmg/ddq136}}
In September 2010, it was announced that an 18 year old male patient in France with [[beta-thalassemia]] major had been successfully treated with gene therapy.{{Cite doi|10.1038/nature09328}} Beta-thalassemia major is an inherited blood disease in which [[HBB|beta haemoglobin]] is missing and patients are dependent on regular lifelong blood transfusions.{{Cite doi|10.1186/1750-1172-5-11}} A team directed by Dr. Phillipe Leboulch (of the [[University of Paris]], Bluebird Bio and [[Harvard Medical School]]) used a lentiviral vector to transduce the human ß-globin gene into purified blood and marrow cells obtained from the patient in June 2007.Beals, Jacquelyn K. (16 September 2010). [http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/728656 Gene Therapy Frees Beta-Thalassemia Patient From Transfusions for 2+ Years]. Medscape.com (16 September 2010). Retrieved on 2012-12-15. The patient's haemoglobin levels were stable at 9 to 10 g/dL, about a third of the hemoglobin contained the form introduced by the viral vector and blood transfusions had not been needed.Leboulch, Philippe (20 March 2013) [http://www.pagepressjournals.org/index.php/thal/article/view/thal.2013.s1.e43 Five year outcome of lentiviral gene therapy for human beta-thalassemia, lessons and prospects] Thalassemia Reports, Vol 3, No 1s (2013): Proceedings of the 3rd Pan-European Conference on Haemoglobinopathies and Rare Anaemias, Retrieved 12 February 2014 Further clinical trials were planned.(11 July 2012) [http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01639690?term=NCT01639690&rank=1 ß-Thalassemia Major With Autologous CD34+ Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells Transduced With TNS9.3.55 a Lentiviral Vector Encoding the Normal Human ß-Globin Gene] ClinicalTrials.gov, Clinical trial NCT01639690 at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Retrieved 12 February 2014 [[Bone marrow transplant]]s are the only cure for thalassemia but 75% of patients are unable to find a matching bone marrow donor.","[1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10]"
Port (computer networking),(Top),598374499,2014-03-06T08:59:37Z,Materialscientist,"{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}
In [[computer networking]], a '''port ashuy''' is an application-specific or process-specific software construct serving as a communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system. A port is associated with an [[IP address]] of the host, as well as the type of protocol used for communication. The purpose of ports is to uniquely identify different applications or processes running on a single computer and thereby enable them to share a single physical connection to a [[packet-switched network]] like the [[Internet]].
The protocols that primarily use ports are the [[Transport Layer]] protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) of the [[Internet Protocol Suite]]. A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit number, commonly known as the '''port number'''. The port number, added to a computer's IP address, completes the destination address for a communications session. That is, data packets are routed across the network to a specific destination IP address, and then, upon reaching the destination computer, are further routed to the specific process bound to the destination port number.
Note that it is the combination of IP address and port number ''together'' that must be globally unique. Thus, different IP addresses or protocols may use the same port number for communication; e.g., on a given host or interface UDP and TCP may use the same port number, or on a host with two interfaces, both addresses may be associated with a port having the same number.
Of the thousands of enumerated ports, about 250 [[well-known ports]] are reserved by convention to identify specific service types on a host. In the [[client-server]] model of application architecture, ports are used to provide a [[multiplexing]] service on each server-side port number that network clients connect to for service initiation, after which communication can be reestablished on other connection-specific port numbers.","{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}
In [[computer networking]], a '''port''' is an application-specific or process-specific software construct serving as a communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system. A port is associated with an [[IP address]] of the host, as well as the type of protocol used for communication. The purpose of ports is to uniquely identify different applications or processes running on a single computer and thereby enable them to share a single physical connection to a [[packet-switched network]] like the [[Internet]].
The protocols that primarily use ports are the [[Transport Layer]] protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) of the [[Internet Protocol Suite]]. A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit number, commonly known as the '''port number'''. The port number, added to a computer's IP address, completes the destination address for a communications session. That is, data packets are routed across the network to a specific destination IP address, and then, upon reaching the destination computer, are further routed to the specific process bound to the destination port number.
Note that it is the combination of IP address and port number ''together'' that must be globally unique. Thus, different IP addresses or protocols may use the same port number for communication; e.g., on a given host or interface UDP and TCP may use the same port number, or on a host with two interfaces, both addresses may be associated with a port having the same number.
Of the thousands of enumerated ports, about 250 [[well-known ports]] are reserved by convention to identify specific service types on a host. In the [[client-server]] model of application architecture, ports are used to provide a [[multiplexing]] service on each server-side port number that network clients connect to for service initiation, after which communication can be reestablished on other connection-specific port numbers.",[11]
Circadian rhythm,(Top),599024765,2014-03-10T19:15:09Z,ClueBot NG,,"{{redirect|Circadian|the album by the rock band [[5th Projekt]]|Circadian (album)}}
{{for|the 2005 film|Circadian Rhythm (film)}}
{{MEDREF|date=November 2013}}
[[Image:Biological clock human.svg|thumb|400px|Some features of the human circadian (24-hour) biological clock]]
A '''circadian rhythm''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɜː|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}} is any biological process that displays an [[Endogeny|endogenous]], [[entrainment (chronobiology)|entrainable]] oscillation of about 24 hours. These rhythms are driven by a [[circadian clock]], and rhythms have been widely observed in [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]], and [[cyanobacteria]]. The term ''circadian'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[circa]]'', meaning ""around"" (or ""approximately""), and ''diem'' or ''dies'', meaning ""day"". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, [[tidal]], weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [[chronobiology]]. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous (""built-in"", self-sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called [[zeitgeber]]s, commonly the most important of which is [[daylight]].","[1, 4, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,Butterfly migration,599024765,2014-03-10T19:15:09Z,ClueBot NG,"The navigation of the fall migration of the [[monarch (butterfly)|Eastern North American monarch butterfly]] (''Danaus plexippus'') to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{cite journal |author=Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM |title=Antennal circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1700–4 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19779201 |pmc=2754321 |doi=10.1126/science.1176221|bibcode = 2009Sci...325.1700M }}{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{Cite journal |author=Kyriacou CP |title= Physiology. Unraveling traveling |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1629–30 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19779177 |doi=10.1126/science.1178935}}","The navigation of the fall migration of the [[monarch (butterfly)|Eastern North American monarch butterfly]] (''Danaus plexippus'') to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{cite journal |author=Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM |title=Antennal circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1700–4 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19779201 |pmc=2754321 |doi=10.1126/science.1176221|bibcode = 2009Sci...325.1700M }}{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{Cite journal |author=Kyriacou CP |title= Physiology. Unraveling traveling |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5948 |pages=1629–30 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19779177 |doi=10.1126/science.1178935}}",[11]
Circadian rhythm,Effect of drugs,599024765,2014-03-10T19:15:09Z,ClueBot NG,"clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}","Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}",[3]
DNA sequencing,History,599688255,2014-03-15T06:53:42Z,NicatronTg,"Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |date=May 1972 |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |date=April 1976 |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |date=December 1973 |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |date=February 1977 |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
[[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987 and by Dupont's Genesis 2000 (J.M. Prober et al.,Science 238,336 (1987) which used a novel fluorescent labeling technique enabling all four dideoxynucleotides to be identified in a single lane. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |date=June 1991 |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |date=July 1995 |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |date=February 2001 |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |date=February 2001 |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Pål Nyrén]] and his student [[Mostafa Ronaghi]] at the Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release| author=M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren| journal=Analytical Biochemistry| volume=242| pages=84–9| year=1996| doi=10.1006/abio.1996.0432| pmid=8923969| issue=1}} A year later, Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli submitted patents to the World Intellectual Property Organization describing DNA colony sequencing.{{Citation
| last = Kawashima
| first = Eric H.
| coauthors = Laurent Farinelli, Pascal Mayer
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]"", or MPSS, in 2000. This method incorporated a parallelized, adapter/ligation-mediated, bead-based sequencing technology and served as the first commercially available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=Genome Sequencing in Open Microfabricated High Density Picoliter Reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |date=September 2005|pmid=16056220|pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 |url=|bibcode = 2005Natur.437..376M |author-separator=, |author2=Egholm M |author3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first6=Lisa A. |last7=Berka |first7=Jan |last8=Braverman |first8=Michael S. |last9=Chen|first9=Yi-Ju }} The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of the new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS.{{cite journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |date=January 2008 |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |date=March 1998 |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","Though the structure of DNA was established as a [[DNA double helix|double helix]] in 1953,{{cite journal |author=Watson JD, Crick FH |title=The structure of DNA |journal=Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. |volume=18 |issue= |pages=123–31 |year=1953 |pmid=13168976 |doi= 10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020|url=}} several decades would pass before fragments of DNA could be reliably analyzed for their sequence in the laboratory.
RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of [[Bacteriophage MS2]], identified and published by [[Walter Fiers]] and his coworkers at the [[University of Ghent]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]]), in 1972{{cite journal |author=Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W |title=Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein |journal=Nature |volume=237 |issue=5350 |pages=82–8 |date=May 1972 |pmid=4555447 |doi=10.1038/237082a0 |bibcode = 1972Natur.237...82J }} and 1976.{{cite journal |author=Fiers W |title=Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene |journal=Nature |volume=260 |issue=5551 |pages=500–7 |date=April 1976 |pmid=1264203 |doi=10.1038/260500a0 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..500F |author-separator=, |author2=Contreras R |author3=Duerinck F |display-authors=3 |last4=Haegeman |first4=G. |last5=Iserentant |first5=D. |last6=Merregaert |first6=J. |last7=Min Jou |first7=W. |last8=Molemans |first8=F. |last9=Raeymaekers |first9=A.}}
Several notable advancements in DNA sequencing were made during the 1970s. [[Frederick Sanger]] developed rapid DNA sequencing methods at the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|MRC Centre]], [[Cambridge]], UK and published a method for ""DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors"" in 1977. [[Walter Gilbert]] and [[Allan Maxam]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] also developed sequencing methods, including one for ""DNA sequencing by chemical degradation"".Gilbert, W. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1980/gilbert-lecture.pdf DNA sequencing and gene structure]. Nobel lecture, 8 December 1980. In 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.{{cite journal |author=Gilbert W, Maxam A |title=The Nucleotide Sequence of the lac Operator |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=3581–4 |date=December 1973 |pmid=4587255 |pmc=427284 |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.12.3581 |bibcode = 1973PNAS...70.3581G }} Advancements in sequencing were aided by the concurrent development of [[recombinant DNA]] technology, allowing DNA samples to be isolated from sources other than viruses.
The first full DNA genome to be sequenced was that of [[bacteriophage φX174]] in 1977.{{cite journal |author=Sanger F |title=Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA |journal=Nature |volume=265 |issue=5596 |pages=687–95 |date=February 1977 |pmid=870828 |doi=10.1038/265687a0|bibcode = 1977Natur.265..687S |author-separator=, |author2=Air GM |author3=Barrell BG |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=N. L. |last5=Coulson |first5=A. R. |last6=Fiddes|first6=J. C. |last7=Hutchison |first7=C. A. |last8=Slocombe |first8=P. M. |last9=Smith |first9=M. }} [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] scientists deciphered the complete DNA sequence of the [[Epstein-Barr virus]] in 1984, finding it to be 170 thousand base-pairs long.
A non-radioactive method for transferring the DNA molecules of sequencing reaction mixtures onto an immobilizing matrix during electrophoresis was developed by Pohl and co-workers in the early 80’s.Beck S and Pohl F M, 1984, DNA sequencing with direct blotting electrophoresis. EMBO J., 3(12): 2905 - 2909. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC557787/ PMC557787]United States Patent 4,631,122 (1986) Followed by the commercialization of the DNA sequencer “Direct-Blotting-Electrophoresis-System GATC 1500”, which was intensively used in the framework of the EU genome-sequencing programme, the complete DNA sequence of the yeast [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae|''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'']] chromosome II.Feldmann, H et al., 1994, Complete DNA sequence of yeast chromosome II. EMBO J., 1994; 13(24): 5795–5809. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC395553/ PMC395553] [[Leroy E. Hood]]'s laboratory at the [[California Institute of Technology]] announced the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine in 1986.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} This was followed by [[Applied Biosystems]]' marketing of the first fully automated sequencing machine, the ABI 370, in 1987 and by Dupont's Genesis 2000 (J.M. Prober et al.,Science 238,336 (1987) which used a novel fluorescent labeling technique enabling all four dideoxynucleotides to be identified in a single lane. By 1990, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had begun large-scale sequencing trials on ''[[Mycoplasma capricolum]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' at a cost of US$0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human [[cDNA]] sequences called [[expressed sequence tag]]s began in [[Craig Venter]]'s lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the [[human genome]].{{cite journal |author=Adams MD |title=Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence tags and human genome project|journal=Science|volume=252 |issue=5013 |pages=1651–6 |date=June 1991 |pmid=2047873 |doi= 10.1126/science.2047873|url=|bibcode = 1991Sci...252.1651A|author-separator=,|author2=Kelley JM |author3=Gocayne JD |display-authors=3 |last4=Dubnick |first4=M |last5=Polymeropoulos |first5=M. |last6=Xiao |first6=H|last7=Merril |first7=C.|last8=Wu |first8=A |last9=Olde |first9=B }} In 1995, Venter, [[Hamilton O. Smith|Hamilton Smith]], and colleagues at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) published the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science{{cite journal |author=Fleischmann RD |title=Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of ''Haemophilus influenzae Rd''|journal=Science|volume=269 |issue=5223 |pages=496–512 |date=July 1995 |pmid=7542800 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7542800|doi=10.1126/science.7542800|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..496F |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=White O |display-authors=3|last4=Clayton |first4=R.|last5=Kirkness |first5=E. |last6=Kerlavage |first6=A. |last7=Bult |first7=C. |last8=Tomb |first8=J. |last9=Dougherty |first9=B. }} marked the first published use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. By 2001, shotgun sequencing methods had been used to produce a draft sequence of the human genome.{{cite journal |author=Lander ES |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860–921 |date=February 2001 |pmid=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062|url=|author-separator=, |author2=Linton LM |author3=Birren B |display-authors=3 |last4=Nusbaum |first4=Chad |last5=Zody |first5=Michael C. |last6=Baldwin|first6=Jennifer|last7=Devon |first7=Keri |last8=Dewar |first8=Ken |last9=Doyle |first9=Michael}}{{cite journal |author=Venter JC|title=The sequence of the human genome |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5507 |pages=1304–51 |date=February 2001 |pmid=11181995 |doi=10.1126/science.1058040|url=|bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1304V |author-separator=, |author2=Adams MD |author3=Myers EW |display-authors=3 |last4=Li |first4=PW |last5=Mural |first5=RJ|last6=Sutton |first6=GG|last7=Smith |first7=HO |last8=Yandell |first8=M |last9=Evans |first9=CA }}
Several new methods for DNA sequencing were developed in the mid to late 1990s. These techniques comprise the first of the ""next-generation"" sequencing methods. In 1996, [[Pål Nyrén]] and his student [[Mostafa Ronaghi]] at the Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] published their method of [[pyrosequencing]].{{cite journal| title=Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release| author=M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren| journal=Analytical Biochemistry| volume=242| pages=84–9| year=1996| doi=10.1006/abio.1996.0432| pmid=8923969| issue=1}} A year later, Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli submitted patents to the World Intellectual Property Organization describing DNA colony sequencing.{{Citation
| last = Kawashima
| first = Eric H.
| coauthors = Laurent Farinelli, Pascal Mayer
| title = Patent: Method of nucleic acid amplification
| accessdate = 2012-12-22
| date = 2005-05-12
| url = http://www.patentlens.net/patentlens/patent/WO_1998_044151_A1/en/
}} Lynx Therapeutics published and marketed ""[[Massively parallel signature sequencing]]"", or MPSS, in 2000. This method incorporated a parallelized, adapter/ligation-mediated, bead-based sequencing technology and served as the first commercially available ""next-generation"" sequencing method, though no [[DNA sequencers]] were sold to independent laboratories.{{cite journal | title=Gene expression analysis by massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) on microbead arrays| author=Brenner S | year=2000| publisher=[[Nature Biotechnology]]| volume=18| pages=630–634| doi=10.1038/76469| pmid=10835600|issue=6| journal=Nature Biotechnology | author-separator=, | display-authors=1 | last2=Johnson | first2=Maria | last3=Bridgham | first3=John | last4=Golda|first4=George | last5=Lloyd | first5=David H. | last6=Johnson | first6=Davida | last7=Luo | first7=Shujun | last8=McCurdy | first8=Sarah | last9=Foy|first9=Michael}} In 2004, [[454 Life Sciences]] marketed a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.{{cite journal|url=http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/next-generation-sequencing-update/2584/| title=Next-Generation Sequencing Update| author=Stein RA| journal=Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News | date=1 September 2008 |volume=28 |issue=15}}{{cite journal |author=Margulies M |title=Genome Sequencing in Open Microfabricated High Density Picoliter Reactors |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=376–80 |date=September 2005|pmid=16056220|pmc=1464427 |doi=10.1038/nature03959 |url=|bibcode = 2005Natur.437..376M |author-separator=, |author2=Egholm M |author3=Altman WE |display-authors=3|last4=Attiya|first4=Said |last5=Bader |first5=Joel S. |last6=Bemben |first6=Lisa A. |last7=Berka |first7=Jan |last8=Braverman |first8=Michael S. |last9=Chen|first9=Yi-Ju }} The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of the new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS.{{cite journal |author=Schuster Stephan C. |title=Next-generation sequencing transforms today's biology |journal=Nat. Methods |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=16–8 |date=January 2008 |pmid=18165802 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1156 |url=}}
The large quantities of data produced by DNA sequencing have also required development of new methods and programs for sequence analysis. Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington described their [[phred quality score]] for sequencer data analysis in 1998.{{cite journal |author=Ewing B, Green P |title=Base-calling of automated sequencer traces using phred. II. Error probabilities |journal=Genome Res.|volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=186–94 |date=March 1998 |pmid=9521922 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9521922|doi=10.1101/gr.8.3.186|doi_brokendate=2010-01-07}}","[1, 4, 5, 7, 9]"
Circadian rhythm,History,600493621,2014-03-20T19:40:11Z,Pinethicket,"The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when [[Androsthenes of Thasos|Androsthenes]], a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl H |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the ''Noon and Midnight Manual'' and the ''Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year''.{{cite book|author=Gwei-Djen Lu|title=Celestial Lancets|accessdate=28 September 2012|date=25 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1458-2|pages=137–140}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian clock|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=dethis all sucks5–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 }}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{cite journal |author=Dijk DJ, von Schantz M |title=Timing and consolidation of human sleep, wakefulness, and performance by a symphony of oscillators |journal=J. Biol. Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–90 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16077148 |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 }} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |author=Danchin A |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url= http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by [[Auguste Forel]], [[Ingeborg Beling]], and [[Oskar Wahl]] to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in ''Drosophila'' in the early 1970s and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{cite journal |author=Konopka RJ, Benzer S |title=Clock mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–6 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325|doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 }}
The term ''circadian'' was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the 1950s.{{cite journal |author=Halberg F, Cornélissen G, Katinas G, ''et al.'' |title=Transdisciplinary unifying implications of circadian findings in the 1950s |journal=J Circadian Rhythms |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=2 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14728726 |pmc=317388 |doi=10.1186/1740-3391-1-2| quote = Eventually I reverted, for the same reason, to ""circadian"" ...}}","The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when [[Androsthenes of Thasos|Androsthenes]], a ship captain serving under [[Alexander the Great]], described [[diurnality|diurnal]] leaf movements of the [[tamarind]] tree.{{Cite book |author=Bretzl H |title=Botanische Forschungen des Alexanderzuges |location=Leipzig |publisher=Teubner |year=1903}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the ''Noon and Midnight Manual'' and the ''Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year''.{{cite book|author=Gwei-Djen Lu|title=Celestial Lancets|accessdate=28 September 2012|date=25 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1458-2|pages=137–140}}
The first recorded observation of an endogenous [[circadian clock|circadian oscillation]] was by the French scientist [[Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]] in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant ''[[Mimosa pudica]]'' continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.{{Cite journal | author=de Mairan JJO | title=Observation Botanique | journal=Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences | year=1729 | pages=35–36}}{{cite journal |author=Gardner MJ, Hubbard KE, Hotta CT, Dodd AN, Webb AA |title=How plants tell the time |journal=Biochem. J. |volume=397 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16761955 |pmc=1479754 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060484 }}
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours.{{cite journal |author=Dijk DJ, von Schantz M |title=Timing and consolidation of human sleep, wakefulness, and performance by a symphony of oscillators |journal=J. Biol. Rhythms |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–90 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16077148 |doi=10.1177/0748730405278292 }} In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.{{Cite journal |author=Danchin A |title=Important dates 1900–1919 |journal=HKU-Pasteur Research Centre |location=Paris |url= http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1900.html |accessdate=2008-01-12}} In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by [[Auguste Forel]], [[Ingeborg Beling]], and [[Oskar Wahl]] to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} [[Ron Konopka]] and [[Seymour Benzer]] isolated the first clock mutant in ''Drosophila'' in the early 1970s and mapped the ""[[period (gene)|period]]"" gene, the first discovered genetic component of a circadian clock.{{cite journal |author=Konopka RJ, Benzer S |title=Clock mutants of Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=2112–6 |date=September 1971 |pmid=5002428 |pmc=389363 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68.2112K}} [[Joseph Takahashi]] discovered the first mammalian 'clock gene' ([[CLOCK]]) using mice in 1994.{{MEDRS|date=November 2013}} {{Cite news |title=Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock |work=Chicago Tribune |date=29 April 1994}}{{primary source-inline|date=November 2013}} {{cite journal |author=Vitaterna MH, King DP, Chang AM, ''et al.'' |title=Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior |journal=Science |volume=264 |issue=5159 |pages=719–25 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8171325|doi= 10.1126/science.8171325 }}
The term ''circadian'' was coined by [[Franz Halberg]] in the 1950s.{{cite journal |author=Halberg F, Cornélissen G, Katinas G, ''et al.'' |title=Transdisciplinary unifying implications of circadian findings in the 1950s |journal=J Circadian Rhythms |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=2 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14728726 |pmc=317388 |doi=10.1186/1740-3391-1-2| quote = Eventually I reverted, for the same reason, to ""circadian"" ...}}",[7]
Genetic engineering,Definition,600624626,2014-03-21T17:50:36Z,ClueBot NG,"[[File:Breeding transgenesis cisgenesis.svg|thumb|right|300px|Comparison of conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic modification.]]
Genetic engineering alters the genetic make-up of an organism using techniques that remove [[heritable]] material or that introduce DNA prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then [[Cell fusion|fused]] or [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridized]] with the host.{{Cite journal|title=Directive on the release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Directive 2001/18/EC ANNEX I A|publisher=Official Journal of the European Communities|date=12 March 2001|author=The European Parliament and the council of the European Union|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:106:0001:0038:EN:PDF|page=page 17|postscript=}} This involves using [[Recombinant DNA|recombinant nucleic acid]] ([[DNA]] or [[RNA]]) techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a [[Vector (molecular biology)|vector]] system or directly through [[microinjection|micro-injection]], macro-injection and [[micro-encapsulation]] techniques.
Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional [[animal husbandry|animal]] and [[plant breeding]], [[in vitro fertilisation]], induction of [[polyploidy]], [[mutagenesis]] and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process. However the European Commission has also defined genetic engineering broadly as including selective breeding and other means of artificial selection.Staff [http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/gmo/gmo.pdf Economic Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops on the Agri-Food Sector; P. 42 Glossary - Term and Definitions] The European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture, ""Genetic engineering: The manipulation of an organism's genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating specific genes through modern molecular biology techniques. A broad definition of genetic
engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection."", Retrieved 5 November 2012 [[Cloning]] and [[stem cell]] research, although not considered genetic engineering,{{cite web|title=Is Livestock Cloning Another Form of Genetic Engineering?|last=Van Eenennaam|first=Alison|publisher=agbiotech|url=http://agribiotech.info/details/Alison%20-%20cloning%20March%208%20-%2003.pdf|accessdate=}} are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.{{cite journal|journal=Swiss Med Wkly|year=2006|volume=136|issue=27–28|pages=413–415|title=Genetic engineering of embryonic stem cells|author=David M. Suter, Michel Dubois-Dauphin, Karl-Heinz Krause|url=http://www.smw.ch/docs/pdf200x/2006/27/smw-11406.PDF|pmid=16897894}} [[Synthetic biology]] is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials into an organism.{{cite journal|journal=Molecular Systems Biology|volume=2|issue=2006.0028|pages=2006.0028|doi=10.1038/msb4100073|pmc=1681505|pmid=16738572|date=16 May 2006|title=Synthetic biology: new engineering rules for an emerging discipline|author=Ernesto Andrianantoandro, Subhayu Basu, David K Kariga & Ron Weiss|url=http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v2/n1/full/msb4100073.html}}
If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called [[transgenic]]. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called [[cisgenic]].{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11540-008-9097-y |title=Cisgenesis, a New Tool for Traditional Plant Breeding, Should be Exempted from the Regulation on Genetically Modified Organisms in a Step by Step Approach |year=2008 |last1=Jacobsen |first1=E. |last2=Schouten |first2=H. J. |journal=Potato Research |volume=51 |pages=75}} Genetic engineering can also be used to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating a [[gene knockout]] organism.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nm1001-1086 |year=2001 |last1=Capecchi |first1=Mario R. |journal=Nature Medicine |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=1086–90 |pmid=11590420 |title=Generating mice with targeted mutations}} In Europe genetic modification is [[synonymous]] with genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can also refer to conventional breeding methods.Staff [http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=BiotechnologyGlosary.xml&navid= Biotechnology - Glossary of Agricultural Biotechnology Terms] United States Department of Agriculture, ""Genetic modification: The production of heritable improvements in plants or animals for specific uses, via either genetic engineering or other more traditional methods. Some countries other than the United States use this term to refer specifically to genetic engineering."", Retrieved 5 November 2012{{cite web|title=Genetically Engineered Foods|author=James H. Maryanski|publisher=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at the [[Food and Drug Administration]]|date=19 October 1999|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Testimony/ucm115032.htm}} The Canadian regulatory system is based on whether a product has novel features regardless of method of origin. In other words, a product is regulated as genetically modified if it carries some trait not previously found in the species whether it was generated using traditional breeding methods (e.g., [[selective breeding]], [[cell fusion]], [[mutation breeding]]) or genetic engineering.Evans, Brent and Lupescu, Mihai (15 July 2012) [http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Agricultural%20Biotechnology%20Annual_Ottawa_Canada_07-20-2012.pdf Canada - Agricultural Biotechnology Annual – 2012] GAIN (Global Agricultural Information Network) report CA12029, United States Department of Agriculture, Foreifn Agricultural Service, Retrieved 5 November 2012{{cite book |last=McHugen |first=Alan |title= Pandora's Picnic Basket |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=September 14, 2000 |chapter=Chapter 1: Hors-d'oeuvres and entrees/What is genetic modification? What are GMOs? |isbn=978-0198506744}}Staff (28 November 2005) [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/biotech/reg_gen_mod-eng.php Health Canada - The Regulation of Genetically Modified Food] Glossary definition of Genetically Modified: ""An organism, such as a plant, animal or bacterium, is considered genetically modified if its genetic material has been altered through any method, including conventional breeding. A 'GMO' is a genetically modified organism."", Retrieved 5 November 2012 Within the scientific community, the term ''genetic engineering'' is not commonly used; more specific terms such as ''transgenic'' are preferred.Genetic engineering is very fun","[[File:Breeding transgenesis cisgenesis.svg|thumb|right|300px|Comparison of conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic modification.]]
Genetic engineering alters the genetic make-up of an organism using techniques that remove [[heritable]] material or that introduce DNA prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then [[Cell fusion|fused]] or [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridized]] with the host.{{Cite journal|title=Directive on the release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Directive 2001/18/EC ANNEX I A|publisher=Official Journal of the European Communities|date=12 March 2001|author=The European Parliament and the council of the European Union|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:106:0001:0038:EN:PDF|page=page 17|postscript=}} This involves using [[Recombinant DNA|recombinant nucleic acid]] ([[DNA]] or [[RNA]]) techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a [[Vector (molecular biology)|vector]] system or directly through [[microinjection|micro-injection]], macro-injection and [[micro-encapsulation]] techniques.
Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional [[animal husbandry|animal]] and [[plant breeding]], [[in vitro fertilisation]], induction of [[polyploidy]], [[mutagenesis]] and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process. However the European Commission has also defined genetic engineering broadly as including selective breeding and other means of artificial selection.Staff [http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/gmo/gmo.pdf Economic Impacts of Genetically Modified Crops on the Agri-Food Sector; P. 42 Glossary - Term and Definitions] The European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture, ""Genetic engineering: The manipulation of an organism's genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating specific genes through modern molecular biology techniques. A broad definition of genetic
engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection."", Retrieved 5 November 2012 [[Cloning]] and [[stem cell]] research, although not considered genetic engineering,{{cite web|title=Is Livestock Cloning Another Form of Genetic Engineering?|last=Van Eenennaam|first=Alison|publisher=agbiotech|url=http://agribiotech.info/details/Alison%20-%20cloning%20March%208%20-%2003.pdf|accessdate=}} are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.{{cite journal|journal=Swiss Med Wkly|year=2006|volume=136|issue=27–28|pages=413–415|title=Genetic engineering of embryonic stem cells|author=David M. Suter, Michel Dubois-Dauphin, Karl-Heinz Krause|url=http://www.smw.ch/docs/pdf200x/2006/27/smw-11406.PDF|pmid=16897894}} [[Synthetic biology]] is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials into an organism.{{cite journal|journal=Molecular Systems Biology|volume=2|issue=2006.0028|pages=2006.0028|doi=10.1038/msb4100073|pmc=1681505|pmid=16738572|date=16 May 2006|title=Synthetic biology: new engineering rules for an emerging discipline|author=Ernesto Andrianantoandro, Subhayu Basu, David K Kariga & Ron Weiss|url=http://www.nature.com/msb/journal/v2/n1/full/msb4100073.html}}
If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called [[transgenic]]. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called [[cisgenic]].{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11540-008-9097-y |title=Cisgenesis, a New Tool for Traditional Plant Breeding, Should be Exempted from the Regulation on Genetically Modified Organisms in a Step by Step Approach |year=2008 |last1=Jacobsen |first1=E. |last2=Schouten |first2=H. J. |journal=Potato Research |volume=51 |pages=75}} Genetic engineering can also be used to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating a [[gene knockout]] organism.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nm1001-1086 |year=2001 |last1=Capecchi |first1=Mario R. |journal=Nature Medicine |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=1086–90 |pmid=11590420 |title=Generating mice with targeted mutations}} In Europe genetic modification is [[synonymous]] with genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can also refer to conventional breeding methods.Staff [http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=BiotechnologyGlosary.xml&navid= Biotechnology - Glossary of Agricultural Biotechnology Terms] United States Department of Agriculture, ""Genetic modification: The production of heritable improvements in plants or animals for specific uses, via either genetic engineering or other more traditional methods. Some countries other than the United States use this term to refer specifically to genetic engineering."", Retrieved 5 November 2012{{cite web|title=Genetically Engineered Foods|author=James H. Maryanski|publisher=Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at the [[Food and Drug Administration]]|date=19 October 1999|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Testimony/ucm115032.htm}} The Canadian regulatory system is based on whether a product has novel features regardless of method of origin. In other words, a product is regulated as genetically modified if it carries some trait not previously found in the species whether it was generated using traditional breeding methods (e.g., [[selective breeding]], [[cell fusion]], [[mutation breeding]]) or genetic engineering.Evans, Brent and Lupescu, Mihai (15 July 2012) [http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Agricultural%20Biotechnology%20Annual_Ottawa_Canada_07-20-2012.pdf Canada - Agricultural Biotechnology Annual – 2012] GAIN (Global Agricultural Information Network) report CA12029, United States Department of Agriculture, Foreifn Agricultural Service, Retrieved 5 November 2012{{cite book |last=McHugen |first=Alan |title= Pandora's Picnic Basket |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=September 14, 2000 |chapter=Chapter 1: Hors-d'oeuvres and entrees/What is genetic modification? What are GMOs? |isbn=978-0198506744}}Staff (28 November 2005) [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/pubs/biotech/reg_gen_mod-eng.php Health Canada - The Regulation of Genetically Modified Food] Glossary definition of Genetically Modified: ""An organism, such as a plant, animal or bacterium, is considered genetically modified if its genetic material has been altered through any method, including conventional breeding. A 'GMO' is a genetically modified organism."", Retrieved 5 November 2012 Within the scientific community, the term ''genetic engineering'' is not commonly used; more specific terms such as ''transgenic'' are preferred.",[11]
Bubble sort,Pseudocode implementation,602169472,2014-03-31T21:17:29Z,178.235.223.130,"The algorithm can be expressed as (0-based array):
procedure bubbleSort( A : list of sortable items )
repeat
swapped = false
for i = 1 to length(A) - 1 inclusive do:
/* if this pair is out of order */
if A[i-1] > A[i] then
/* swap them and remember something changed */
swap( A[i-1], A[i] )
swapped = true
end if
end for
until not swapped
end procedure
","The algorithm can be expressed as (0-based array):
procedure bubbleSort( A : list of sortable items )
n = length(A)
repeat
swapped = false
for i = 1 to n-1 inclusive do
/* if this pair is out of order */
if A[i-1] > A[i] then
/* swap them and remember something changed */
swap( A[i-1], A[i] )
swapped = true
end if
end for
until not swapped
end procedure
",[11]
Dream,Continual-activation theory,604553373,2014-04-17T06:04:37Z,Retnesa,"Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms' findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by [[Jie Zhang]] proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode and transfer the data from the [[short-term memory]] to the [[long-term memory]], though there is not much evidence backing up this so-called ""consolidation."" [[NREM]] sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory).
Zhang assumes that during REM sleep the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain descends to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This triggers the ""continual-activation"" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two dreams).{{cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jie |year=2004 |title=Memory process and the function of sleep |publisher=Journal of Theoretics |edition=6-6 |url=http://www.journaloftheoretics.com/Articles/6-6/Zhang.pdf |accessdate=2006-03-13}}{{cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jie |year=2005 |title=Continual-activation theory of dreaming, Dynamical Psychology |url=http://www.goertzel.org/dynapsyc/2005/ZhangDreams.htm |accessdate=2006-03-13}}","Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms' findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by [[Jie Zhang]] proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode and transfer the data from the temporary memory store to the long-term memory store. [[NREM]] sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory).
Zhang assumes that during REM sleep the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain descends to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This triggers the ""continual-activation"" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two dreams).{{cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jie |year=2004 |title=Memory process and the function of sleep |publisher=Journal of Theoretics |edition=6-6 |url=http://www.journaloftheoretics.com/Articles/6-6/Zhang.pdf |accessdate=2006-03-13}}{{cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jie |year=2005 |title=Continual-activation theory of dreaming, Dynamical Psychology |url=http://www.goertzel.org/dynapsyc/2005/ZhangDreams.htm |accessdate=2006-03-13}}","[2, 6]"
AngularJS,(Top),604954810,2014-04-20T00:49:59Z,ClueBot NG,"{{Refimprove|date=February 2013}} // FOUND YOU -STEPHEN BALL
// CAN I HAVE A JOB NOW PLEASE?
// OR MAYBE I SHOULD GO BACK TO SCHOOL.
{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS logo.svg|250px|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.2.16
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2014|04|3}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[JavaScript framework]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| size = 102 KiB production 739 KiB development
| website = {{url|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[open source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] [[JavaScript framework|framework]], maintained by [[Google]], that assists with running [[single-page application]]s. Its goal is to augment [[web-based application]]s with [[model–view–controller]] (MVC) capability, in an effort to make both [[software development|development]] and [[software testing|testing]] easier.
The library reads in [[HTML]] that contains additional custom [[HTML_attribute|tag attributes]]; it then obeys the directives in those custom attributes, and binds input or output parts of the page to a model represented by standard JavaScript variables. The values of those JavaScript variables can be manually set, or retrieved from static or dynamic [[JSON]] resources.","{{Refimprove|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = AngularJS
| logo = [[File:AngularJS logo.svg|250px|AngularJS logo]]
| developer = [[Google Inc.]] and community.
| released = {{Start date|2009}}
| status = Active
| latest release version = 1.2.16
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2014|04|3}}
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| programming language = [[JavaScript]]
| status = Active
| genre = [[JavaScript framework]]
| license = [[MIT License]]
| size = 102 KiB production 739 KiB development
| website = {{url|http://www.angularjs.org/}}
}}
'''AngularJS''' is an [[open source software|open-source]] [[JavaScript]] [[JavaScript framework|framework]], maintained by [[Google]], that assists with running [[single-page application]]s. Its goal is to augment [[web-based application]]s with [[model–view–controller]] (MVC) capability, in an effort to make both [[software development|development]] and [[software testing|testing]] easier.
The library reads in [[HTML]] that contains additional custom [[HTML_attribute|tag attributes]]; it then obeys the directives in those custom attributes, and binds input or output parts of the page to a model represented by standard JavaScript variables. The values of those JavaScript variables can be manually set, or retrieved from static or dynamic [[JSON]] resources.",[11]
Methadone,Methadone maintenance,605582573,2014-04-24T09:27:50Z,Doc James,,"A 2009 [[Cochrane review]] found that methadone was effective in retaining people in treatment and in the suppression of heroin use as measured by self report and urine/hair analysis, but did not affect criminal activity or risk of death.{{Cite journal |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002209.pub2 |title=Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2009 |last1=Mattick |first1=Richard P |last2=Breen |first2=Courtney |last3=Kimber |first3=Jo |last4=Davoli |first4=Marina |editor1-last=Mattick |editor1-first=Richard P |pmid=12519570 |issue=4 |pages=CD002209}} Methadone helps addicts be more social and producive in life.","[1, 4, 7, 9]"
K-d tree,Range search,605610478,2014-04-24T14:25:43Z,Hofmic,"{{Expand section|date=March 2013}}
Analyses of binary search trees has found that the worst case time for range search in a k-dimensional KD tree containing N nodes is given by the following equation.{{Cite journal
| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. T. | author1-link = Der-Tsai Lee
| last2 = Wong | first2 = C. K.
| year = 1977
| title = Worst-case analysis for region and partial region searches in multidimensional binary search trees and balanced quad trees
| journal = Acta Informatica
| volume = 9
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| doi = 10.1007/BF00263763
}}
:","A range search searches for ranges of parameters. For example, if a tree is storing values corresponding to income and age, then a range search might be something like looking for all members of the tree which have an age between 20 and 50 years and an income between 50,000 and 80,000. Since k-d trees divide the range of a domain in half at each level of the tree, they are useful for performing range searches.
Analyses of binary search trees has found that the worst case time for range search in a k-dimensional KD tree containing N nodes is given by the following equation.{{Cite journal
| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. T. | author1-link = Der-Tsai Lee
| last2 = Wong | first2 = C. K.
| year = 1977
| title = Worst-case analysis for region and partial region searches in multidimensional binary search trees and balanced quad trees
| journal = Acta Informatica
| volume = 9
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| doi = 10.1007/BF00263763
}}
:",[1]
AngularJS,Notable directives,605710951,2014-04-25T06:07:53Z,Ngyikp,"AngularJS directives allow the developer to specify custom and reusable HTML tags that moderate the behavior of certain elements.
;ng-app: Declares an element as a root element of the application allowing behavior to be modified through custom HTML tags.
;ng-bind: Automatically changes the text of an HTML element to the value of a given expression.
;ng-model: Similar to ng-bind, but allows two-way data binding between the view and the scope.
;ng-class: Allows class attributes to be dynamically loaded.
;ng-controller: Specifies a JavaScript controller class that evaluates HTML expressions.
;ng-repeat: Instantiate an element once per item from a collection.
;ng-show & ng-hide: Conditionally show or hide an element, depending on the value of a boolean expression. Show and hide is achieved by setting the CSS display style.
;ng-switch: Conditionally instantiate one template from a set of choices, depending on the value of a selection expression.
;ng-view: The base directive responsible for handling routes that resolve JSON before rendering templates driven by specified controllers.
;ng-if: Basic if statement directive which allow to show the following element if the conditions are true. When the condition is false, the element is removed from the DOM. When true, a clone of the compiled element is re-inserted.","AngularJS directives allow the developer to specify custom and reusable HTML tags that moderate the behavior of certain elements.
;ng-app: Declares an element as a root element of the application allowing behavior to be modified through custom HTML tags.
;ng-bind: Automatically changes the text of an HTML element to the value of a given expression.
;ng-model: Similar to ng-bind, but allows two-way data binding between the view and the scope.
;ng-class: Allows class attributes to be dynamically loaded.
;ng-controller: Specifies a JavaScript controller class that evaluates HTML expressions.
;ng-repeat: Instantiate an element once per item from a collection.
;ng-show & ng-hide: Conditionally show or hide an element, depending on the value of a boolean expression. Show and hide is achieved by setting the CSS display style.
;ng-switch: Conditionally instantiate one template from a set of choices, depending on the value of a selection expression.
;ng-view: The base directive responsible for handling routes that resolve JSON before rendering templates driven by specified controllers.
;ng-if: Basic if statement directive which allow to show the following element if the conditions are true. When the condition is false, the element is removed from the DOM. When true, a clone of the compiled element is re-inserted.",[11]
AngularJS,Bootstrapper,606288830,2014-04-29T06:10:54Z,115.114.37.35,"There are three phases of the AngularJS [[bootstrapper]]{{cite web | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqmeI5fZcho&list=TLJUxRYO87UWA | title = Writing Directives | date = November 28, 2012 | publisher = angularjs.org | accessdate = 2013-07-21 }} that occur after the DOM completes loading:
#Create a new Injector
#Compile service - The Compile service is like compiling in C or C++. It walks the DOM and locates all the directives such as ""ng-app"".
#Link phase - The link phase attaches all the directives to .","There are three phases of the AngularJS [[bootstrapper]]{{cite web | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqmeI5fZcho&list=TLJUxRYO87UWA | title = Writing Directives | date = November 28, 2012 | publisher = angularjs.org | accessdate = 2013-07-21 }} that occur after the DOM completes loading:
#Create a new Injector
#Compile service - The Compile service is like compiling in C or C++. It walks the DOM and locates all the directives such as ""ng-app"".
#Link phase - The link phase attaches all the directives to scope.","[3, 4]"
Gene therapy,(Top),606369464,2014-04-29T18:41:16Z,SylviaStanley,"{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2013}}
[[File:Gene therapy.jpg|thumb|300px|Gene therapy using an [[adenovirus]] vector. A new gene is
inserted into a cell using an adenovirus. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make functional [[protein]] to treat a disease.]]
'''Gene therapy''' is the use of [[DNA]] as a [[Biologic medical product|drug]] to treat disease by delivering therapeutic DNA into a patient's cells. The most common form of gene therapy involves using DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace a [[mutate]]d gene. Other forms involve directly correcting a mutation, or using DNA that encodes a therapeutic protein drug (rather than a natural human gene) to provide treatment. In gene therapy, DNA that encodes a therapeutic protein is packaged within a ""[[Vector (molecular biology)|vector]]"", which is used to get the DNA inside cells within the body. Once inside, the DNA becomes expressed by the cell machinery, resulting in the production of therapeutic protein, which in turn treats the patient's disease.
Gene therapy was first conceptualized in 1972, with the authors urging caution before commencing gene therapy studies in humans. The first FDA-approved gene therapy experiment in the [[United States]] occurred in 1990, when Ashanti DeSilva was treated for [[adenosine deaminase deficiency|ADA]]-[[severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]].{{cite doi|10.1038/nbt.1769}} Since then, over 1,700 clinical trials have been conducted using a number of techniques for gene therapy.[http://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/genmed/clinical/ ''J. Gene Med.'' Gene Therapy Clinical Trials Database]. wiley.com.
Although early clinical failures led many to dismiss gene therapy as over-hyped, clinical successes since 2006 have bolstered new optimism in the promise of gene therapy. These include successful treatment of patients with the retinal disease [[Leber's congenital amaurosis]], [[x-linked severe combined immunodeficiency|X-linked SCID]],{{cite doi|10.1038/ni0610-457}} ADA-SCID,{{cite pmid|20966749}} [[adrenoleukodystrophy]],{{cite pmid|20626747}} [[chronic lymphocytic leukemia]] (CLL), [[acute lymphocytic leukemia]] (ALL), [[multiple myeloma]],Coghlan, Andy (11 December 2013) [http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22613-soupedup-immune-cells-force-leukaemia-into-remission.html Souped-up immune cells force leukaemia into remission] New Scientist, Retrieved 15 April 2013 [[haemophilia]] and [[Parkinson's disease]].{{cite doi|10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70039-4}} These recent clinical successes have led to a renewed interest in gene therapy, with several articles in scientific and popular publications calling for continued investment in the field.{{cite doi|10.1038/4611173a}}Kolata, G. (6 November 2009). [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/06/health/06gene.html?_r=0 After Setbacks, Small Successes for Gene Therapy]. New York Times.
In 2012, [[Glybera]] became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use in either [[Europe]] or the United States after its endorsement by the European Commission.
{{toclimit|3}}","{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2013}}
[[File:Gene therapy.jpg|thumb|300px|Gene therapy using an [[adenovirus]] vector. A new gene is
inserted into a cell using an adenovirus. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make functional [[protein]] to treat a disease.]]
'''Gene therapy''' is the use of [[DNA]] as a [[Biologic medical product|drug]] to treat disease by delivering therapeutic DNA into a patient's cells. The most common form of gene therapy involves using DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace a [[mutate]]d gene. Other forms involve directly correcting a mutation, or using DNA that encodes a therapeutic protein drug (rather than a natural human gene) to provide treatment. In gene therapy, DNA that encodes a therapeutic protein is packaged within a ""[[Vector (molecular biology)|vector]]"", which is used to get the DNA inside cells within the body. Once inside, the DNA becomes expressed by the cell machinery, resulting in the production of therapeutic protein, which in turn treats the patient's disease.
Gene therapy was first conceptualized in 1972, with the authors urging caution before commencing gene therapy studies in humans. The first FDA-approved gene therapy experiment in the [[United States]] occurred in 1990, when Ashanti DeSilva was treated for [[adenosine deaminase deficiency|ADA]]-[[severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]].{{cite doi|10.1038/nbt.1769}} By January 2014, about 2,000 clinical trials had been conducted or had been approved using a number of techniques for gene therapy.(January 2014) [http://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/genmed/clinical/ Gene Therapy Clinical Trials Worldwide Database] ''The Journal of Gene Medicine'', wiley.com., Retrieved 28 April 2014
Although early clinical failures led many to dismiss gene therapy as over-hyped, clinical successes since 2006 have bolstered new optimism in the promise of gene therapy. These include successful treatment of patients with the retinal disease [[Leber's congenital amaurosis]], [[x-linked severe combined immunodeficiency|X-linked SCID]],{{cite doi|10.1038/ni0610-457}} ADA-SCID,{{cite pmid|20966749}} [[adrenoleukodystrophy]],{{cite pmid|20626747}} [[chronic lymphocytic leukemia]] (CLL), [[acute lymphocytic leukemia]] (ALL), [[multiple myeloma]],Coghlan, Andy (11 December 2013) [http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22613-soupedup-immune-cells-force-leukaemia-into-remission.html Souped-up immune cells force leukaemia into remission] New Scientist, Retrieved 15 April 2013 [[haemophilia]] and [[Parkinson's disease]].{{cite doi|10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70039-4}} These clinical successes have led to a renewed interest in gene therapy, with several articles in scientific and popular publications calling for continued investment in the field{{cite doi|10.1038/4611173a}}Kolata, G. (6 November 2009). [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/06/health/06gene.html?_r=0 After Setbacks, Small Successes for Gene Therapy]. New York Times. and between 2013 and April 2014, US companies invested over $600 million in gene therapy.Herper, Matthew (26 March 2014) [http://www.forbes.com/sites/matthewherper/2014/03/26/once-seen-as-too-scary-editing-peoples-genes-with-viruses-makes-a-618-million-comeback/ Gene Therapy's Big Comeback] Forbes magazine, Retrieved 28 April 2014
In 2012, [[Glybera]] became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use in either [[Europe]] or the United States after its endorsement by the European Commission.
{{toclimit|3}}","[1, 10]"
Circadian rhythm,Effect of drugs,606422855,2014-04-30T02:47:57Z,Alexabadura,"Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}","Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals suffering from substance abuse display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and/or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction.http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&sid=fa5cc838-8ba8-41da-a21f-8e9c8f689dac%40sessionmgr113&hid=118
It is difficult to determine if a disturbance in the circadian rhythm is at fault for an increase in prevalence for substance abuse or if other environmental factors such as stress are to blame.
Changes to the circadian rhythm and sleep occur once an individual begins abusing drugs and alcohol. Once an individual chooses to stop using drugs and alcohol, the circadian rhythm continues to be disrupted.http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&sid=fa5cc838-8ba8-41da-a21f-8e9c8f689dac%40sessionmgr113&hid=118
The stabilization of sleep and the circadian rhythm might possibly help to reduce the vulnerability to addiction and reduce the chances of relapse.http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&sid=fa5cc838-8ba8-41da-a21f-8e9c8f689dac%40sessionmgr113&hid=118
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the [[suprachiasmatic nucleus]] may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [[cocaine]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}",[1]
Context-free grammar,Other examples,607143248,2014-05-05T09:34:27Z,Yobot,"The [[First-order_logic#Formation_rules|formation rules]] for the terms and formulas of formal logic fit the definition of context-free grammar, except that the set of symbols may be infinite and there may be more than one start symbol.","The [[First-order logic#Formation rules|formation rules]] for the terms and formulas of formal logic fit the definition of context-free grammar, except that the set of symbols may be infinite and there may be more than one start symbol.",[11]
Prion,PrPC<,608717689,2014-05-15T18:03:46Z,204.38.160.218,"The infectious [[isoform]] of PrP, known as PrP